Exercise physiology
Encyclopedia
Exercise physiology is the study of the acute responses and chronic adaptations to a wide-range of physical exercise
conditions. In addition, many exercise physiologists study the effect of exercise on pathology
, and the mechanisms by which exercise can reduce or reverse disease progression. Accreditation programs exist with professional bodies in most developed countries, ensuring the quality and consistency of education.
An exercise physiologist's area of study may include but is not limited to biochemistry
, bioenergetics
, cardiopulmonary function, hematology
, biomechanics
, skeletal muscle
physiology, neuroendocrine function, and central and perpheral nervous system
function. Furthermore, exercise physiologists range from basic scientists, to clinical researchers, to clinicians, to sports trainers.
for many hours doing sustained exercise. For example, one individual cycling at a speed of 26.4 km/h (16.4 mph) across 8204 km (5,097.7 mi) on 50 consecutive days may expended a total of 1,145 MJ (273,850 kcal) with an average power output of 182.5 W.
Skeletal muscle burns 90 mg (0.5 mmol
) of glucose each minute in continuous activity (such as when repetitively extending the human knee), generating ≈24 W of mechanical energy, and since muscle energy conversion is only 22-26% efficient, ≈76 W of heat energy. Resting skeletal muscle has a basal metabolic rate
(resting energy consumption) of 0.63 W/kg making a 160 fold difference between the energy consumption of inactive and active muscles. For short muscular exertion, energy expenditure can be far greater: an adult human male when jumping up from a squat mechanically generates 314 W/kg, and such rapid movement can generate twice this power in nonhuman animals such as bonobo
s, and in some small lizards.
This energy expenditure is very large compared to the resting metabolism basal metabolic rate of the adult human body. This varies somewhat with size, gender and age but is typically between 45 W and 85 W.
Total energy expenditure (TEE) due to muscular expended energy is very much higher and depends upon the average level of physical work and exercise done during a day. Thus exercise, particularly if sustained for very long periods, dominates the energy metabolism of the body.
sources within the cytosol
of muscle cells, as opposed to aerobic respiration which utilizes oxygen, is sustainable, and occurs in the mitochondria. The quick energy sources consist of the phosphocreatine
(PCr) system, fast glycolysis
, and adenylate kinase
. All of these systems re-synthesize adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the universal energy source in all cells. The most rapid source, but the most readily depleted of the above sources is the PCr system which utilizes the enzyme creatine kinase
. This enzyme catalyzes a reaction that combines phosphocreatine
and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) into ATP and creatine
. This resource is short lasting because oxygen is required for the resynthesis of phosphocreatine via mitochondrial creatine kinase. Therefore, under anaerobic conditions, this substrate is finite and only lasts between approximately 10 to 30 seconds of high intensity work. Fast glycolysis, however, can function for approximately 2 minutes prior to fatigue, and predominately uses intracellular glycogen as a substrate. Glycogen is broken down rapidly via glycogen phosphorylase
into individual glucose units during intense exercise. Glucose is then oxidized to pyruvate and under anaerobic condition is reduced to lactic acid. This reaction oxidizes NADH to NAD, thereby releasing a hydrogen ion, promoting acidosis. For this reason, fast glycolysis can not be sustained for long periods of time. Lastly, adenylate kinase catalyzes a reaction by which 2 ADP are combined to form ATP and adenosine monophosphate. This reaction takes place during low energy situations such as extreme exercise or conditions of hypoxia, but is not a significant source of energy. The creation of AMP resulting from this reaction stimulates AMP activated protein kinase (AMP kinase) which is the energy sensor of the cell. After sensing low energy conditions, AMP kinase stimulates various other intracellular enzymes geared towards increasing energy supply and decreasing all anabolic, or energy requiring, cell functions.
(glycogenolysis
) as well as synthesizing new glucose from specific reduced carbon molecules (glycerol, pyruvate, and lactate) in a process called gluconeogenesis
. The ability of the liver to release glucose into the blood from glycogenolysis is unique, since skeletal muscle, the other major glycogen reservoir, is incapable of doing so. Unlike skeletal muscle, hepatocyte
s contain the enzyme glycogen phosphatase, which removes a phosphate group from glucose-6-P to release free glucose. In order for glucose to exit a cell membrane, the removal of this phosphate group is essential. Although gluconeogenesis is an important component of hepatic glucose output, it alone can not sustain exercise. For this reason, when glycogen stores are depleted during exercise, glucose levels fall and fatigue sets in. Glucose disposal, the other side of the equation, is controlled by uptake of glucose at the working skeletal muscles. During exercise, despite decreased insulin
concentrations, muscle increases GLUT4
translocation and therefore glucose uptake. The mechanism for increased GLUT4 translocation is an area of ongoing research; however, the most well-studied mechanism involves activation of AMP activated protein kinase. Other possible mechanisms involve signaling via nitric oxide
, reactive oxygen species
, as well as a physical mechanism caused by the contraction itself.
glucose control:
As mentioned above, insulin secretion is reduced during exercise, and does not play a major role in euglycemia during exercise. Insulin's counter-regulatory hormones, however, appear in increasing concentrations during exercise. Principle among these are glucagon
, epinephrine
, and growth hormone
. All of these hormones stimulate hepatic glucose output, among other functions. For instance, both epinephrine and growth hormone also stimulate adipocyte lipase, which increases non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA) release. By oxidizing fatty acids, this spares glucose utilization and helps to maintain euglycemia during exercise.
Exercise for diabetes:
Exercise is a particularly potent tool for glucose control in those who have diabetes mellitus
. In a situation of elevated plasma glucose, or hyperglycemia
, moderate exercise can induce greater glucose disposal than appearance, thereby decreasing total plasma glucose concentrations. As stated above, the mechanism for this glucose disposal is independent of insulin, which makes it particularly well-suited for people with diabetes. In addition, there appears to be an increase in sensitivity to insulin for approximately 12-24 hours post-exercise. This is particularly useful for those who have type II diabetes and are producing sufficient insulin but demonstrate peripheral resistance to insulin signaling. However, during extreme hyperglycemic episodes, people with diabetes should avoid exercise due to potential complications associated with ketoacidosis
. Exercise could exacerbate ketoacidosis by increasing ketone synthesis in response to increased circulating NEFA's.
Type II diabetes is also intricately linked to obesity, and there may be a connection between type II diabetes and how fat is stored within pancreatic, muscle, and liver cells. Likely due to this connection, weight loss from both exercise and diet tends to increase insulin sensitivity in the majority of people. In some people, this effect can be particularly potent and can result in normal glucose control. Although nobody is technically cured of diabetes, individuals can live normal lives without the fear of diabetic complications; however, regain of weight would assuredly result in diabetes signs and symptoms.
(Q) multiplied by the difference between arterial and venous oxygen concentrations. More simply put, oxygen consumption is dictated by the quantity of blood distributed by the heart as well as the working muscle's ability to take up the oxygen within that blood; however, this is a bit of an oversimplification. Although cardiac output is thought to be the limiting factor of this relationship in healthy individuals, it is not the only determinant of VO2 max. That is, factors such as the ability of the lung to oxygenate the blood must also be considered. Various pathologies and anomalies cause conditions such as diffusion limitation, ventilation/perfusion mismatch, and pulmonary shunts that can limit oxygenation of the blood and therefore oxygen distribution. In addition, the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood is also an important determinant of the equation. Oxygen carrying capacity is often the target of ergogenic aids used in endurance sports to increase hematocrit
, such as through blood doping
or the use of erythropoietin
(EPO). Furthermore, peripheral oxygen uptake is reliant on a rerouting of blood flow from relatively inactive viscera to the working skeletal muscles, and within the skeletal muscle, capillary to muscle fiber ratio influences oxygen extraction.
refers both to hypohydration (dehydration induced prior to exercise) and to exercise-induced dehydration (dehydration that develops during exercise). The latter reduces aerobic endurance performance and results in increased body temperature, heart rate, perceived exertion, and possibly increased reliance on carbohydrate as a fuel source. Although the negative effects of exercise-induced dehydration on exercise performance were clearly demonstrated in the 1940s, athletes continued to believe for years thereafter that fluid intake was not beneficial. More recently, negative effects on performance have been demonstrated with modest (<2%) dehydration, and these effects are exacerbated when the exercise is performed in a hot environment. The effects of hypohydration may vary, depending on whether it is induced through diuretics or sauna exposure, which substantially reduce plasma volume, or prior exercise, which has much less impact on plasma volume. Hypohydration reduces aerobic endurance, but its effects on muscle strength and endurance are not consistent and require further study. Intense prolonged exercise produces metabolic waste heat, and this is removed by sweat
-based thermoregulation
. A male marathon
runner loses each hour around 0.83 L in cool weather and 1.2 L in warm (losses in females are about 68 to 73% lower). People doing heavy exercise may lose two and half times as much fluid in sweat as urine. This can have profound physiological effects. Cycling for 2 hours in the heat (35 °C) with minimal fluid intake causes body mass decline by 3 to 5%, blood volume likewise by 3 to 6%, body temperature to rise constantly, and in comparison with proper fluid intake, higher heart rates, lower stroke volumes and cardiac outputs, reduced skin blood flow, and higher systemic vascular resistance. These effects are largely eliminated by replacing 50 to 80% of the fluid lost in sweat.
receives 15% of total cardiac output, and uses 20% of the body's energy consumption. The brain is normally dependent for its high energy expenditure upon aerobic metabolism. The brain as a result is highly sensitive to failure of its oxygen supply with loss of consciousness occurring within six to seven seconds, with its EEG
going flat in 23 seconds. If it affected the oxygen and glucose supply to the brain, the metabolic demands of exercise could therefore quickly disrupt its functioning.
Protecting the brain from even minor disruption is important since exercise depends upon motor control
, and particularly, because humans are bipeds, the motor control needed for keeping balance. Indeed, for this reason, brain energy consumption is increased during intense physical exercise due to the demands in the motor cognition needed to control the body.
At rest, energy for the adult brain is normally provided by glucose but the brain has a compensatory capacity to replace some of this with lactate
. Research suggests that this can be raised, when a person rests in a brain scanner
, to about 17%, with a higher percentage of 25% occurring during hypoglycemia
. In intense exercise, lactate has been estimated to provide a third of the brain’s energy needs. There is evidence that the brain might, however, in spite of these alternative sources of energy, still suffer an energy crisis since IL-6 (a sign of metabolic stress) is released during exercise from the brain.
ammonia levels: rest, below 2 μmol min−1 detection level; following 3 hours exercise with glucose supplementation, 5.3 μmol min−1, without glucose supplementation, 16.1 μmol min−1). The effects of dehydration are greater and happen at a lower threshold in hot environments.
Each muscle contraction involves an action potential
that activates voltage sensors, and so releases Ca2+ ions
from the muscle fibre’s sarcoplasmic reticulum. The action potentials causing this require also ion changes: Na influxes during the depolarization
phase and K effluxes for the repolarization
phase. Cl- ions
also diffuse into the sarcoplasm to aid the repolarization phase. During intense muscle contraction the ion pumps that maintain homeostasis of these ions are inactivated and this (with other ion related disruption) causes ionic disturbances. This causes cellular membrane depolarization, inexcitability, and so muscle weakness. Ca2+ leakage from type 1 ryanodine receptor
) channels has also been identified with fatigue.
. Some famous examples include:
winner Archibald Hill
has proposed the existence of a central governor
. In this, the brain continuously adjusts the power output by muscles during exercise in regard to a safe level of exertion. These neural calculations factor in prior length of strenuous exercise, the planned duration of further exertion, and the present metabolic state of the body. This adjusts the number of activated skeletal muscle motor units, and is subjectively experienced as fatigue
and exhaustion. The idea of a central governor rejects the earlier idea that fatigue is only caused by mechanical failure of the exercising muscles ("peripheral fatigue"). Instead, the brain models the metabolic limits of the body to ensure that whole body homeostasis is protected, in particular that the heart is stopped from developing
myocardial ischemia, and an emergency reserve is always maintained. The idea of the central governor has been questioned since ‘physiological catastrophes’ can and do occur suggesting athletes (such as Dorando Pietri
, Jim Peters
and Gabriela Andersen-Schiess) can over-ride the ‘‘central governor’.
, B-type natriuretic peptide
(BNP), and ischemia-modified albumin
. This can be misinterpreted by medical personnel as signs of myocardial ischemia
, or cardiac dysfunction
. In these clinical conditions, such cardiac biomarkers are produced by irreversible injury of muscles. In contrast, the processes that create them after strenuous exertion in endurance sports are reversible, with their levels returning to normal within 24-hours (further research, however, is still needed).
to engage in prolonged strenuous muscular activity (such as efficient long distance bipedal
running). This capacity for endurance running evolved to allow the running down of game animals by persistent slow but constant chase over many hours.
Central to the success of this is the ability of the human body, unlike that of the animals they hunt, to effectively remove muscle heat waste. In most animals, this is stored by allowing a temporary increase in body temperature. This allows them to escape from animals that quickly speed after them for a short duration (the way nearly all predators catch their prey). Humans unlike other animals that catch prey remove heat with a specialized thermoregulation based on sweat
evaporation. One gram of sweat can remove 2,598 J of heat energy. Another mechanism is increased skin blood flow during exercise that allows for greater convective heat loss that is aided by the upright posture. This skin based cooling has involved humans in acquiring an increased number of sweat glands, combined with a lack of body fur
that would otherwise stop air circulation and efficient evaporation. Because humans can remove exercise heat, they can avoid the fatigue from heat exhaustion that affects animals chased in persistence hunting, and so eventually catch them when they fatigue from heat exhaustion due to being forced to move constantly.
. The high-performance line of rats also exhibits increased voluntary wheel-running behavior as compared with the low-capacity line. In an experimental evolution
approach, four replicate lines of laboratory mice have been bred for high levels of voluntary exercise on wheels, while four additional control lines are maintained by breeding without regard to the amount of wheel running. These selected lines of mice also show increased endurance capacity in tests of forced endurance capacity on a motorized treadmill. However, in neither selection experiment have the precise causes of fatigue during either forced or voluntary exercise been determined.
. The delayed soreness is fundamentally the result of ruptures within the muscle, although apparently not involving the rupture of whole muscle fibers.
Physical exercise
Physical exercise is any bodily activity that enhances or maintains physical fitness and overall health and wellness. It is performed for various reasons including strengthening muscles and the cardiovascular system, honing athletic skills, weight loss or maintenance, as well as for the purpose of...
conditions. In addition, many exercise physiologists study the effect of exercise on pathology
Pathology
Pathology is the precise study and diagnosis of disease. The word pathology is from Ancient Greek , pathos, "feeling, suffering"; and , -logia, "the study of". Pathologization, to pathologize, refers to the process of defining a condition or behavior as pathological, e.g. pathological gambling....
, and the mechanisms by which exercise can reduce or reverse disease progression. Accreditation programs exist with professional bodies in most developed countries, ensuring the quality and consistency of education.
An exercise physiologist's area of study may include but is not limited to biochemistry
Biochemistry
Biochemistry, sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited to, living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes...
, bioenergetics
Bioenergetics
Bioenergetics is the subject of a field of biochemistry that concerns energy flow through living systems. This is an active area of biological research that includes the study of thousands of different cellular processes such as cellular respiration and the many other metabolic processes that can...
, cardiopulmonary function, hematology
Hematology
Hematology, also spelled haematology , is the branch of biology physiology, internal medicine, pathology, clinical laboratory work, and pediatrics that is concerned with the study of blood, the blood-forming organs, and blood diseases...
, biomechanics
Biomechanics
Biomechanics is the application of mechanical principles to biological systems, such as humans, animals, plants, organs, and cells. Perhaps one of the best definitions was provided by Herbert Hatze in 1974: "Biomechanics is the study of the structure and function of biological systems by means of...
, skeletal muscle
Skeletal muscle
Skeletal muscle is a form of striated muscle tissue existing under control of the somatic nervous system- i.e. it is voluntarily controlled. It is one of three major muscle types, the others being cardiac and smooth muscle...
physiology, neuroendocrine function, and central and perpheral nervous system
Nervous system
The nervous system is an organ system containing a network of specialized cells called neurons that coordinate the actions of an animal and transmit signals between different parts of its body. In most animals the nervous system consists of two parts, central and peripheral. The central nervous...
function. Furthermore, exercise physiologists range from basic scientists, to clinical researchers, to clinicians, to sports trainers.
Energy
Humans have a high capacity to expend energyOxidative phosphorylation
Oxidative phosphorylation is a metabolic pathway that uses energy released by the oxidation of nutrients to produce adenosine triphosphate . Although the many forms of life on earth use a range of different nutrients, almost all aerobic organisms carry out oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP,...
for many hours doing sustained exercise. For example, one individual cycling at a speed of 26.4 km/h (16.4 mph) across 8204 km (5,097.7 mi) on 50 consecutive days may expended a total of 1,145 MJ (273,850 kcal) with an average power output of 182.5 W.
Skeletal muscle burns 90 mg (0.5 mmol
Mole (unit)
The mole is a unit of measurement used in chemistry to express amounts of a chemical substance, defined as an amount of a substance that contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 12 grams of pure carbon-12 , the isotope of carbon with atomic weight 12. This corresponds to a value...
) of glucose each minute in continuous activity (such as when repetitively extending the human knee), generating ≈24 W of mechanical energy, and since muscle energy conversion is only 22-26% efficient, ≈76 W of heat energy. Resting skeletal muscle has a basal metabolic rate
Basal metabolic rate
Basal Metabolic Rate , and the closely related resting metabolic rate , is the amount of daily energy expended by humans and other animals at rest. Rest is defined as existing in a neutrally temperate environment while in the post-absorptive state...
(resting energy consumption) of 0.63 W/kg making a 160 fold difference between the energy consumption of inactive and active muscles. For short muscular exertion, energy expenditure can be far greater: an adult human male when jumping up from a squat mechanically generates 314 W/kg, and such rapid movement can generate twice this power in nonhuman animals such as bonobo
Bonobo
The bonobo , Pan paniscus, previously called the pygmy chimpanzee and less often, the dwarf or gracile chimpanzee, is a great ape and one of the two species making up the genus Pan. The other species in genus Pan is Pan troglodytes, or the common chimpanzee...
s, and in some small lizards.
This energy expenditure is very large compared to the resting metabolism basal metabolic rate of the adult human body. This varies somewhat with size, gender and age but is typically between 45 W and 85 W.
Total energy expenditure (TEE) due to muscular expended energy is very much higher and depends upon the average level of physical work and exercise done during a day. Thus exercise, particularly if sustained for very long periods, dominates the energy metabolism of the body.
Rapid Energy Sources
Energy needed to perform short lasting, high intensity bursts of activity is derived from anaerobicAnaerobic respiration
Anaerobic respiration is a form of respiration using electron acceptors other than oxygen. Although oxygen is not used as the final electron acceptor, the process still uses a respiratory electron transport chain; it is respiration without oxygen...
sources within the cytosol
Cytosol
The cytosol or intracellular fluid is the liquid found inside cells, that is separated into compartments by membranes. For example, the mitochondrial matrix separates the mitochondrion into compartments....
of muscle cells, as opposed to aerobic respiration which utilizes oxygen, is sustainable, and occurs in the mitochondria. The quick energy sources consist of the phosphocreatine
Phosphocreatine
Phosphocreatine, also known as creatine phosphate or PCr , is a phosphorylated creatine molecule that serves as a rapidly mobilizable reserve of high-energy phosphates in skeletal muscle and brain.-Chemistry:...
(PCr) system, fast glycolysis
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose C6H12O6, into pyruvate, CH3COCOO− + H+...
, and adenylate kinase
Adenylate kinase
Adenylate kinase is a phosphotransferase enzyme that catalyzes the interconversion of adenine nucleotides, and plays an important role in cellular energy homeostasis.-Substrate and products:...
. All of these systems re-synthesize adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the universal energy source in all cells. The most rapid source, but the most readily depleted of the above sources is the PCr system which utilizes the enzyme creatine kinase
Creatine kinase
Creatine kinase , also known as creatine phosphokinase or phospho-creatine kinase , is an enzyme expressed by various tissues and cell types. CK catalyses the conversion of creatine and consumes adenosine triphosphate to create phosphocreatine and adenosine diphosphate...
. This enzyme catalyzes a reaction that combines phosphocreatine
Phosphocreatine
Phosphocreatine, also known as creatine phosphate or PCr , is a phosphorylated creatine molecule that serves as a rapidly mobilizable reserve of high-energy phosphates in skeletal muscle and brain.-Chemistry:...
and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) into ATP and creatine
Creatine
Creatine is a nitrogenous organic acid that occurs naturally in vertebrates and helps to supply energy to all cells in the body, primarily muscle. This is achieved by increasing the formation of Adenosine triphosphate...
. This resource is short lasting because oxygen is required for the resynthesis of phosphocreatine via mitochondrial creatine kinase. Therefore, under anaerobic conditions, this substrate is finite and only lasts between approximately 10 to 30 seconds of high intensity work. Fast glycolysis, however, can function for approximately 2 minutes prior to fatigue, and predominately uses intracellular glycogen as a substrate. Glycogen is broken down rapidly via glycogen phosphorylase
Glycogen phosphorylase
Glycogen phosphorylase is one of the phosphorylase enzymes . Glycogen phosphorylase catalyzes the rate-limiting step in the degradation of glycogen in animals by releasing glucose-1-phosphate from the terminal alpha-1,4-glycosidic bond...
into individual glucose units during intense exercise. Glucose is then oxidized to pyruvate and under anaerobic condition is reduced to lactic acid. This reaction oxidizes NADH to NAD, thereby releasing a hydrogen ion, promoting acidosis. For this reason, fast glycolysis can not be sustained for long periods of time. Lastly, adenylate kinase catalyzes a reaction by which 2 ADP are combined to form ATP and adenosine monophosphate. This reaction takes place during low energy situations such as extreme exercise or conditions of hypoxia, but is not a significant source of energy. The creation of AMP resulting from this reaction stimulates AMP activated protein kinase (AMP kinase) which is the energy sensor of the cell. After sensing low energy conditions, AMP kinase stimulates various other intracellular enzymes geared towards increasing energy supply and decreasing all anabolic, or energy requiring, cell functions.
Plasma glucose
Plasma glucose is maintained by an equal rate of glucose appearance (entry into the blood) and glucose disposal (removal from the blood). In the healthy individual, rate of appearance and disposal are essentially equal during exercise of moderate intensity and duration; however, prolonged exercise or sufficiently intense exercise can result in an imbalance leaning towards a higher rate of disposal than appearance, at which point glucose levels fall along with the onset of fatigue. Rate of glucose appearance is dictated by the amount of glucose being absorbed at the gut as well as hepatic glucose output. Although glucose absorption from the gut is not typically a source of glucose appearance during exercise, the liver is capable of catabolizing stored glycogenGlycogen
Glycogen is a molecule that serves as the secondary long-term energy storage in animal and fungal cells, with the primary energy stores being held in adipose tissue...
(glycogenolysis
Glycogenolysis
Glycogenolysis is the conversion of glycogen polymers to glucose monomers. Glycogen is catabolized by removal of a glucose monomer through cleavage with inorganic phosphate to produce glucose-1-phosphate...
) as well as synthesizing new glucose from specific reduced carbon molecules (glycerol, pyruvate, and lactate) in a process called gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is a metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates such as lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids....
. The ability of the liver to release glucose into the blood from glycogenolysis is unique, since skeletal muscle, the other major glycogen reservoir, is incapable of doing so. Unlike skeletal muscle, hepatocyte
Hepatocyte
A hepatocyte is a cell of the main tissue of the liver. Hepatocytes make up 70-80% of the liver's cytoplasmic mass.These cells are involved in:* Protein synthesis* Protein storage* Transformation of carbohydrates...
s contain the enzyme glycogen phosphatase, which removes a phosphate group from glucose-6-P to release free glucose. In order for glucose to exit a cell membrane, the removal of this phosphate group is essential. Although gluconeogenesis is an important component of hepatic glucose output, it alone can not sustain exercise. For this reason, when glycogen stores are depleted during exercise, glucose levels fall and fatigue sets in. Glucose disposal, the other side of the equation, is controlled by uptake of glucose at the working skeletal muscles. During exercise, despite decreased insulin
Insulin
Insulin is a hormone central to regulating carbohydrate and fat metabolism in the body. Insulin causes cells in the liver, muscle, and fat tissue to take up glucose from the blood, storing it as glycogen in the liver and muscle....
concentrations, muscle increases GLUT4
GLUT4
Glucose transporter type 4, also known as GLUT4, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the GLUT4 gene. GLUT4 is the insulin-regulated glucose transporter found in adipose tissues and striated muscle that is responsible for insulin-regulated glucose translocation into the cell...
translocation and therefore glucose uptake. The mechanism for increased GLUT4 translocation is an area of ongoing research; however, the most well-studied mechanism involves activation of AMP activated protein kinase. Other possible mechanisms involve signaling via nitric oxide
Nitric oxide
Nitric oxide, also known as nitrogen monoxide, is a diatomic molecule with chemical formula NO. It is a free radical and is an important intermediate in the chemical industry...
, reactive oxygen species
Reactive oxygen species
Reactive oxygen species are chemically reactive molecules containing oxygen. Examples include oxygen ions and peroxides. Reactive oxygen species are highly reactive due to the presence of unpaired valence shell electrons....
, as well as a physical mechanism caused by the contraction itself.
glucose control:
As mentioned above, insulin secretion is reduced during exercise, and does not play a major role in euglycemia during exercise. Insulin's counter-regulatory hormones, however, appear in increasing concentrations during exercise. Principle among these are glucagon
Glucagon
Glucagon, a hormone secreted by the pancreas, raises blood glucose levels. Its effect is opposite that of insulin, which lowers blood glucose levels. The pancreas releases glucagon when blood sugar levels fall too low. Glucagon causes the liver to convert stored glycogen into glucose, which is...
, epinephrine
Epinephrine
Epinephrine is a hormone and a neurotransmitter. It increases heart rate, constricts blood vessels, dilates air passages and participates in the fight-or-flight response of the sympathetic nervous system. In chemical terms, adrenaline is one of a group of monoamines called the catecholamines...
, and growth hormone
Growth hormone
Growth hormone is a peptide hormone that stimulates growth, cell reproduction and regeneration in humans and other animals. Growth hormone is a 191-amino acid, single-chain polypeptide that is synthesized, stored, and secreted by the somatotroph cells within the lateral wings of the anterior...
. All of these hormones stimulate hepatic glucose output, among other functions. For instance, both epinephrine and growth hormone also stimulate adipocyte lipase, which increases non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA) release. By oxidizing fatty acids, this spares glucose utilization and helps to maintain euglycemia during exercise.
Exercise for diabetes:
Exercise is a particularly potent tool for glucose control in those who have diabetes mellitus
Diabetes mellitus
Diabetes mellitus, often simply referred to as diabetes, is a group of metabolic diseases in which a person has high blood sugar, either because the body does not produce enough insulin, or because cells do not respond to the insulin that is produced...
. In a situation of elevated plasma glucose, or hyperglycemia
Hyperglycemia
Hyperglycemia or Hyperglycæmia, or high blood sugar, is a condition in which an excessive amount of glucose circulates in the blood plasma. This is generally a glucose level higher than 13.5mmol/l , but symptoms may not start to become noticeable until even higher values such as 15-20 mmol/l...
, moderate exercise can induce greater glucose disposal than appearance, thereby decreasing total plasma glucose concentrations. As stated above, the mechanism for this glucose disposal is independent of insulin, which makes it particularly well-suited for people with diabetes. In addition, there appears to be an increase in sensitivity to insulin for approximately 12-24 hours post-exercise. This is particularly useful for those who have type II diabetes and are producing sufficient insulin but demonstrate peripheral resistance to insulin signaling. However, during extreme hyperglycemic episodes, people with diabetes should avoid exercise due to potential complications associated with ketoacidosis
Ketoacidosis
Ketoacidosis is a metabolic state associated with high concentrations of ketone bodies, formed by the breakdown of fatty acids and the deamination of amino acids. The two common ketones produced in humans are acetoacetic acid and β-hydroxybutyrate....
. Exercise could exacerbate ketoacidosis by increasing ketone synthesis in response to increased circulating NEFA's.
Type II diabetes is also intricately linked to obesity, and there may be a connection between type II diabetes and how fat is stored within pancreatic, muscle, and liver cells. Likely due to this connection, weight loss from both exercise and diet tends to increase insulin sensitivity in the majority of people. In some people, this effect can be particularly potent and can result in normal glucose control. Although nobody is technically cured of diabetes, individuals can live normal lives without the fear of diabetic complications; however, regain of weight would assuredly result in diabetes signs and symptoms.
Oxygen
Oxygen consumption (VO2) during exercise is best described by the Fick Equation: VO2=Q x (a-vO2diff), which states that the amount of oxygen consumed is equal to cardiac outputCardiac output
Cardiac output is the volume of blood being pumped by the heart, in particular by a left or right ventricle in the time interval of one minute. CO may be measured in many ways, for example dm3/min...
(Q) multiplied by the difference between arterial and venous oxygen concentrations. More simply put, oxygen consumption is dictated by the quantity of blood distributed by the heart as well as the working muscle's ability to take up the oxygen within that blood; however, this is a bit of an oversimplification. Although cardiac output is thought to be the limiting factor of this relationship in healthy individuals, it is not the only determinant of VO2 max. That is, factors such as the ability of the lung to oxygenate the blood must also be considered. Various pathologies and anomalies cause conditions such as diffusion limitation, ventilation/perfusion mismatch, and pulmonary shunts that can limit oxygenation of the blood and therefore oxygen distribution. In addition, the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood is also an important determinant of the equation. Oxygen carrying capacity is often the target of ergogenic aids used in endurance sports to increase hematocrit
Hematocrit
The hematocrit or packed cell volume or erythrocyte volume fraction is the percentage of the concentration of red blood cells in blood. It is normally about 45% for men and 40% for women...
, such as through blood doping
Blood doping
Blood doping is the practice of boosting the number of red blood cells in the bloodstream in order to enhance athletic performance. Because such blood cells carry oxygen from the lungs to the muscles, a higher concentration in the blood can improve an athlete’s aerobic capacity and...
or the use of erythropoietin
Erythropoietin
Erythropoietin, or its alternatives erythropoetin or erthropoyetin or EPO, is a glycoprotein hormone that controls erythropoiesis, or red blood cell production...
(EPO). Furthermore, peripheral oxygen uptake is reliant on a rerouting of blood flow from relatively inactive viscera to the working skeletal muscles, and within the skeletal muscle, capillary to muscle fiber ratio influences oxygen extraction.
Dehydration
DehydrationDehydration
In physiology and medicine, dehydration is defined as the excessive loss of body fluid. It is literally the removal of water from an object; however, in physiological terms, it entails a deficiency of fluid within an organism...
refers both to hypohydration (dehydration induced prior to exercise) and to exercise-induced dehydration (dehydration that develops during exercise). The latter reduces aerobic endurance performance and results in increased body temperature, heart rate, perceived exertion, and possibly increased reliance on carbohydrate as a fuel source. Although the negative effects of exercise-induced dehydration on exercise performance were clearly demonstrated in the 1940s, athletes continued to believe for years thereafter that fluid intake was not beneficial. More recently, negative effects on performance have been demonstrated with modest (<2%) dehydration, and these effects are exacerbated when the exercise is performed in a hot environment. The effects of hypohydration may vary, depending on whether it is induced through diuretics or sauna exposure, which substantially reduce plasma volume, or prior exercise, which has much less impact on plasma volume. Hypohydration reduces aerobic endurance, but its effects on muscle strength and endurance are not consistent and require further study. Intense prolonged exercise produces metabolic waste heat, and this is removed by sweat
SWEAT
SWEAT is an OLN/TSN show hosted by Julie Zwillich that aired in 2003-2004.Each of the 13 half-hour episodes of SWEAT features a different outdoor sport: kayaking, mountain biking, ice hockey, beach volleyball, soccer, windsurfing, rowing, Ultimate, triathlon, wakeboarding, snowboarding, telemark...
-based thermoregulation
Thermoregulation
Thermoregulation is the ability of an organism to keep its body temperature within certain boundaries, even when the surrounding temperature is very different...
. A male marathon
Marathon
The marathon is a long-distance running event with an official distance of 42.195 kilometres , that is usually run as a road race...
runner loses each hour around 0.83 L in cool weather and 1.2 L in warm (losses in females are about 68 to 73% lower). People doing heavy exercise may lose two and half times as much fluid in sweat as urine. This can have profound physiological effects. Cycling for 2 hours in the heat (35 °C) with minimal fluid intake causes body mass decline by 3 to 5%, blood volume likewise by 3 to 6%, body temperature to rise constantly, and in comparison with proper fluid intake, higher heart rates, lower stroke volumes and cardiac outputs, reduced skin blood flow, and higher systemic vascular resistance. These effects are largely eliminated by replacing 50 to 80% of the fluid lost in sweat.
Other
- Plasma catecholamineCatecholamineCatecholamines are molecules that have a catechol nucleus consisting of benzene with two hydroxyl side groups and a side-chain amine. They include dopamine, as well as the "fight-or-flight" hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline released by the adrenal medulla of the adrenal glands in response to...
concentrations increase 10 fold in whole body exercise. - AmmoniaAmmoniaAmmonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula . It is a colourless gas with a characteristic pungent odour. Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to food and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or...
is produced by exercised skeletal muscles from ADP (the precursor of ATP) by purine nucleotide deaminationAMP deaminaseAMP deaminase 1 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the AMPD1 gene.Adenosine monophosphate deaminase is an enzyme that converts adenosine monophosphate to inosine monophosphate , freeing an ammonia molecule in the process.-Function:...
and amino acidAmino acidAmino acids are molecules containing an amine group, a carboxylic acid group and a side-chain that varies between different amino acids. The key elements of an amino acid are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen...
catabolismCatabolismCatabolism is the set of metabolic pathways that break down molecules into smaller units and release energy. In catabolism, large molecules such as polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic acids and proteins are broken down into smaller units such as monosaccharides, fatty acids, nucleotides, and amino...
of myofibrils. - interleukin-6 (IL-6) increases in blood circulation due to its release from working skeletal muscles. This release is reduced if glucose is taken, suggesting it links to energy related stresses.
- Sodium absorption is affected by the release of interleukin-6 as this can cause the secretion of arginine vasopressin which, in turn, can led to exercise-associated hyponatremiaHyponatremiaHyponatremia is an electrolyte disturbance in which the sodium concentration in the serum is lower than normal. In the vast majority of cases, hyponatremia occurs as a result of excess body water diluting the serum sodium and is not due to sodium deficiency. Sodium is the dominant extracellular...
(dangerously low sodium levels). This loss of sodium in blood plasmaBlood plasmaBlood plasma is the straw-colored liquid component of blood in which the blood cells in whole blood are normally suspended. It makes up about 55% of the total blood volume. It is the intravascular fluid part of extracellular fluid...
can result in encephalopathyEncephalopathyEncephalopathy means disorder or disease of the brain. In modern usage, encephalopathy does not refer to a single disease, but rather to a syndrome of global brain dysfunction; this syndrome can be caused by many different illnesses.-Terminology:...
(caused by swelling of the brain). This can be prevented by awareness of the risk of drinking excessive amounts of fluids during prolonged exercise.
Brain
At rest, the human brainHuman brain
The human brain has the same general structure as the brains of other mammals, but is over three times larger than the brain of a typical mammal with an equivalent body size. Estimates for the number of neurons in the human brain range from 80 to 120 billion...
receives 15% of total cardiac output, and uses 20% of the body's energy consumption. The brain is normally dependent for its high energy expenditure upon aerobic metabolism. The brain as a result is highly sensitive to failure of its oxygen supply with loss of consciousness occurring within six to seven seconds, with its EEG
EEG
EEG commonly refers to electroencephalography, a measurement of the electrical activity of the brain.EEG may also refer to:* Emperor Entertainment Group, a Hong Kong-based entertainment company...
going flat in 23 seconds. If it affected the oxygen and glucose supply to the brain, the metabolic demands of exercise could therefore quickly disrupt its functioning.
Protecting the brain from even minor disruption is important since exercise depends upon motor control
Motor skill
A motor skill is a learned sequence of movements that combine to produce a smooth, efficient action in order to master a particular task. The development of motor skill occurs in the motor cortex, the region of the cerebral cortex that controls voluntary muscle groups.- Development of motor skills...
, and particularly, because humans are bipeds, the motor control needed for keeping balance. Indeed, for this reason, brain energy consumption is increased during intense physical exercise due to the demands in the motor cognition needed to control the body.
Cerebral oxygen
Cerebral autoregulation usually ensures the brain has priority to cardiac output, though this is impaired slightly by exhaustive exercise. During submaximal exercise, cardiac output increases and cerebral blood flow increases beyond the brain’s oxygen needs. However, this is not the case for continuous maximal exertion: “Maximal exercise is, despite the increase in capillary oxygenation [in the brain], associated with a reduced mitochondrial O2 content during whole body exercise” The autoregulation of the brain’s blood supply is impaired particularly in warm environmentsGlucose
In adults, exercise depletes the plasma glucose available to the brain: short intense exercise (35 min ergometer cycling) can reduce brain glucose uptake by 32%.At rest, energy for the adult brain is normally provided by glucose but the brain has a compensatory capacity to replace some of this with lactate
Lactic acid
Lactic acid, also known as milk acid, is a chemical compound that plays a role in various biochemical processes and was first isolated in 1780 by the Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele. Lactic acid is a carboxylic acid with the chemical formula C3H6O3...
. Research suggests that this can be raised, when a person rests in a brain scanner
Positron emission tomography
Positron emission tomography is nuclear medicine imaging technique that produces a three-dimensional image or picture of functional processes in the body. The system detects pairs of gamma rays emitted indirectly by a positron-emitting radionuclide , which is introduced into the body on a...
, to about 17%, with a higher percentage of 25% occurring during hypoglycemia
Hypoglycemia
Hypoglycemia or hypoglycæmia is the medical term for a state produced by a lower than normal level of blood glucose. The term literally means "under-sweet blood"...
. In intense exercise, lactate has been estimated to provide a third of the brain’s energy needs. There is evidence that the brain might, however, in spite of these alternative sources of energy, still suffer an energy crisis since IL-6 (a sign of metabolic stress) is released during exercise from the brain.
Hyperthermia
Humans use sweat thermoregulation for body heat clearance, particularly to remove the heat produced during exercise. Mild dehydration as a consequence of exercise and heat is reported to impair cognition. These impairments can start after body mass lost that is greater than 1%. Cognitive impairment, particularly due to heat and exercise is likely to be due to loss of integrity to the blood brain barrier. Hyperthermia also can lower cerebral blood flow, and raise brain temperature.Ammonia
Exercised skeletal muscles produces ammonia. This ammonia is taken up by the brain in proportion to its arterial concentration. Since perceived effort links to such ammonia accumulation, this could be a factor in the sensation of fatigue.Combinational exacerbation
These metabolic consequences of exercise can exacerbate each other’s negative neurological effects. For example, the uptake of ammonia by the brain is greater with glucose depletion (CSFCerebrospinal fluid
Cerebrospinal fluid , Liquor cerebrospinalis, is a clear, colorless, bodily fluid, that occupies the subarachnoid space and the ventricular system around and inside the brain and spinal cord...
ammonia levels: rest, below 2 μmol min−1 detection level; following 3 hours exercise with glucose supplementation, 5.3 μmol min−1, without glucose supplementation, 16.1 μmol min−1). The effects of dehydration are greater and happen at a lower threshold in hot environments.
Intense activity
Researchers once attributed fatigue to a build-up of lactic acid in muscles. However, this is no longer believed. Indeed, lactate may stop muscle fatigue by keeping muscles fully responding to nerve signals. Instead, providing available oxygen and energy supply and disturbances of muscle ion homeostasis are the main factor determining exercise performance, at least during brief very intense exercise.Each muscle contraction involves an action potential
Action potential
In physiology, an action potential is a short-lasting event in which the electrical membrane potential of a cell rapidly rises and falls, following a consistent trajectory. Action potentials occur in several types of animal cells, called excitable cells, which include neurons, muscle cells, and...
that activates voltage sensors, and so releases Ca2+ ions
Voltage-dependent calcium channel
Voltage-dependent calcium channels are a group of voltage-gated ion channels found in excitable cells with a permeability to the ion Ca2+...
from the muscle fibre’s sarcoplasmic reticulum. The action potentials causing this require also ion changes: Na influxes during the depolarization
Depolarization
In biology, depolarization is a change in a cell's membrane potential, making it more positive, or less negative. In neurons and some other cells, a large enough depolarization may result in an action potential...
phase and K effluxes for the repolarization
Repolarization
In neuroscience, repolarization refers to the change in membrane potential that returns the membrane potential to a negative value after the depolarization phase of an action potential has just previously changed the membrane potential to a positive value. Repolarization results from the movement...
phase. Cl- ions
Chloride channel
Chloride channels are a superfamily of poorly understood ion channels consisting of approximately 13 members.Chloride channels display a variety of important physiological and cellular roles that include regulation of pH, volume homeostasis, organic solute transport, cell migration, cell...
also diffuse into the sarcoplasm to aid the repolarization phase. During intense muscle contraction the ion pumps that maintain homeostasis of these ions are inactivated and this (with other ion related disruption) causes ionic disturbances. This causes cellular membrane depolarization, inexcitability, and so muscle weakness. Ca2+ leakage from type 1 ryanodine receptor
Ryanodine receptor
Ryanodine receptors form a class of intracellular calcium channels in various forms of excitable animal tissue like muscles and neurons...
) channels has also been identified with fatigue.
Endurance failure
After intense prolonged exercise, there can be a collapse in body homeostasisHuman homeostasis
Human homeostasis is derived from the Greek, homeo or "same", and stasis or "stable" and means remaining stable or remaining the same.The human body manages a multitude of highly complex interactions to maintain balance or return systems to functioning within a normal range...
. Some famous examples include:
- Dorando PietriDorando PietriDorando Pietri, often wrongly spelt Petri was an Italian athlete famous for his dramatic finish and eventual disqualification in the marathon at the 1908 Summer Olympics held in London.-Early years:Pietri was born in Mandrio, a frazione of Correggio, but spent his youth in Carpi...
in the 1908 Summer Olympic1908 Summer OlympicsThe 1908 Summer Olympics, officially the Games of the IV Olympiad, were an international multi-sport event which was held in 1908 in London, England, United Kingdom. These games were originally scheduled to be held in Rome. At the time they were the fifth modern Olympic games...
men’s marathonAthletics at the 1908 Summer Olympics - Men's marathonThe men's marathon race was held at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London. The race was held on July 24, 1908.The distance was the now-standard length of 26 miles, 385 yards . 75 competitors entered. 55 runners from 16 nations began the race, with 27 athletes finishing.The most famous incident of...
ran the wrong way and collapsed several times. - Jim PetersJames Peters (athlete)Jim Peters was a long-distance runner from England. He broke the world record for the men's marathon four times in the 1950s. He was the first runner to complete a marathon under 2 hours 20 minutes – an achievement which was equated to the breaking of the four minute mile...
in the marathon of the 1954 Commonwealth Games staggered and collapsed several times, and though he had a five-kilometre (three-mile) lead, failed to finish. Though it was formerly believed that this was due to severe dehydration, more recent research suggests it was the combined effects upon the brain of hyperthermia, hypertonic hypernatraemia associated with dehydration, and possibly hypoglycaemia. - Gabriela Andersen-Schiess in the woman’s marathon at the Los Angeles 1984 Summer Olympics1984 Summer OlympicsThe 1984 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXIII Olympiad, was an international multi-sport event held in Los Angeles, California, United States in 1984...
in the race’s final 400 meters, stopping occasionally and shown signs of heat exhaustion. Though she fell across the finish line, she was released from medical care only two hours later.
Central governor
Tim Noakes, based on an earlier idea by the 1922 Nobel Prize in Physiology or MedicineNobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine administered by the Nobel Foundation, is awarded once a year for outstanding discoveries in the field of life science and medicine. It is one of five Nobel Prizes established in 1895 by Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel, the inventor of dynamite, in his will...
winner Archibald Hill
Archibald Hill
Archibald Vivian Hill CH OBE FRS was an English physiologist, one of the founders of the diverse disciplines of biophysics and operations research...
has proposed the existence of a central governor
Central governor
thumb|250px|right|The Norwegian mountain runner [[Jon Tvedt]] engaging in a strenuous run: it is suggested that the central governor ensures that such [[exercise physiology|endurance exertion]] does not threaten the body's [[homeostasis]]...
. In this, the brain continuously adjusts the power output by muscles during exercise in regard to a safe level of exertion. These neural calculations factor in prior length of strenuous exercise, the planned duration of further exertion, and the present metabolic state of the body. This adjusts the number of activated skeletal muscle motor units, and is subjectively experienced as fatigue
Muscle weakness
Muscle weakness or myasthenia is a lack of muscle strength. The causes are many and can be divided into conditions that have true or perceived muscle weakness...
and exhaustion. The idea of a central governor rejects the earlier idea that fatigue is only caused by mechanical failure of the exercising muscles ("peripheral fatigue"). Instead, the brain models the metabolic limits of the body to ensure that whole body homeostasis is protected, in particular that the heart is stopped from developing
myocardial ischemia, and an emergency reserve is always maintained. The idea of the central governor has been questioned since ‘physiological catastrophes’ can and do occur suggesting athletes (such as Dorando Pietri
Dorando Pietri
Dorando Pietri, often wrongly spelt Petri was an Italian athlete famous for his dramatic finish and eventual disqualification in the marathon at the 1908 Summer Olympics held in London.-Early years:Pietri was born in Mandrio, a frazione of Correggio, but spent his youth in Carpi...
, Jim Peters
James Peters (athlete)
Jim Peters was a long-distance runner from England. He broke the world record for the men's marathon four times in the 1950s. He was the first runner to complete a marathon under 2 hours 20 minutes – an achievement which was equated to the breaking of the four minute mile...
and Gabriela Andersen-Schiess) can over-ride the ‘‘central governor’.
Other factors
The exercise fatigue has also been suggested to be effected by:- brain hyperthermia
- glycogenGlycogenGlycogen is a molecule that serves as the secondary long-term energy storage in animal and fungal cells, with the primary energy stores being held in adipose tissue...
depletion in brain cells - reactive oxygen speciesReactive oxygen speciesReactive oxygen species are chemically reactive molecules containing oxygen. Examples include oxygen ions and peroxides. Reactive oxygen species are highly reactive due to the presence of unpaired valence shell electrons....
impairing skeletal muscle function - reduced level of glutamate secondary to uptake of ammonia in the brain
- Fatigue in diaphragm and abdominal respiratory musclesMuscles of respirationThe various muscles of respiration aid in both inspiration and expiration, which require changes in the pressure within the thoracic cavity. The respiratory muscles work to achieve this by changing the dimensions of the thoracic cavity....
limiting breathing - Impaired oxygen supply to muscles
- Ammonia effects upon the brain
- SerotoninSerotoninSerotonin or 5-hydroxytryptamine is a monoamine neurotransmitter. Biochemically derived from tryptophan, serotonin is primarily found in the gastrointestinal tract, platelets, and in the central nervous system of animals including humans...
pathways in the brain
Cardiac biomarkers
Prolonged exercise such as marathons can increase cardiac biomarkers such as troponinTroponin
400px|thumb|right|alt = Colored dice with checkered background|Ribbon representation of the human cardiac troponin core complex in the calcium-saturated form...
, B-type natriuretic peptide
Brain natriuretic peptide
Brain natriuretic peptide , now known as B-type natriuretic peptide or GC-B, is a 32 amino acid polypeptide secreted by the ventricles of the heart in response to excessive stretching of heart muscle cells...
(BNP), and ischemia-modified albumin
Albumin
Albumin refers generally to any protein that is water soluble, which is moderately soluble in concentrated salt solutions, and experiences heat denaturation. They are commonly found in blood plasma, and are unique to other blood proteins in that they are not glycosylated...
. This can be misinterpreted by medical personnel as signs of myocardial ischemia
Myocardial infarction
Myocardial infarction or acute myocardial infarction , commonly known as a heart attack, results from the interruption of blood supply to a part of the heart, causing heart cells to die...
, or cardiac dysfunction
Acute coronary syndrome
Acute coronary syndrome is usually one of three diseases involving the coronary arteries: ST elevation myocardial infarction , non ST elevation myocardial infarction , or unstable angina ....
. In these clinical conditions, such cardiac biomarkers are produced by irreversible injury of muscles. In contrast, the processes that create them after strenuous exertion in endurance sports are reversible, with their levels returning to normal within 24-hours (further research, however, is still needed).
Human evolution
Humans are specifically adaptedHuman evolution
Human evolution refers to the evolutionary history of the genus Homo, including the emergence of Homo sapiens as a distinct species and as a unique category of hominids and mammals...
to engage in prolonged strenuous muscular activity (such as efficient long distance bipedal
Human skeletal changes due to bipedalism
The evolution of human bipedalism approximately four million years ago has led to morphological alterations to the human skeleton including changes to the arrangement and size of the bones of the foot, hip size and shape, knee size, leg length, and the shape and orientation of the vertebral column...
running). This capacity for endurance running evolved to allow the running down of game animals by persistent slow but constant chase over many hours.
Central to the success of this is the ability of the human body, unlike that of the animals they hunt, to effectively remove muscle heat waste. In most animals, this is stored by allowing a temporary increase in body temperature. This allows them to escape from animals that quickly speed after them for a short duration (the way nearly all predators catch their prey). Humans unlike other animals that catch prey remove heat with a specialized thermoregulation based on sweat
Sweating
Perspiration is the production of a fluid consisting primarily of water as well as various dissolved solids , that is excreted by the sweat glands in the skin of mammals...
evaporation. One gram of sweat can remove 2,598 J of heat energy. Another mechanism is increased skin blood flow during exercise that allows for greater convective heat loss that is aided by the upright posture. This skin based cooling has involved humans in acquiring an increased number of sweat glands, combined with a lack of body fur
Fur
Fur is a synonym for hair, used more in reference to non-human animals, usually mammals; particularly those with extensives body hair coverage. The term is sometimes used to refer to the body hair of an animal as a complete coat, also known as the "pelage". Fur is also used to refer to animal...
that would otherwise stop air circulation and efficient evaporation. Because humans can remove exercise heat, they can avoid the fatigue from heat exhaustion that affects animals chased in persistence hunting, and so eventually catch them when they fatigue from heat exhaustion due to being forced to move constantly.
Selective breeding experiments with rodents
Rodents have been specifically bred for exercise behavior or performance in several different studies. For example, laboratory rats have been bred for high or low performance on a motorized treadmill with electrical stimulation as motivationMotivation
Motivation is the driving force by which humans achieve their goals. Motivation is said to be intrinsic or extrinsic. The term is generally used for humans but it can also be used to describe the causes for animal behavior as well. This article refers to human motivation...
. The high-performance line of rats also exhibits increased voluntary wheel-running behavior as compared with the low-capacity line. In an experimental evolution
Experimental evolution
In evolutionary and experimental biology, the field of experimental evolution is concerned with testing hypotheses and theories of evolution by use of controlled experiments. Evolution may be observed in the laboratory as populations adapt to new environmental conditions and/or change by such...
approach, four replicate lines of laboratory mice have been bred for high levels of voluntary exercise on wheels, while four additional control lines are maintained by breeding without regard to the amount of wheel running. These selected lines of mice also show increased endurance capacity in tests of forced endurance capacity on a motorized treadmill. However, in neither selection experiment have the precise causes of fatigue during either forced or voluntary exercise been determined.
Exercise-induced muscle pain
Physical exercise may cause pain both as an immediate pain effect that may result from stimulation of free nerve endings by low pH, as well as a delayed onset muscle sorenessDelayed onset muscle soreness
Delayed onset muscle soreness , also called muscle fever, is the pain and stiffness felt in muscles several hours to days after unaccustomed or strenuous exercise. The soreness is felt most strongly 24 to 72 hours after the exercise. It is caused by eccentric exercise...
. The delayed soreness is fundamentally the result of ruptures within the muscle, although apparently not involving the rupture of whole muscle fibers.
See also
- BioenergeticsBioenergeticsBioenergetics is the subject of a field of biochemistry that concerns energy flow through living systems. This is an active area of biological research that includes the study of thousands of different cellular processes such as cellular respiration and the many other metabolic processes that can...
- Excess post-exercise oxygen consumptionExcess post-exercise oxygen consumptionExcess post-exercise oxygen consumption is a measurably increased rate of oxygen intake following strenuous activity intended to erase the body's "oxygen debt." In historical context the term "oxygen debt" was popularized to explain or perhaps attempt to quantify anaerobic energy expenditure,...
(EPOC) - Exercise
- Fitness professionalFitness professionalA fitness professional is a professional in the field of fitness and exercise, most often instruction , including aerobics and yoga instructors and authors of fitness instruction books or manuals. Fitness topics may also include nutrition, weight-loss, and self-help...
- Hill's modelHill's modelHill's muscle model refers to either Hill's equations for tetanized muscle contraction or to the 3-element model. They were derived by a famous physiologist named Archibald Vivian Hill.-Equation to tetanized muscle:...
- MetabolismMetabolismMetabolism is the set of chemical reactions that happen in the cells of living organisms to sustain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. Metabolism is usually divided into two categories...
- Muscle contractionMuscle contractionMuscle fiber generates tension through the action of actin and myosin cross-bridge cycling. While under tension, the muscle may lengthen, shorten, or remain the same...
- Muscles exercised
- Skeletal muscleSkeletal muscleSkeletal muscle is a form of striated muscle tissue existing under control of the somatic nervous system- i.e. it is voluntarily controlled. It is one of three major muscle types, the others being cardiac and smooth muscle...