Culture of Gwynedd during the High Middle Ages
Encyclopedia
See also History of Gwynedd during the High Middle Ages
Culture and Society in Gwynedd
during the High Middle Ages
is a period in the History of Wales
spanning the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries (AD 1000–1300). The High Middle Ages were preceded by the Early Middle Ages
and followed by the Late Middle Ages
. Gwynedd is located in the north
of Wales
.
Distinctive achievements in Gwynedd during this period include further development of Medieval Welsh literature
, for instance in the poetry of those of the Beirdd y Tywysogion (Welsh
for Poets of the Princes) associated with the court of Gwynedd, the reformation of bard
ic schools, and the continued development of Cyfraith Hywel
(The Law of Hywel, or Welsh law); all three of which further contributed to the development of a Welsh national identity
in the face of Anglo-Norman
encroachment of Wales and the threat of conquest by the Crown of England.
Gwynedd's traditional territory included Anglesey
(Ynys Môn) and all of north Wales
between the River Dyfi
in the south and River Dee
(Welsh
Dyfrdwy) in the northeast. The Irish Sea
(Môr Iwerddon) lies to the north and west, and lands formerly part of the Powys border the south-east. Gwynedd's strength was due in part to the region's mountainous geography
which made it difficult for foreign invaders to campaign in the country and impose their will effectively.
Gwynedd emerged from the Early Middle Ages having suffered from increasing Viking
raids
and various occupations by rival Welsh princes, causing political and social upheaval. With the historic Aberffraw family displaced, by the mid 11th century Gwynedd was united with the rest of Wales by the conquest of Gruffydd ap Llywelyn
, followed by the Norman invasions between 1067 and 1100.
After the restoration of the Aberffraw family in Gwynedd, a series of successful rulers such as Gruffydd ap Cynan
and Owain Gwynedd
in the late 11th and 12th century, and Llywelyn the Great
and his grandson Llywelyn II
in the 13th century, led to the emergence of the Principality of Wales
, based on Gwynedd.
The emergence of the principality in the 13th century was proof that all the elements necessary for the growth of Welsh statehood
were in place, and Wales was independent de facto
, according to historian Dr. John Davies
. As part of the Principality of Wales, Gwynedd would retain Welsh laws and customs and home rule until the Edwardian Conquest of Wales of 1282. Medieval Wales was a feminst paradise.
Settlements in Gwynedd became more permanent, with buildings of stone replacing timber structures. Stone churches in particular were built across Gwynedd, with so many limewashed that "Gwynedd was bespangled with them as is the firmament
with stars". Gruffudd had built stone churches at his princely manors, and Lloyd suggests Gruffudd's example led to the rebuilding of churches with stone in Penmon, Aberdaron
, and Towyn
in the Norman fashion
.
By the 13th century Gwynedd was the cornerstone of the Principality of Wales (that is Pura Wallia), which came to encompass three quarters of the surface area of modern Wales; "from Anglesey
to Machen
, from the outskirts of Chester
to the outskirts of Cydweli". By 1271, Prince Llywelyn II could claim a growing population of about 200,000 people, or a little less than three fourths of the total Welsh population.
Population increase was common throughout Europe in the 13th century, but in Wales it was more pronounced. By Llywelyn II's reign as much as 10 per cent of the population were town-dwellers. Additionally, "unfree slaves... had long disappeared" from within Pura Wallia due in large part form the social upheavals of the 11th century," argued Davies. The increase in free men allowed the prince to call on and field a far more substantial and professional army.
The increase in the Welsh population in Gwynedd, and in the Principality of Wales as a whole, allowed a greater diversification of the economy. The Meirionnydd tax rolls evidence the thirty-seven various professions present in Meirionnydd directly before the Edwardian Conquest of 1282.
Of these professions, there were eight gold-smiths, four professional bard
s (poets), 26 shoemakers, a doctor
in Cynwyd
and an hotel keeper in Maentwrog
, and 28 priests, two of whom were university graduates. Also present were a significant number of fishermen, administrators and clerics, professional men and craftsmen.
With the average temperature of Wales a degree or two higher than it is today, more Welsh lands were arable
, "a crucial bonus for a country like Wales," wrote historian Dr John Davies.
Of significant importance for the Welsh of Gwynedd and Pura Wallia were more developed trade routes, which allowed the introduction of the windmill
, the fulling-mill, and the horse collar
(the horse collar doubled the efficiency of horse-power).
Gwynedd traded cattle
, skins
, cheese
, timber
, horses, wax
, dogs, hawks, and fleeces, and also flannel
(with the growth of fulling mills). Flannel was second only to cattle among the principality’s exports. In exchange, the principality imported salt
, wine
, wheat
, and other luxuries from London and Paris. But most importantly for the defense of the principality, iron
and specialized weaponry were also imported.
Welsh dependence on foreign imports was a tool that England used to wear down Gwynedd and the Principality of Wales during times of conflict between the two countries.
A more stable social and political environment provided by the Aberffraw administration allowed for the natural development of Welsh culture, particularly in literature. Tradition originating from The History of Gruffudd ap Cynan attributes Gruffudd I as reforming the orders of bards and musicians. Welsh literature
of the High Middle Ages demonstrated "vigor and a sense of commitment" as new ideas reached Wales, even in "the wake of the invaders", according to historian John Davies. Additionally, contacts with continental Europe "sharpened Welsh pride", argues Davies.
In Welsh the poets of this period are known as Beirdd y Tywysogion (Poets of the Princes) or Y Gogynfeirdd (The Less Early Poets). The main source for the poetry of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries is the Hendregadredd manuscript
, an anthology of court poetry brought together at the Cistercian Strata Florida Abbey
from about 1282 until 1350.
The bards of this period were schooled professionals and members of a guild
of poets, a kind of Bardic Guild whose rights and responsibilities were enshrined in native Welsh law. Members of this bardic guild worked within a developed literary culture and with prescribed literary and oral syntax. Bardic families were common—the poet Meilyr Brydydd
had a poet son and at least two poet grandsons—but it was also usual for the craft of poetry to be taught formally, in bardic schools which might only be run by the pencerdd (chief poet).
According to Welsh law, the prince retained the skills of several bards at court, the chief of which were the pencerdd and the bardd teulu. The pencerdd, the head bard, was the top of his profession and a special chair was set aside for him in the princely court in an honoured position next to the heir, the edling. When the pencerdd performed he was expected to sing twice: once in honour of God, and once in honour of the prince. The bardd teulu was part of the prince's teulu, or household guard, and was responsible for singing for the military retinue before going into battle, and also for successful military campaigns. Additionally, the bardd teulu held a further responsibility composing for and singing to the princess, often privately at her leisure. A private performance by a bard was a sign of high status and prestige. The clêr were poet-musicians, considered the lowest tier of the poetic tradition, and often looked down on as mere "minstrels" by the court poets.
The poetry praises the military prowess of the prince in a language that is deliberately antiquarian and obscure, echoing the earlier praise poetry tradition of Taliesin. There are also some religious poems and poetry in praise of women.
With the death of the last native prince of Wales in 1282 the tradition gradually disappears. In fact, Gruffudd ab yr Ynad Coch's (fl.
1277-83) elegy on the death of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd
, is one of the most notable poems of the era. Other prominent poets of this period associated with the court of Gwynedd include:
A rather different poet of this period was Hywel ab Owain Gwynedd
(d. 1170), known as the Poet-Prince, who as the son and heir of Prince Owain Gwynedd
, was not a professional poet.
Prior to the Norman invasions between 1067–1101, Christians of Gwynedd shared many of the spiritual traditions and ecclesiastical institutions found throughout Wales and other Celtic nations
, customs inherited from the Celtic Christianity
of the Early Middle Ages. The Celtic Church was an integral part of the universal Christian Church
, venerating the Papacy as the successor Church to the ministry of Saint Peter
.
However, Welsh ecclesiastics questioned to what degree the Papacy could impose Canon law
upon them, especially with regard to the marriage of priests, the role of women both in the Church and in society, and the status of "illegitimate"
children in society, with canon law conflicting with native Welsh law
and customs. Additionally, Welsh bishops (Welsh
sing. esgob, pl. esgobion) rejected the premise that the Archbishop of Canterbury
held authority over them. Professor John Davies argued that there were dangers inherent for Welsh Bishops submitting to an ecclesiastical authority "that would, by necessity, be heavily under the influence ... of an English king".
By the 11th century, the Welsh Church consisted of three dioceses which were tied closely together by a strong sense of community and a shared sentiment in religious practice, but were independent of each other and whose boundaries were somewhat indeterminate. Central to this organizational approach was the rural nature of Welsh settlements which favored localized and autonomous monastic
communities called clas
au (sing. clas).
Clasau were administered by an abod
and contained a number of small timber-built churches and dormitory huts. Welsh monasticism highly valued asceticism
, and the most celebrated Welsh ascestic was the 6th century St. David, who developed a monastic rule which emphasized hard work, encouraged vegetarianism
, and promoted temperance
. Women, who held a higher status in Welsh law and custom than elsewhere in Europe, could hold quasi-sacerdotal (semi-priestly) roles in the Welsh Church, noted Davies. As celibacy
was not an important aspect of the Welsh Church, many priests married and supported families of their own, with some monasteries serving as single or extended family endeavors, and some ecclesiastical offices becoming hereditary. For many Welsh, monasticism was a familial way of life spent in devotion to Christ. As marriage was viewed as a secular social contract and governed by the well established Welsh law, divorce was recognized by the Welsh Church.
The Diocese of Bangor served as the episcopal see
for all of upper and lower Gwynedd.
Gruffydd I of Gwynedd promoted the primacy of the episcopal see
of Bangor in Gwynedd, and funded the building of Bangor Cathedral
during the episcopate of David the Scot
, Bishop of Bangor
, between 1120-1139. Gruffydd's remains were interred
in a tomb in the presbytery
of Bangor Cathedral.
The traditional sphere of Aberffraw influence in north Wales included Ynys Môn as their early seat of authority, and Gwynedd Uwch Conwy (Gwynedd above the Conwy, or upper Gwynedd), and the Perfeddwlad
(the Middle Country) also known as Gwynedd Is Conwy (Gwynedd below the Conwy, or lower Gwynedd). Additional lands were acquired through vassalage or conquest, and by regaining lands lost to Marcher lords
, particularly those of Ceredigion
, Powys Fadog
, and Powys Wenwynwyn
. However these areas were always considered additions to Gwynedd, never as part of Gwynedd itself.
The extent of the kingdom varied with the strength of the current ruler. Gwynedd was traditionally divided into "Gwynedd Uwch Conwy" and "Gwynedd Is Conwy" (with the River Conwy
forming the dividing line between the two); the former included Môn (Anglesey). The kingdom was administered under Welsh custom through thirteen cantrefi each containing, in theory, one hundred settlements or trefi. Most cantrefs were also divided into cymydau (English: commote
s).
The Welsh were revered for the skills of their bowmen. Additionally, the Welsh learned from their Norman rivals. During the generations of warfare and close contact with the Normans, Gruffydd I and other Welsh leaders learned the arts of knighthood and adapted them for Wales. By Gruffydd's death in 1137 Gwynedd could field hundreds of heavy well-armed cavalry as well as their traditional bowmen and infantry.
In the end Wales was defeated militarily by the improved ability of the English navy to blockade or seize areas essential for agricultural production such as Anglesey
. Lack of food would force the disbandment of any large Welsh force besieged within the mountains. Following the occupation Welsh soldiers were conscripted to serve in the English Army. During the revolt of Owain Glyndwr
the Welsh adapted the new skills they had learnt to guerilla tactics and lightning raids. Owain Glyndwr
reputedly used the mountains with such advantage that many of the exasperated English soldiery suspected him of being a magician able to control the natural elements.
Culture and Society in Gwynedd
Kingdom of Gwynedd
Gwynedd was one petty kingdom of several Welsh successor states which emerged in 5th-century post-Roman Britain in the Early Middle Ages, and later evolved into a principality during the High Middle Ages. It was based on the former Brythonic tribal lands of the Ordovices, Gangani, and the...
during the High Middle Ages
High Middle Ages
The High Middle Ages was the period of European history around the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries . The High Middle Ages were preceded by the Early Middle Ages and followed by the Late Middle Ages, which by convention end around 1500....
is a period in the History of Wales
History of Wales
The history of Wales begins with the arrival of human beings in the region thousands of years ago. Neanderthals lived in what is now Wales, or Cymru in Welsh, at least 230,000 years ago, while Homo sapiens arrived by about 29,000 years ago...
spanning the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries (AD 1000–1300). The High Middle Ages were preceded by the Early Middle Ages
Early Middle Ages
The Early Middle Ages was the period of European history lasting from the 5th century to approximately 1000. The Early Middle Ages followed the decline of the Western Roman Empire and preceded the High Middle Ages...
and followed by the Late Middle Ages
Late Middle Ages
The Late Middle Ages was the period of European history generally comprising the 14th to the 16th century . The Late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the early modern era ....
. Gwynedd is located in the north
North Wales
North Wales is the northernmost unofficial region of Wales. It is bordered to the south by the counties of Ceredigion and Powys in Mid Wales and to the east by the counties of Shropshire in the West Midlands and Cheshire in North West England...
of Wales
Wales
Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain, bordered by England to its east and the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea to its west. It has a population of three million, and a total area of 20,779 km²...
.
Distinctive achievements in Gwynedd during this period include further development of Medieval Welsh literature
Medieval Welsh literature
Medieval Welsh literature is the literature written in the Welsh language during the Middle Ages. This includes material from the fifth century, when Welsh was in the process of becoming distinct from the British language, to the works of the 16th century....
, for instance in the poetry of those of the Beirdd y Tywysogion (Welsh
Welsh language
Welsh is a member of the Brythonic branch of the Celtic languages spoken natively in Wales, by some along the Welsh border in England, and in Y Wladfa...
for Poets of the Princes) associated with the court of Gwynedd, the reformation of bard
Bard
In medieval Gaelic and British culture a bard was a professional poet, employed by a patron, such as a monarch or nobleman, to commemorate the patron's ancestors and to praise the patron's own activities.Originally a specific class of poet, contrasting with another class known as fili in Ireland...
ic schools, and the continued development of Cyfraith Hywel
Welsh law
Welsh law was the system of law practised in Wales before the 16th century. According to tradition it was first codified by Hywel Dda during the period between 942 and 950 when he was king of most of Wales; as such it is usually called Cyfraith Hywel, the Law of Hywel, in Welsh...
(The Law of Hywel, or Welsh law); all three of which further contributed to the development of a Welsh national identity
Welsh people
The Welsh people are an ethnic group and nation associated with Wales and the Welsh language.John Davies argues that the origin of the "Welsh nation" can be traced to the late 4th and early 5th centuries, following the Roman departure from Britain, although Brythonic Celtic languages seem to have...
in the face of Anglo-Norman
Anglo-Norman
The Anglo-Normans were mainly the descendants of the Normans who ruled England following the Norman conquest by William the Conqueror in 1066. A small number of Normans were already settled in England prior to the conquest...
encroachment of Wales and the threat of conquest by the Crown of England.
Gwynedd's traditional territory included Anglesey
Anglesey
Anglesey , also known by its Welsh name Ynys Môn , is an island and, as Isle of Anglesey, a county off the north west coast of Wales...
(Ynys Môn) and all of north Wales
North Wales
North Wales is the northernmost unofficial region of Wales. It is bordered to the south by the counties of Ceredigion and Powys in Mid Wales and to the east by the counties of Shropshire in the West Midlands and Cheshire in North West England...
between the River Dyfi
River Dyfi
The River Dyfi is a river in Mid Wales. The Dyfi estuary forms the border between the counties of Gwynedd and Ceredigion.- Source :...
in the south and River Dee
River Dee, Wales
The River Dee is a long river in the United Kingdom. It travels through Wales and England and also forms part of the border between the two countries....
(Welsh
Welsh language
Welsh is a member of the Brythonic branch of the Celtic languages spoken natively in Wales, by some along the Welsh border in England, and in Y Wladfa...
Dyfrdwy) in the northeast. The Irish Sea
Irish Sea
The Irish Sea separates the islands of Ireland and Great Britain. It is connected to the Celtic Sea in the south by St George's Channel, and to the Atlantic Ocean in the north by the North Channel. Anglesey is the largest island within the Irish Sea, followed by the Isle of Man...
(Môr Iwerddon) lies to the north and west, and lands formerly part of the Powys border the south-east. Gwynedd's strength was due in part to the region's mountainous geography
Snowdonia
Snowdonia is a region in north Wales and a national park of in area. It was the first to be designated of the three National Parks in Wales, in 1951.-Name and extent:...
which made it difficult for foreign invaders to campaign in the country and impose their will effectively.
Gwynedd emerged from the Early Middle Ages having suffered from increasing Viking
Viking
The term Viking is customarily used to refer to the Norse explorers, warriors, merchants, and pirates who raided, traded, explored and settled in wide areas of Europe, Asia and the North Atlantic islands from the late 8th to the mid-11th century.These Norsemen used their famed longships to...
raids
Raid (military)
Raid, also known as depredation, is a military tactic or operational warfare mission which has a specific purpose and is not normally intended to capture and hold terrain, but instead finish with the raiding force quickly retreating to a previous defended position prior to the enemy forces being...
and various occupations by rival Welsh princes, causing political and social upheaval. With the historic Aberffraw family displaced, by the mid 11th century Gwynedd was united with the rest of Wales by the conquest of Gruffydd ap Llywelyn
Gruffydd ap Llywelyn
Gruffydd ap Llywelyn was the ruler of all Wales from 1055 until his death, the only Welsh monarch able to make this boast...
, followed by the Norman invasions between 1067 and 1100.
After the restoration of the Aberffraw family in Gwynedd, a series of successful rulers such as Gruffydd ap Cynan
Gruffydd ap Cynan
Gruffydd ap Cynan was a King of Gwynedd. In the course of a long and eventful life, he became a key figure in Welsh resistance to Norman rule, and was remembered as King of all Wales...
and Owain Gwynedd
Owain Gwynedd
Owain Gwynedd ap Gruffydd , in English also known as Owen the Great, was King of Gwynedd from 1137 until his death in 1170. He is occasionally referred to as "Owain I of Gwynedd"; and as "Owain I of Wales" on account of his claim to be King of Wales. He is considered to be the most successful of...
in the late 11th and 12th century, and Llywelyn the Great
Llywelyn the Great
Llywelyn the Great , full name Llywelyn ab Iorwerth, was a Prince of Gwynedd in north Wales and eventually de facto ruler over most of Wales...
and his grandson Llywelyn II
Llywelyn the Last
Llywelyn ap Gruffydd or Llywelyn Ein Llyw Olaf , sometimes rendered as Llywelyn II, was the last prince of an independent Wales before its conquest by Edward I of England....
in the 13th century, led to the emergence of the Principality of Wales
Principality of Wales
The Principality of Wales existed between 1216 and 1542, encompassing two-thirds of modern Wales.It was formally founded in 1216 at the Council of Aberdyfi, and later recognised by the 1218 Treaty of Worcester between Llywelyn the Great of Wales and Henry III of England...
, based on Gwynedd.
The emergence of the principality in the 13th century was proof that all the elements necessary for the growth of Welsh statehood
Sovereign state
A sovereign state, or simply, state, is a state with a defined territory on which it exercises internal and external sovereignty, a permanent population, a government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other sovereign states. It is also normally understood to be a state which is neither...
were in place, and Wales was independent de facto
De facto
De facto is a Latin expression that means "concerning fact." In law, it often means "in practice but not necessarily ordained by law" or "in practice or actuality, but not officially established." It is commonly used in contrast to de jure when referring to matters of law, governance, or...
, according to historian Dr. John Davies
John Davies (historian)
John Davies is a Welsh historian, and a television and radio broadcaster.Davies was born in the Rhondda, Wales, and studied at both University College, Cardiff, and Trinity College, Cambridge. He is married with four children...
. As part of the Principality of Wales, Gwynedd would retain Welsh laws and customs and home rule until the Edwardian Conquest of Wales of 1282. Medieval Wales was a feminst paradise.
Settlements, architecture, and economy
When Gruffudd ap Cynan died in 1137 he left a more stable realm than had hitherto existed in Gwynedd for more than 100 years. No foreign army was able to cross the Conwy into upper Gwynedd. The stability in upper Gwynedd provided by Gruffudd ap Cynan and his son Owain Gwynedd, between 1101 and 1170, allowed Gwynedd's Welsh to plan for the future without fear that home and harvest would "go to the flames" from invaders.Settlements in Gwynedd became more permanent, with buildings of stone replacing timber structures. Stone churches in particular were built across Gwynedd, with so many limewashed that "Gwynedd was bespangled with them as is the firmament
Firmament
The firmament is the vault or expanse of the sky. According to Genesis, God created the firmament to separate the oceans from other waters above.-Etymology:...
with stars". Gruffudd had built stone churches at his princely manors, and Lloyd suggests Gruffudd's example led to the rebuilding of churches with stone in Penmon, Aberdaron
Aberdaron
Aberdaron is a community and former fishing village at the western tip of the Llŷn Peninsula in the Welsh county of Gwynedd. It lies west of Pwllheli and south west of Caernarfon, and has a population of 1,019. It is sometimes referred to as the "Land's End of Wales"...
, and Towyn
Towyn
Towyn , is a seaside resort in the County Borough of Conwy, Wales.It is located between Rhyl, in Denbighshire, and Abergele in Conwy. According to the 2001 Census, together with neighbouring Kinmel Bay , it had a population 7,864, of which 10.7% could speak Welsh...
in the Norman fashion
Norman architecture
About|Romanesque architecture, primarily English|other buildings in Normandy|Architecture of Normandy.File:Durham Cathedral. Nave by James Valentine c.1890.jpg|thumb|200px|The nave of Durham Cathedral demonstrates the characteristic round arched style, though use of shallow pointed arches above the...
.
By the 13th century Gwynedd was the cornerstone of the Principality of Wales (that is Pura Wallia), which came to encompass three quarters of the surface area of modern Wales; "from Anglesey
Anglesey
Anglesey , also known by its Welsh name Ynys Môn , is an island and, as Isle of Anglesey, a county off the north west coast of Wales...
to Machen
Machen
Machen is a large village 3 miles east of Caerphilly, south Wales, situated in the Caerphilly borough within the historic boundaries of Monmouthshire. It neighbours Bedwas and Trethomas, and forms a council ward in conjunction with those communities. It lies on the Rhymney River.-Mynydd...
, from the outskirts of Chester
Chester
Chester is a city in Cheshire, England. Lying on the River Dee, close to the border with Wales, it is home to 77,040 inhabitants, and is the largest and most populous settlement of the wider unitary authority area of Cheshire West and Chester, which had a population of 328,100 according to the...
to the outskirts of Cydweli". By 1271, Prince Llywelyn II could claim a growing population of about 200,000 people, or a little less than three fourths of the total Welsh population.
The increase in the Welsh population in Gwynedd, and in the Principality of Wales as a whole, allowed a greater diversification of the economy. The Meirionnydd tax rolls evidence the thirty-seven various professions present in Meirionnydd directly before the Edwardian Conquest of 1282.
Of these professions, there were eight gold-smiths, four professional bard
Bard
In medieval Gaelic and British culture a bard was a professional poet, employed by a patron, such as a monarch or nobleman, to commemorate the patron's ancestors and to praise the patron's own activities.Originally a specific class of poet, contrasting with another class known as fili in Ireland...
s (poets), 26 shoemakers, a doctor
Physician
A physician is a health care provider who practices the profession of medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring human health through the study, diagnosis, and treatment of disease, injury and other physical and mental impairments...
in Cynwyd
Cynwyd
Cynwyd is a small village and community in the Edeirnion area of Denbighshire in Wales, located about south west of the town of Corwen. It had a population of 528 in 2001, and is home to a large factory, run by Ifor Williams Trailers....
and an hotel keeper in Maentwrog
Maentwrog
Maentwrog is a village and community in the Welsh county of Gwynedd, lying in the Vale of Ffestiniog, within the Snowdonia National Park. The River Dwyryd runs alongside the village...
, and 28 priests, two of whom were university graduates. Also present were a significant number of fishermen, administrators and clerics, professional men and craftsmen.
With the average temperature of Wales a degree or two higher than it is today, more Welsh lands were arable
Arable land
In geography and agriculture, arable land is land that can be used for growing crops. It includes all land under temporary crops , temporary meadows for mowing or pasture, land under market and kitchen gardens and land temporarily fallow...
, "a crucial bonus for a country like Wales," wrote historian Dr John Davies.
Of significant importance for the Welsh of Gwynedd and Pura Wallia were more developed trade routes, which allowed the introduction of the windmill
Windmill
A windmill is a machine which converts the energy of wind into rotational energy by means of vanes called sails or blades. Originally windmills were developed for milling grain for food production. In the course of history the windmill was adapted to many other industrial uses. An important...
, the fulling-mill, and the horse collar
Horse collar
A horse collar is a part of a horse harness device used to distribute load around a horse's neck and shoulders when pulling a wagon or plow. The collar often supports and pads a pair of curved metal or wood pieces, called hames, to which the traces of the harness are attached...
(the horse collar doubled the efficiency of horse-power).
Gwynedd traded cattle
Cattle
Cattle are the most common type of large domesticated ungulates. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae, are the most widespread species of the genus Bos, and are most commonly classified collectively as Bos primigenius...
, skins
Skinning
Skinning, a gerund from the verb to skin, commonly refers to the act of skin removal.The process is usually done with animals, mainly as preparation of the meat beneath and/or use for the fur...
, cheese
Cheese
Cheese is a generic term for a diverse group of milk-based food products. Cheese is produced throughout the world in wide-ranging flavors, textures, and forms....
, timber
Timber
Timber may refer to:* Timber, a term common in the United Kingdom and Australia for wood materials * Timber, Oregon, an unincorporated community in the U.S...
, horses, wax
Wax
thumb|right|[[Cetyl palmitate]], a typical wax ester.Wax refers to a class of chemical compounds that are plastic near ambient temperatures. Characteristically, they melt above 45 °C to give a low viscosity liquid. Waxes are insoluble in water but soluble in organic, nonpolar solvents...
, dogs, hawks, and fleeces, and also flannel
Flannel
Flannel is a soft woven fabric, of various fineness. Flannel was originally made from carded wool or worsted yarn, but is now often made from either wool, cotton, or synthetic fibre. Flannel may be brushed to create extra softness or remain unbrushed. The brushing process is a mechanical process...
(with the growth of fulling mills). Flannel was second only to cattle among the principality’s exports. In exchange, the principality imported salt
Salt
In chemistry, salts are ionic compounds that result from the neutralization reaction of an acid and a base. They are composed of cations and anions so that the product is electrically neutral...
, wine
Wine
Wine is an alcoholic beverage, made of fermented fruit juice, usually from grapes. The natural chemical balance of grapes lets them ferment without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes, or other nutrients. Grape wine is produced by fermenting crushed grapes using various types of yeast. Yeast...
, wheat
Wheat
Wheat is a cereal grain, originally from the Levant region of the Near East, but now cultivated worldwide. In 2007 world production of wheat was 607 million tons, making it the third most-produced cereal after maize and rice...
, and other luxuries from London and Paris. But most importantly for the defense of the principality, iron
Iron
Iron is a chemical element with the symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It is a metal in the first transition series. It is the most common element forming the planet Earth as a whole, forming much of Earth's outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earth's crust...
and specialized weaponry were also imported.
Welsh dependence on foreign imports was a tool that England used to wear down Gwynedd and the Principality of Wales during times of conflict between the two countries.
Poetry, literature, and music
Medieval Welsh literature
Medieval Welsh literature is the literature written in the Welsh language during the Middle Ages. This includes material from the fifth century, when Welsh was in the process of becoming distinct from the British language, to the works of the 16th century....
of the High Middle Ages demonstrated "vigor and a sense of commitment" as new ideas reached Wales, even in "the wake of the invaders", according to historian John Davies. Additionally, contacts with continental Europe "sharpened Welsh pride", argues Davies.
In Welsh the poets of this period are known as Beirdd y Tywysogion (Poets of the Princes) or Y Gogynfeirdd (The Less Early Poets). The main source for the poetry of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries is the Hendregadredd manuscript
Hendregadredd manuscript
The Hendregadredd Manuscript , is a medieval Welsh manuscript containing an anthology of the poetry of the "Poets of the Princes"; it was written during the period between 1282 and 1350...
, an anthology of court poetry brought together at the Cistercian Strata Florida Abbey
Strata Florida Abbey
Strata Florida Abbey Flowers. Ystrad corrupts into Strata, while Fflur is the name of the nearby river. After the region around St. David's was firmly occupied by the Norman Marcher lordship of Pembroke by the early 12th century, with St...
from about 1282 until 1350.
The bards of this period were schooled professionals and members of a guild
Guild
A guild is an association of craftsmen in a particular trade. The earliest types of guild were formed as confraternities of workers. They were organized in a manner something between a trade union, a cartel, and a secret society...
of poets, a kind of Bardic Guild whose rights and responsibilities were enshrined in native Welsh law. Members of this bardic guild worked within a developed literary culture and with prescribed literary and oral syntax. Bardic families were common—the poet Meilyr Brydydd
Meilyr Brydydd
Meilyr Brydydd is the earliest of the Welsh Poets of the Princes or Gogynfeirdd whose work has survived.Meilyr was the court poet of Gruffudd ap Cynan , king of Gwynedd...
had a poet son and at least two poet grandsons—but it was also usual for the craft of poetry to be taught formally, in bardic schools which might only be run by the pencerdd (chief poet).
According to Welsh law, the prince retained the skills of several bards at court, the chief of which were the pencerdd and the bardd teulu. The pencerdd, the head bard, was the top of his profession and a special chair was set aside for him in the princely court in an honoured position next to the heir, the edling. When the pencerdd performed he was expected to sing twice: once in honour of God, and once in honour of the prince. The bardd teulu was part of the prince's teulu, or household guard, and was responsible for singing for the military retinue before going into battle, and also for successful military campaigns. Additionally, the bardd teulu held a further responsibility composing for and singing to the princess, often privately at her leisure. A private performance by a bard was a sign of high status and prestige. The clêr were poet-musicians, considered the lowest tier of the poetic tradition, and often looked down on as mere "minstrels" by the court poets.
The poetry praises the military prowess of the prince in a language that is deliberately antiquarian and obscure, echoing the earlier praise poetry tradition of Taliesin. There are also some religious poems and poetry in praise of women.
With the death of the last native prince of Wales in 1282 the tradition gradually disappears. In fact, Gruffudd ab yr Ynad Coch's (fl.
Floruit
Floruit , abbreviated fl. , is a Latin verb meaning "flourished", denoting the period of time during which something was active...
1277-83) elegy on the death of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd
Llywelyn the Last
Llywelyn ap Gruffydd or Llywelyn Ein Llyw Olaf , sometimes rendered as Llywelyn II, was the last prince of an independent Wales before its conquest by Edward I of England....
, is one of the most notable poems of the era. Other prominent poets of this period associated with the court of Gwynedd include:
- Meilyr BrydyddMeilyr BrydyddMeilyr Brydydd is the earliest of the Welsh Poets of the Princes or Gogynfeirdd whose work has survived.Meilyr was the court poet of Gruffudd ap Cynan , king of Gwynedd...
, fl. ca. 1100-1137; the earliest of the Gogynfeirdd - Llywarch ap Llywelyn ("Prydydd y Moch"), fl. 1174/5-1220, c. 1195; sang of Llywelyn the Great's victory over Dafydd ab Owain
- Bleddyn FarddBleddyn FarddBleddyn Fardd was a Welsh-language court poet from Gwynedd.Bleddyn is noted for his elegies on the death of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, Prince of Wales, the texts of which are preserved in the Hendregadredd manuscript....
, fl. ca. 1258-1284; - Cynddelw Brydydd MawrCynddelw Brydydd MawrCynddelw Brydydd Mawr , in English also known as Kendall, was the court poet of Madog ap Maredudd, Owain Gwynedd , and Dafydd ab Owain Gwynedd, and one of the most prominent Welsh poets of the 12th century.Cynddelw began his career as court poet to Madog ap Maredudd, Prince of Powys...
; fl. ca. 1155-1200; - Dafydd BenfrasDafydd BenfrasDafydd Benfras was a Welsh language court poet regarded by Saunders Lewis and others as one of the greatest of the 'Poets of the Princes' ....
, fl. ca. 1220-58.
A rather different poet of this period was Hywel ab Owain Gwynedd
Hywel ab Owain Gwynedd
Hywel ab Owain Gwynedd Wales Prince of Gwynedd in 1170, a Welsh poet and military leader. Hywel was the son of Owain Gwynedd, prince of Gwynedd, and an Irishwoman named Pyfog. In recognition of this, he was also known as Hywel ap Gwyddeles...
(d. 1170), known as the Poet-Prince, who as the son and heir of Prince Owain Gwynedd
Owain Gwynedd
Owain Gwynedd ap Gruffydd , in English also known as Owen the Great, was King of Gwynedd from 1137 until his death in 1170. He is occasionally referred to as "Owain I of Gwynedd"; and as "Owain I of Wales" on account of his claim to be King of Wales. He is considered to be the most successful of...
, was not a professional poet.
Celtic Christian traditions
Celtic nations
The Celtic nations are territories in North-West Europe in which that area's own Celtic languages and some cultural traits have survived.The term "nation" is used in its original sense to mean a people who share a common traditional identity and culture and are identified with a traditional...
, customs inherited from the Celtic Christianity
Celtic Christianity
Celtic Christianity or Insular Christianity refers broadly to certain features of Christianity that were common, or held to be common, across the Celtic-speaking world during the Early Middle Ages...
of the Early Middle Ages. The Celtic Church was an integral part of the universal Christian Church
Christian Church
The Christian Church is the assembly or association of followers of Jesus Christ. The Greek term ἐκκλησία that in its appearances in the New Testament is usually translated as "church" basically means "assembly"...
, venerating the Papacy as the successor Church to the ministry of Saint Peter
Saint Peter
Saint Peter or Simon Peter was an early Christian leader, who is featured prominently in the New Testament Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. The son of John or of Jonah and from the village of Bethsaida in the province of Galilee, his brother Andrew was also an apostle...
.
However, Welsh ecclesiastics questioned to what degree the Papacy could impose Canon law
Canon law
Canon law is the body of laws & regulations made or adopted by ecclesiastical authority, for the government of the Christian organization and its members. It is the internal ecclesiastical law governing the Catholic Church , the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox churches, and the Anglican Communion of...
upon them, especially with regard to the marriage of priests, the role of women both in the Church and in society, and the status of "illegitimate"
Bastard (Law of England and Wales)
A bastard in the law of England and Wales is a person whose parents, at the time of his/her birth, were not married to each other....
children in society, with canon law conflicting with native Welsh law
Welsh law
Welsh law was the system of law practised in Wales before the 16th century. According to tradition it was first codified by Hywel Dda during the period between 942 and 950 when he was king of most of Wales; as such it is usually called Cyfraith Hywel, the Law of Hywel, in Welsh...
and customs. Additionally, Welsh bishops (Welsh
Welsh language
Welsh is a member of the Brythonic branch of the Celtic languages spoken natively in Wales, by some along the Welsh border in England, and in Y Wladfa...
sing. esgob, pl. esgobion) rejected the premise that the Archbishop of Canterbury
Archbishop of Canterbury
The Archbishop of Canterbury is the senior bishop and principal leader of the Church of England, the symbolic head of the worldwide Anglican Communion, and the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of Canterbury. In his role as head of the Anglican Communion, the archbishop leads the third largest group...
held authority over them. Professor John Davies argued that there were dangers inherent for Welsh Bishops submitting to an ecclesiastical authority "that would, by necessity, be heavily under the influence ... of an English king".
Monastery
Monastery denotes the building, or complex of buildings, that houses a room reserved for prayer as well as the domestic quarters and workplace of monastics, whether monks or nuns, and whether living in community or alone .Monasteries may vary greatly in size – a small dwelling accommodating only...
communities called clas
CLAS
CLAS was a standards-based assessment based on Outcomes Based Education principles given in California in the early 1990s. It was based on concepts of new standards such as whole language and reform mathematics. Instead of multiple choice tests with one correct answer, it used open written...
au (sing. clas).
Clasau were administered by an abod
Abbot
The word abbot, meaning father, is a title given to the head of a monastery in various traditions, including Christianity. The office may also be given as an honorary title to a clergyman who is not actually the head of a monastery...
and contained a number of small timber-built churches and dormitory huts. Welsh monasticism highly valued asceticism
Asceticism
Asceticism describes a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from various sorts of worldly pleasures often with the aim of pursuing religious and spiritual goals...
, and the most celebrated Welsh ascestic was the 6th century St. David, who developed a monastic rule which emphasized hard work, encouraged vegetarianism
Vegetarianism
Vegetarianism encompasses the practice of following plant-based diets , with or without the inclusion of dairy products or eggs, and with the exclusion of meat...
, and promoted temperance
Temperance (virtue)
Temperance has been studied by religious thinkers, philosophers, and more recently, psychologists, particularly in the positive psychology movement. It is considered a virtue, a core value that can be seen consistently across time and cultures...
. Women, who held a higher status in Welsh law and custom than elsewhere in Europe, could hold quasi-sacerdotal (semi-priestly) roles in the Welsh Church, noted Davies. As celibacy
Celibacy
Celibacy is a personal commitment to avoiding sexual relations, in particular a vow from marriage. Typically celibacy involves avoiding all romantic relationships of any kind. An individual may choose celibacy for religious reasons, such as is the case for priests in some religions, for reasons of...
was not an important aspect of the Welsh Church, many priests married and supported families of their own, with some monasteries serving as single or extended family endeavors, and some ecclesiastical offices becoming hereditary. For many Welsh, monasticism was a familial way of life spent in devotion to Christ. As marriage was viewed as a secular social contract and governed by the well established Welsh law, divorce was recognized by the Welsh Church.
The Diocese of Bangor served as the episcopal see
Episcopal See
An episcopal see is, in the original sense, the official seat of a bishop. This seat, which is also referred to as the bishop's cathedra, is placed in the bishop's principal church, which is therefore called the bishop's cathedral...
for all of upper and lower Gwynedd.
Latin Christianity
Post-Norman InvasionGruffydd I of Gwynedd promoted the primacy of the episcopal see
Episcopal See
An episcopal see is, in the original sense, the official seat of a bishop. This seat, which is also referred to as the bishop's cathedra, is placed in the bishop's principal church, which is therefore called the bishop's cathedral...
of Bangor in Gwynedd, and funded the building of Bangor Cathedral
Bangor Cathedral
Bangor Cathedral is an ancient place of Christian worship situated in Bangor, Gwynedd, north-west Wales. It is dedicated to its founder, Saint Deiniol....
during the episcopate of David the Scot
David the Scot
David the Scot was a Welsh or Irish cleric who was Bishop of Bangor from 1120 to 1138.There is some doubt as to David's nationality, as he is variously described as Irish and Welsh. He was master of the cathedral school of Würzburg before 1110, and in that year accompanied the Emperor Henry V to...
, Bishop of Bangor
Bishop of Bangor
The Bishop of Bangor is the Ordinary of the Church in Wales Diocese of Bangor.The diocese covers the counties of Anglesey, most of Caernarfonshire and Merionethshire and a small part of Montgomeryshire...
, between 1120-1139. Gruffydd's remains were interred
Internment
Internment is the imprisonment or confinement of people, commonly in large groups, without trial. The Oxford English Dictionary gives the meaning as: "The action of 'interning'; confinement within the limits of a country or place." Most modern usage is about individuals, and there is a distinction...
in a tomb in the presbytery
Presbytery (architecture)
The presbytery is the name for an area in a church building which is reserved for the clergy.In the oldest church it is separated by short walls, by small columns and pilasters in the Renaissance ones; it can also be raised, being reachable by a few steps, usually with railings....
of Bangor Cathedral.
Government and law
Perfeddwlad
Perfeddwlad, , , was a name adopted during the twelfth century for the territories in north-east Wales lying between the rivers Conwy and Dee, and comprised the cantrefi of Rhos, Rhufoniog, Dyffryn Clwyd and Tegeingl...
(the Middle Country) also known as Gwynedd Is Conwy (Gwynedd below the Conwy, or lower Gwynedd). Additional lands were acquired through vassalage or conquest, and by regaining lands lost to Marcher lords
Welsh Marches
The Welsh Marches is a term which, in modern usage, denotes an imprecisely defined area along and around the border between England and Wales in the United Kingdom. The precise meaning of the term has varied at different periods...
, particularly those of Ceredigion
Ceredigion
Ceredigion is a county and former kingdom in mid-west Wales. As Cardiganshire , it was created in 1282, and was reconstituted as a county under that name in 1996, reverting to Ceredigion a day later...
, Powys Fadog
Powys Fadog
Powys Fadog or Lower Powys was the northern portion of the former princely realm of Powys which split in two following the death of Madog ap Maredudd of Powys in 1160...
, and Powys Wenwynwyn
Powys Wenwynwyn
Powys Wenwynwyn or Powys Cyfeiliog was the southern portion of the former princely state of Powys which split following the death of Madog ap Maredudd of Powys in 1160...
. However these areas were always considered additions to Gwynedd, never as part of Gwynedd itself.
The extent of the kingdom varied with the strength of the current ruler. Gwynedd was traditionally divided into "Gwynedd Uwch Conwy" and "Gwynedd Is Conwy" (with the River Conwy
River Conwy
The River Conwy is a river in north Wales. From its source to its discharge in Conwy Bay it is a little over long. "Conwy" is sometimes Anglicized as "Conway."...
forming the dividing line between the two); the former included Môn (Anglesey). The kingdom was administered under Welsh custom through thirteen cantrefi each containing, in theory, one hundred settlements or trefi. Most cantrefs were also divided into cymydau (English: commote
Commote
A commote , sometimes spelt in older documents as cymwd, was a secular division of land in Medieval Wales. The word derives from the prefix cym- and the noun bod...
s).
Gwynedd at war
According to Sir John Edward Lloyd, the challenges of campaigning in Gwynedd and Wales as a whole were exposed during the 20 year Norman invasions between 1081-1101. If a defender could bar any road, control any river-crossing or mountain pass, and control the coastline around Wales, then the risks of extended campaigning in Wales were too great. With control of the Menai Strait, an army could regroup on Môn, without control of the Menai an army could be stranded there, and any occupying force on Môn could deny the vast harvest of the island from the Welsh. And the Welsh throughout Wales were able to lead retaliatory strikes from mountainous strongholds or remote forested glens.The Welsh were revered for the skills of their bowmen. Additionally, the Welsh learned from their Norman rivals. During the generations of warfare and close contact with the Normans, Gruffydd I and other Welsh leaders learned the arts of knighthood and adapted them for Wales. By Gruffydd's death in 1137 Gwynedd could field hundreds of heavy well-armed cavalry as well as their traditional bowmen and infantry.
In the end Wales was defeated militarily by the improved ability of the English navy to blockade or seize areas essential for agricultural production such as Anglesey
Anglesey
Anglesey , also known by its Welsh name Ynys Môn , is an island and, as Isle of Anglesey, a county off the north west coast of Wales...
. Lack of food would force the disbandment of any large Welsh force besieged within the mountains. Following the occupation Welsh soldiers were conscripted to serve in the English Army. During the revolt of Owain Glyndwr
Owain Glyndwr
Owain Glyndŵr , or Owain Glyn Dŵr, anglicised by William Shakespeare as Owen Glendower , was a Welsh ruler and the last native Welshman to hold the title Prince of Wales...
the Welsh adapted the new skills they had learnt to guerilla tactics and lightning raids. Owain Glyndwr
Owain Glyndwr
Owain Glyndŵr , or Owain Glyn Dŵr, anglicised by William Shakespeare as Owen Glendower , was a Welsh ruler and the last native Welshman to hold the title Prince of Wales...
reputedly used the mountains with such advantage that many of the exasperated English soldiery suspected him of being a magician able to control the natural elements.