Fritz Grobba
Encyclopedia
Fritz Konrad Ferdinand Grobba (born Arthur Borg, alias Fritz Grobb, alias Franz Gehrke) (1886–1973) is best remembered for being a German
diplomat during the interwar period
and World War II
.
on the Oder in Brandenburg
in what was then the German Empire
(Deutsches Kaiserreich). His name when born was "Arthur Borg." Because of his physical features, Borg's nickname as a youth was "the Turk." He attended elementary and high school in Gartz. Borg studied law
, economics
, and Oriental languages
at the University of Berlin. In 1913, he received his doctorate of law. Borg worked briefly in the German consulate in Jerusalem, Palestine. Palestine was then part of the Ottoman Empire
.
, Lieutenant
Borg fought for the Central Powers
as an officer of the Imperial German Army
(Deutsches Heer). Borg fought in France
and on the Turkish Front
. He was wounded and, during his recovery, Borg met a Syria
n Arab
woman who he later married. Unfortunately Borg's wife did not do well in the mountains of Bavaria
and she died soon after he took her there.
In September 1922, Borg joined the legal affairs department of the German Foreign Ministry
of the Weimar Republic
. In January 1923, he was transferred to Department 3 (Abteilung III), the department responsible for the Middle East
. In October 1923, when post-war diplomatic relations were established between Weimer Germany and the Emirate of Afghanistan
, Borg was named Germany's representative in Kabul
with the rank of Consul
. In 1925, the government of Emir
Amanullah Khan
accused him of attempting to help a visiting German geographer escape from Afghanistan shortly after the geographer shot and killed an Afghan citizen near Kabul. Borg denied the charge. A diplomatic crisis between Germany and Afghanistan over the role Borg played ensued.
In April 1926, Borg was recalled to Berlin
. From 1926 to 1932, Borg served again in Abteilung III. He was now in charge of the section responsible for Persia, Afghanistan, and India
.
During his time with the German foreign ministry, Borg became a Muslim
and furthered his studies in Orientology
. He was persuaded by General
Erich Ludendorff
to get involved in the "political intrigues" of the Middle East
. To do this, Borg disguised his name. He spelled his name (A. Borg) backwards (Groba), added a "b" (Grobba), added "Fritz" as a first name (Fritz Borg), and added "Konrad" and "Ferdinand" as middle names (Fritz Konrad Ferdinand Grobba).
to the Kingdom of Iraq
and was sent to Baghdad
. Grobba was able to speak both Turkish
and Arabic
. He frequently spoke of Arab nationalism
and of ousting the British
from the Middle East. Grobba purchased a Christian
-owned newspaper, The Arab World (al-'Alam al-'Arabi). He serialized an Arabic version of German dictator Adolf Hitler
's My Struggle (Mein Kampf
) and soon Radio Berlin began to broadcast in Arabic.
On 30 January 1933, Hitler became Chancellor of Germany
. By the death of President
Paul von Hindenburg
on 2 August 1934, Hitler and his National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, or NSDAP) were in full control.
After the death of King Faisal I
on 8 September 1933, Grobba convinced King Ghazi
to send a group of Iraqi military officers to Germany for war games
. After the games, they returned home amazed. Grobba also convinced Ghazi to allow Germany to send 50 German officers to Iraq for war games. He then convinced the King to accept German "research expeditions" to Iraq. Unlike the Iraqis, the Germans did not return home and, instead, they stayed in Iraq long-term.
Grobba enthusiastically supported a virulently anti-British group of Iraqi officers called the "Circle of Seven." The four leading officers in this group were nicknamed the "Golden Square
." In time, these men represented real power as successive Iraqi governments sought the support of the military for survival. The members of the "Golden Square" had long looked to Germany to support them and, for his part, Grobba enthusiastically encouraged them to do so.
In 1938, a main British pipeline in Iraq was attacked and set on fire by Arabs. When this attack was found to be connected to Grobba, he was forced to flee. Grobba fled to the court of King Ibn Saud
of Saudi Arabia
. Since 1937, Ibn Saud was reported to be "on the outs" with the British and, in 1939, his emissary was reported to be seeking arms in Germany. From November 1938 until September 1939, Grobba was also the German Ambassador to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
invaded Poland
and World War II
began. On 3 September, the United Kingdom
and France
declared war
on Germany. After Germany and the United Kingdom became enemies
, the Kingdom of Iraq deported German officials and broke off diplomatic relations with Germany. However, contrary to Article 4 of the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty of 1930
, the then Prime Minister
Nuri Said chose not to have Iraq declare war on Germany. Article 4 states that: "Should ... either of the High Contracting Parties become engaged in war, the other High Contracting Party will ... immediately come to his aid in the capacity of an ally." In addition to not declaring war, Said also announced that Iraqi armed forces would not be employed outside of Iraq.
On 31 March 1940, Said was replaced by Rashid Ali as Prime Minister. On 10 June, when Fascist Italy
joined the war, on the side of Germany and against Britain, the Iraqi government under Rashid Ali did not break off diplomatic relations with Italy. This too violated Article 4 of the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty. On 3 February 1941, after much tension and calls for his removal, Rashid Ali was then replaced as Prime Minister by Taha al-Hashimi
, a candidate acceptable to Rashid Ali and the members of the "Golden Square."
From October 1939 until May 1941, Grobba served in the German foreign ministry in Berlin.
, Rashid Ali’s supporters had been informed that Germany was willing to recognize the independence of Iraq from the British Empire
, there had also been discussions on war material being sent to support the Iraqis and other Arab factions in fighting the British.
under Air Vice-Marshal
H. G. Smart
launched pre-emptive
air strikes
against Iraqi forces throughout Iraq and the Anglo-Iraqi War
began for real. On 3 May, German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop
persuaded Hitler that Dr. Fritz Grobba be secretly returned to Iraq to head up a diplomatic mission to channel support to the Rashid Ali regime. Grobba was to return under the alias "Franz Gehrke." Grobba's mission was to be sent to Iraq along with a military mission commanded by the High Command in the Armed Forces
(Oberkommando der Wehrmacht
, or OKW). The military mission had the cover name "Special Staff F
" (Sonderstab F) and it included Brandenburgers
and a Luftwaffe component. Sonderstab F was commanded by General
Hellmuth Felmy
.
On 6 May, Luftwaffe Colonel
Werner Junck
received instructions in Berlin
that he was to take a small force of aircraft to Iraq. While under Junck's tactical direction, the force was to be under the overall direction of Lieutenant General Hans Jeschonnek
and was to be known as "Airplane Commander for Iraq
" (Fliegerführer Irak
). The aircraft of Fliegerführer Irak were to have Iraqi markings and they were to operate out of an air base in Mosul
, some 240 miles north of Baghdad
.
Also on 6 May, Grobba and his mission flew from Foggia
to Rhodes
in two Heinkel 111 bombers which were dubbed the "Führer Courrier Squadron." The mission was accompanied by two Messerschmitt 110 fighters. On 9 May, they reached Aleppo
in Vichy French-held Syria
. On 10 May, the mission reached Mosul
and, after contactoing the Iraqi government, Grobba was told to come to Baghdad
as soon as was possible. On 11 May, they reached Baghdad.
On May 16, Grobba met in Baghdad with Colonel Junck, Rashid Ali, General Amin Zaki
, Colonel Nur ed-Din Mahmud, and Mahmud Salman. The group agreed to a number of priorities for Fliegerführer Irak. The first priority was to prevent the British flying column
Kingcol
from relieving RAF Habbaniya. The second priority was for Iraqi ground forces to take Habbaniyah
with air support provided by Fliegerführer Irak. An overall priority for the Germans was to provide the Royal Iraqi Army
with a "spine straightening." Much of the RIrA was known to be terrified of bombing by British aircraft.
In the end, Fliegerführer Irak failed to make the impact envisioned by the Germans, RAF Habbaniya was not taken by the Iraqi ground forces, and whether or not the Germans stopped Kingcol did not matter. The air and ground forces at the besieged air base drove off the Iraqis before Kingcol arrived. On 7 May, RAF armoured cars confirmed that the Iraqis on the escarpment above the base were gone. It was not until 18 May that Kingcol finally arrived to "relieve" Habbaniya. By 22 May, British and Commonwealth ground forces advancing from Habbaniya took and held Fallujah
for good. They then began the advance on Baghdad itself.
On 28 May, Grobba sent a panicked message from Baghdad reporting that the British were close to the city with more than one-hundred tanks. By then, Junck had no serviceable Messerschmitt 110 fighters and only two Heinkel 111 bombers with just four bombs between them. Late on 29 May, Rashid Ali, several of his key supporters, and the German military mission fled under cover of darkness. On 30 May, Grobba himself fled Baghdad.
Grobba's escape took him through Mosul and then through Vichy French-held Syria. A British flying column
commanded by Major
R. E. S. Gooch and nicknamed Gocol
was created to pursue and capture Grobba. To accomplish this, Gocol first made its way to Mosul and arrived there 3 June. The column then drove west and illegally entered French territory just prior to the commencement of the Syria-Lebanon Campaign
. During the week following 7 June Gocol made every effort to capture Grobba. The column entered Al-Qamishli in Syria fully expecting to capture him there. But they were disappointed to find that Grobba had already been there and had already gone. In the end, Gocol failed in its mission and Grobba successfully escaped to Nazi occupied Europe.
for the Arab States, a job that entailed liaison between the Nazi German government and Arab exiles in Berlin, like Mohammad Amin al-Husayni
. In December 1942, Grobba was named to the Paris
branch of the German archives commission. He held this post until his brief return to the foreign ministry in April 1944. In June 1944, Grobba was officially retired from the foreign ministry. However, he continued to work there until the end of the year. In 1945, Grobba worked briefly in the economics department of the government of Saxony
, in Dresden
.
At the end of the war
, Grobba was captured and was kept in Soviet
captivity until 1955.
policy of Nazi Germany
during the 1930s. In his opinion, Germany did not take advantage of the Arab
hostility towards both Britain
and France
. According to Grobba, Germany's failure in the Middle East tracked directly to Hitler. In addition to directing it toward the Jews, Hitler directed his racism towards the Arabs. In general, Hitler expressed disinterest in the Middle East. Hitler deferred to both British and Italian
interests in the Mediterranean
area. Hitler also expressed a disinclination to entirely eliminate the power of the British. Ultimately, Grobba indicated that Hitler was never willing to lend his support to Arab independence and national self-determination.
Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany , also known as the Third Reich , but officially called German Reich from 1933 to 1943 and Greater German Reich from 26 June 1943 onward, is the name commonly used to refer to the state of Germany from 1933 to 1945, when it was a totalitarian dictatorship ruled by...
diplomat during the interwar period
Interwar period
Interwar period can refer to any period between two wars. The Interbellum is understood to be the period between the end of the Great War or First World War and the beginning of the Second World War in Europe....
and World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
.
Biography
Fritz Grobba was born in GartzGartz
Gartz is a town in the Uckermark district in Brandenburg, Germany. It is located on the West bank of the Oder River, about 30 km south of Szczecin .-Overview:...
on the Oder in Brandenburg
Province of Brandenburg
The Province of Brandenburg was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia and the Free State of Prussia from 1815 to 1946.-History:The first people who are known to have inhabited Brandenburg were the Suevi. They were succeeded by the Slavonians, whom Henry II conquered and converted to Christianity in...
in what was then the German Empire
German Empire
The German Empire refers to Germany during the "Second Reich" period from the unification of Germany and proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871, to 1918, when it became a federal republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of the Emperor, Wilhelm II.The German...
(Deutsches Kaiserreich). His name when born was "Arthur Borg." Because of his physical features, Borg's nickname as a youth was "the Turk." He attended elementary and high school in Gartz. Borg studied law
Law
Law is a system of rules and guidelines which are enforced through social institutions to govern behavior, wherever possible. It shapes politics, economics and society in numerous ways and serves as a social mediator of relations between people. Contract law regulates everything from buying a bus...
, economics
Economics
Economics is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek from + , hence "rules of the house"...
, and Oriental languages
Languages of Asia
There is a wide variety of languages spoken throughout Asia, comprising a number of families and some unrelated isolates. Many languages have a long tradition of writing.-Central and North Asian languages:*Turkic**Azeri**Kazak**Kyrgyz**Tatar**Turkish...
at the University of Berlin. In 1913, he received his doctorate of law. Borg worked briefly in the German consulate in Jerusalem, Palestine. Palestine was then part of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
.
The first world war
During World War IWorld War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
, Lieutenant
Lieutenant
A lieutenant is a junior commissioned officer in many nations' armed forces. Typically, the rank of lieutenant in naval usage, while still a junior officer rank, is senior to the army rank...
Borg fought for the Central Powers
Central Powers
The Central Powers were one of the two warring factions in World War I , composed of the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Bulgaria...
as an officer of the Imperial German Army
German Army (German Empire)
The German Army was the name given the combined land forces of the German Empire, also known as the National Army , Imperial Army or Imperial German Army. The term "Deutsches Heer" is also used for the modern German Army, the land component of the German Bundeswehr...
(Deutsches Heer). Borg fought in France
Western Front (World War I)
Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the German Army opened the Western Front by first invading Luxembourg and Belgium, then gaining military control of important industrial regions in France. The tide of the advance was dramatically turned with the Battle of the Marne...
and on the Turkish Front
Middle Eastern theatre of World War I
The Middle Eastern theatre of World War I was the scene of action between 29 October 1914, and 30 October 1918. The combatants were the Ottoman Empire, with some assistance from the other Central Powers, and primarily the British and the Russians among the Allies of World War I...
. He was wounded and, during his recovery, Borg met a Syria
Syria
Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....
n Arab
Arab
Arab people, also known as Arabs , are a panethnicity primarily living in the Arab world, which is located in Western Asia and North Africa. They are identified as such on one or more of genealogical, linguistic, or cultural grounds, with tribal affiliations, and intra-tribal relationships playing...
woman who he later married. Unfortunately Borg's wife did not do well in the mountains of Bavaria
Bavaria
Bavaria, formally the Free State of Bavaria is a state of Germany, located in the southeast of Germany. With an area of , it is the largest state by area, forming almost 20% of the total land area of Germany...
and she died soon after he took her there.
In September 1922, Borg joined the legal affairs department of the German Foreign Ministry
Foreign Office (Germany)
The Foreign Office is the foreign ministry of Germany, a federal agency responsible for both the country's foreign politics and its relationship with the European Union. From 1871 to 1919, it was led by a Foreign Secretary, and since 1919, it has been led by the Foreign Minister of Germany...
of the Weimar Republic
Weimar Republic
The Weimar Republic is the name given by historians to the parliamentary republic established in 1919 in Germany to replace the imperial form of government...
. In January 1923, he was transferred to Department 3 (Abteilung III), the department responsible for the Middle East
Middle East
The Middle East is a region that encompasses Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is often used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East...
. In October 1923, when post-war diplomatic relations were established between Weimer Germany and the Emirate of Afghanistan
Emirate of Afghanistan
The Emirate of Afghanistan began with the end of the Durrani Empire and the reign of Dost Mohammad Khan in 1823 and ended when Amir Amanullah Khan became Shah in 1926. This period was characterized by the expansion of European colonial interests in Central Asia...
, Borg was named Germany's representative in Kabul
Kabul
Kabul , spelt Caubul in some classic literatures, is the capital and largest city of Afghanistan. It is also the capital of the Kabul Province, located in the eastern section of Afghanistan...
with the rank of Consul
Consul
Consul was the highest elected office of the Roman Republic and an appointive office under the Empire. The title was also used in other city states and also revived in modern states, notably in the First French Republic...
. In 1925, the government of Emir
Emir
Emir , meaning "commander", "general", or "prince"; also transliterated as Amir, Aamir or Ameer) is a title of high office, used throughout the Muslim world...
Amanullah Khan
Amanullah Khan
Amanullah Khan was the King of the Emirate of Afghanistan from 1919 to 1929, first as Amir and after 1926 as Shah. He led Afghanistan to independence over its foreign affairs from the United Kingdom, and his rule was marked by dramatic political and social change...
accused him of attempting to help a visiting German geographer escape from Afghanistan shortly after the geographer shot and killed an Afghan citizen near Kabul. Borg denied the charge. A diplomatic crisis between Germany and Afghanistan over the role Borg played ensued.
In April 1926, Borg was recalled to Berlin
Berlin
Berlin is the capital city of Germany and is one of the 16 states of Germany. With a population of 3.45 million people, Berlin is Germany's largest city. It is the second most populous city proper and the seventh most populous urban area in the European Union...
. From 1926 to 1932, Borg served again in Abteilung III. He was now in charge of the section responsible for Persia, Afghanistan, and India
British Raj
British Raj was the British rule in the Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947; The term can also refer to the period of dominion...
.
During his time with the German foreign ministry, Borg became a Muslim
Muslim
A Muslim, also spelled Moslem, is an adherent of Islam, a monotheistic, Abrahamic religion based on the Quran, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God as revealed to prophet Muhammad. "Muslim" is the Arabic term for "submitter" .Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable...
and furthered his studies in Orientology
Oriental studies
Oriental studies is the academic field of study that embraces Near Eastern and Far Eastern societies and cultures, languages, peoples, history and archaeology; in recent years the subject has often been turned into the newer terms of Asian studies and Middle Eastern studies...
. He was persuaded by General
General
A general officer is an officer of high military rank, usually in the army, and in some nations, the air force. The term is widely used by many nations of the world, and when a country uses a different term, there is an equivalent title given....
Erich Ludendorff
Erich Ludendorff
Erich Friedrich Wilhelm Ludendorff was a German general, victor of Liège and of the Battle of Tannenberg...
to get involved in the "political intrigues" of the Middle East
Middle East
The Middle East is a region that encompasses Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is often used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East...
. To do this, Borg disguised his name. He spelled his name (A. Borg) backwards (Groba), added a "b" (Grobba), added "Fritz" as a first name (Fritz Borg), and added "Konrad" and "Ferdinand" as middle names (Fritz Konrad Ferdinand Grobba).
Ambassador to Iraq and Saudi Arabia
From October 1932, Dr. Fritz Grobba was appointed as the German AmbassadorAmbassador
An ambassador is the highest ranking diplomat who represents a nation and is usually accredited to a foreign sovereign or government, or to an international organization....
to the Kingdom of Iraq
Kingdom of Iraq
The Kingdom of Iraq was the sovereign state of Iraq during and after the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. The League of Nations mandate started in 1920. The kingdom began in August 1921 with the coronation of Faisal bin al-Hussein bin Ali al-Hashemi as King Faisal I...
and was sent to Baghdad
Baghdad
Baghdad is the capital of Iraq, as well as the coterminous Baghdad Governorate. The population of Baghdad in 2011 is approximately 7,216,040...
. Grobba was able to speak both Turkish
Turkish language
Turkish is a language spoken as a native language by over 83 million people worldwide, making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. Its speakers are located predominantly in Turkey and Northern Cyprus with smaller groups in Iraq, Greece, Bulgaria, the Republic of Macedonia, Kosovo,...
and Arabic
Arabic language
Arabic is a name applied to the descendants of the Classical Arabic language of the 6th century AD, used most prominently in the Quran, the Islamic Holy Book...
. He frequently spoke of Arab nationalism
Arab nationalism
Arab nationalism is a nationalist ideology celebrating the glories of Arab civilization, the language and literature of the Arabs, calling for rejuvenation and political union in the Arab world...
and of ousting the British
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
from the Middle East. Grobba purchased a Christian
Christian
A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as recorded in the Canonical gospels and the letters of the New Testament...
-owned newspaper, The Arab World (al-'Alam al-'Arabi). He serialized an Arabic version of German dictator Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party , commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and head of state from 1934 to 1945...
's My Struggle (Mein Kampf
Mein Kampf
Mein Kampf is a book written by Nazi leader Adolf Hitler. It combines elements of autobiography with an exposition of Hitler's political ideology. Volume 1 of Mein Kampf was published in 1925 and Volume 2 in 1926...
) and soon Radio Berlin began to broadcast in Arabic.
On 30 January 1933, Hitler became Chancellor of Germany
Chancellor of Germany
The Chancellor of Germany is, under the German 1949 constitution, the head of government of Germany...
. By the death of President
President of Germany
The President of the Federal Republic of Germany is the country's head of state. His official title in German is Bundespräsident . Germany has a parliamentary system of government and so the position of President is largely ceremonial...
Paul von Hindenburg
Paul von Hindenburg
Paul Ludwig Hans Anton von Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg , known universally as Paul von Hindenburg was a Prussian-German field marshal, statesman, and politician, and served as the second President of Germany from 1925 to 1934....
on 2 August 1934, Hitler and his National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, or NSDAP) were in full control.
After the death of King Faisal I
Faisal I of Iraq
Faisal bin Hussein bin Ali al-Hashemi, was for a short time King of the Arab Kingdom of Syria or Greater Syria in 1920, and was King of the Kingdom of Iraq from 23 August 1921 to 1933...
on 8 September 1933, Grobba convinced King Ghazi
Ghazi of Iraq
Ghazi bin Faisal was the King of the Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq from 1933 to 1939 having been briefly Crown Prince of the Kingdom of Syria in 1920...
to send a group of Iraqi military officers to Germany for war games
Military simulation
Military simulations, also known informally as war games, are simulations in which theories of warfare can be tested and refined without the need for actual hostilities. Many professional contemporary analysts object to the term wargames as this is generally taken to be referring to the civilian...
. After the games, they returned home amazed. Grobba also convinced Ghazi to allow Germany to send 50 German officers to Iraq for war games. He then convinced the King to accept German "research expeditions" to Iraq. Unlike the Iraqis, the Germans did not return home and, instead, they stayed in Iraq long-term.
Grobba enthusiastically supported a virulently anti-British group of Iraqi officers called the "Circle of Seven." The four leading officers in this group were nicknamed the "Golden Square
Golden Square (Iraq)
The Golden Square was a group of four officers of the Iraqi armed forces who played a part in Iraqi politics throughout the 1930s and early 1940s...
." In time, these men represented real power as successive Iraqi governments sought the support of the military for survival. The members of the "Golden Square" had long looked to Germany to support them and, for his part, Grobba enthusiastically encouraged them to do so.
In 1938, a main British pipeline in Iraq was attacked and set on fire by Arabs. When this attack was found to be connected to Grobba, he was forced to flee. Grobba fled to the court of King Ibn Saud
Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia
King Abdul-Aziz of Saudi Arabia was the first monarch of the Third Saudi State known as Saudi Arabia. He was commonly referred to as Ibn Saud....
of Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia , commonly known in British English as Saudi Arabia and in Arabic as as-Sa‘ūdiyyah , is the largest state in Western Asia by land area, constituting the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and the second-largest in the Arab World...
. Since 1937, Ibn Saud was reported to be "on the outs" with the British and, in 1939, his emissary was reported to be seeking arms in Germany. From November 1938 until September 1939, Grobba was also the German Ambassador to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
World War II
On 1 September 1939, Nazi GermanyNazi Germany
Nazi Germany , also known as the Third Reich , but officially called German Reich from 1933 to 1943 and Greater German Reich from 26 June 1943 onward, is the name commonly used to refer to the state of Germany from 1933 to 1945, when it was a totalitarian dictatorship ruled by...
invaded Poland
Second Polish Republic
The Second Polish Republic, Second Commonwealth of Poland or interwar Poland refers to Poland between the two world wars; a period in Polish history in which Poland was restored as an independent state. Officially known as the Republic of Poland or the Commonwealth of Poland , the Polish state was...
and World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
began. On 3 September, the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
and France
French Third Republic
The French Third Republic was the republican government of France from 1870, when the Second French Empire collapsed due to the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, to 1940, when France was overrun by Nazi Germany during World War II, resulting in the German and Italian occupations of France...
declared war
Declaration of war
A declaration of war is a formal act by which one nation goes to war against another. The declaration is a performative speech act by an authorized party of a national government in order to create a state of war between two or more states.The legality of who is competent to declare war varies...
on Germany. After Germany and the United Kingdom became enemies
Enemy combatant
Enemy combatant is a term historically referring to members of the armed forces of the state with which another state is at war. Prior to 2008, the definition was: "Any person in an armed conflict who could be properly detained under the laws and customs of war." In the case of a civil war or an...
, the Kingdom of Iraq deported German officials and broke off diplomatic relations with Germany. However, contrary to Article 4 of the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty of 1930
Anglo-Iraqi Treaty (1930)
The Anglo-Iraqi Treaty of 1930 was a treaty of alliance between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the British-Mandate-controlled administration of the Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq. The treaty was between the governments of George V of the United Kingdom and Faisal I of Iraq...
, the then Prime Minister
Prime minister
A prime minister is the most senior minister of cabinet in the executive branch of government in a parliamentary system. In many systems, the prime minister selects and may dismiss other members of the cabinet, and allocates posts to members within the government. In most systems, the prime...
Nuri Said chose not to have Iraq declare war on Germany. Article 4 states that: "Should ... either of the High Contracting Parties become engaged in war, the other High Contracting Party will ... immediately come to his aid in the capacity of an ally." In addition to not declaring war, Said also announced that Iraqi armed forces would not be employed outside of Iraq.
On 31 March 1940, Said was replaced by Rashid Ali as Prime Minister. On 10 June, when Fascist Italy
Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)
The Kingdom of Italy was a state forged in 1861 by the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which was its legal predecessor state...
joined the war, on the side of Germany and against Britain, the Iraqi government under Rashid Ali did not break off diplomatic relations with Italy. This too violated Article 4 of the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty. On 3 February 1941, after much tension and calls for his removal, Rashid Ali was then replaced as Prime Minister by Taha al-Hashimi
Taha al-Hashimi
Taha al-Hashimi served briefly as prime minister of Iraq for two months, from February 1, 1941, to April 1, 1941. He was appointed prime minister by the regent, 'Abd al-Ilah, following the first ouster of the pro-Axis government of Rashid Ali al-Kaylani during World War II...
, a candidate acceptable to Rashid Ali and the members of the "Golden Square."
From October 1939 until May 1941, Grobba served in the German foreign ministry in Berlin.
Iraqi coup d’etat
On 1 April 1941, Rashid Ali and members of the "Golden Square" led a coup d’etat in Iraq. During the time leading up to the coup d'étatCoup d'état
A coup d'état state, literally: strike/blow of state)—also known as a coup, putsch, and overthrow—is the sudden, extrajudicial deposition of a government, usually by a small group of the existing state establishment—typically the military—to replace the deposed government with another body; either...
, Rashid Ali’s supporters had been informed that Germany was willing to recognize the independence of Iraq from the British Empire
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the...
, there had also been discussions on war material being sent to support the Iraqis and other Arab factions in fighting the British.
Anglo Iraqi War
On 2 May 1941, after much tension between the Rashid Ali government and the British, the besieged forces at RAF HabbaniyaRAF Habbaniya
Royal Air Force Station Habbaniya, more commonly known as RAF Habbaniya, was a Royal Air Force station at Habbaniyah, about west of Baghdad in modern day Iraq, on the banks of the Euphrates near Lake Habbaniyah...
under Air Vice-Marshal
Air Vice-Marshal
Air vice-marshal is a two-star air-officer rank which originated in and continues to be used by the Royal Air Force. The rank is also used by the air forces of many countries which have historical British influence and it is sometimes used as the English translation of an equivalent rank in...
H. G. Smart
Harry George Smart
Harry George Smart, CBE, DFC, AFC, is best known as the commander of RAF Habbaniya during the first part of the Anglo-Iraqi War. Smart was a British officer in the British Army, the Royal Flying Corps, the Royal Australian Air Force, and the Royal Air Force...
launched pre-emptive
Preemptive war
A preemptive war is a war that is commenced in an attempt to repel or defeat a perceived inevitable offensive or invasion, or to gain a strategic advantage in an impending war before that threat materializes. It is a war which preemptively 'breaks the peace'. The term: 'preemptive war' is...
air strikes
Airstrike
An air strike is an attack on a specific objective by military aircraft during an offensive mission. Air strikes are commonly delivered from aircraft such as fighters, bombers, ground attack aircraft, attack helicopters, and others...
against Iraqi forces throughout Iraq and the Anglo-Iraqi War
Anglo-Iraqi War
The Anglo-Iraqi War was the name of the British campaign against the rebel government of Rashid Ali in the Kingdom of Iraq during the Second World War. The war lasted from 2 May to 31 May 1941. The campaign resulted in the re-occupation of Iraq by British armed forces and the return to power of the...
began for real. On 3 May, German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop
Joachim von Ribbentrop
Ulrich Friedrich Wilhelm Joachim von Ribbentrop was Foreign Minister of Germany from 1938 until 1945. He was later hanged for war crimes after the Nuremberg Trials.-Early life:...
persuaded Hitler that Dr. Fritz Grobba be secretly returned to Iraq to head up a diplomatic mission to channel support to the Rashid Ali regime. Grobba was to return under the alias "Franz Gehrke." Grobba's mission was to be sent to Iraq along with a military mission commanded by the High Command in the Armed Forces
Oberkommando der Wehrmacht
The Oberkommando der Wehrmacht was part of the command structure of the armed forces of Nazi Germany during World War II.- Genesis :...
(Oberkommando der Wehrmacht
Oberkommando der Wehrmacht
The Oberkommando der Wehrmacht was part of the command structure of the armed forces of Nazi Germany during World War II.- Genesis :...
, or OKW). The military mission had the cover name "Special Staff F
Special Staff F
Special Staff F was the cover name for a German military mission to Iraq during World War II. Sonderstab F was created on 20 May 1941 and ceased to exist on 20 June 1941.-Description:...
" (Sonderstab F) and it included Brandenburgers
Brandenburgers
The Brandenburgers were members of the Brandenburg German Special Forces unit during World War II.Units of Brandenburgers operated in almost all fronts - the invasion of Poland, Denmark and Norway, in the Battle of France, in Operation Barbarossa, in Finland, Greece and the invasion of Crete,...
and a Luftwaffe component. Sonderstab F was commanded by General
General der Flieger
General der Flieger was a General’s rank of the German Luftwaffe.The rank was equivalent to the long established General der Kavallerie, General der Artillerie and General der Infanterie...
Hellmuth Felmy
Hellmuth Felmy
Hellmuth Felmy was a Nazi war criminal, German military officer during World War I, the interwar period, and World War II.-Biography:On 28 May 1885, Helmuth Felmy was born in Berlin in what was then the German Empire...
.
On 6 May, Luftwaffe Colonel
Oberst
Oberst is a military rank in several German-speaking and Scandinavian countries, equivalent to Colonel. It is currently used by both the ground and air forces of Austria, Germany, Switzerland, Denmark and Norway. The Swedish rank överste is a direct translation, as are the Finnish rank eversti...
Werner Junck
Werner Junck
Werner Junck was a German World War II Luftwaffe Generalleutnant and the one time commander of Fliegerführer Irak...
received instructions in Berlin
Berlin
Berlin is the capital city of Germany and is one of the 16 states of Germany. With a population of 3.45 million people, Berlin is Germany's largest city. It is the second most populous city proper and the seventh most populous urban area in the European Union...
that he was to take a small force of aircraft to Iraq. While under Junck's tactical direction, the force was to be under the overall direction of Lieutenant General Hans Jeschonnek
Hans Jeschonnek
Hans Jeschonnek was a German Generaloberst and a Chief of the General Staff of Nazi Germany′s Luftwaffe during World War II. He committed suicide in August 1943.-Biography:...
and was to be known as "Airplane Commander for Iraq
Fliegerführer Irak
Flyer Command Iraq was a unit of the German Air Force sent to Iraq in May 1941 as part of a German mission to support the regime of Rashid Ali during the Anglo-Iraqi War...
" (Fliegerführer Irak
Fliegerführer Irak
Flyer Command Iraq was a unit of the German Air Force sent to Iraq in May 1941 as part of a German mission to support the regime of Rashid Ali during the Anglo-Iraqi War...
). The aircraft of Fliegerführer Irak were to have Iraqi markings and they were to operate out of an air base in Mosul
Mosul
Mosul , is a city in northern Iraq and the capital of the Ninawa Governorate, some northwest of Baghdad. The original city stands on the west bank of the Tigris River, opposite the ancient Assyrian city of Nineveh on the east bank, but the metropolitan area has now grown to encompass substantial...
, some 240 miles north of Baghdad
Baghdad
Baghdad is the capital of Iraq, as well as the coterminous Baghdad Governorate. The population of Baghdad in 2011 is approximately 7,216,040...
.
Also on 6 May, Grobba and his mission flew from Foggia
Foggia
Foggia is a city and comune of Apulia, Italy, capital of the province of Foggia. Foggia is the main city of a plain called Tavoliere, also known as the "granary of Italy".-History:...
to Rhodes
Rhodes
Rhodes is an island in Greece, located in the eastern Aegean Sea. It is the largest of the Dodecanese islands in terms of both land area and population, with a population of 117,007, and also the island group's historical capital. Administratively the island forms a separate municipality within...
in two Heinkel 111 bombers which were dubbed the "Führer Courrier Squadron." The mission was accompanied by two Messerschmitt 110 fighters. On 9 May, they reached Aleppo
Aleppo
Aleppo is the largest city in Syria and the capital of Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Syrian governorate. With an official population of 2,301,570 , expanding to over 2.5 million in the metropolitan area, it is also one of the largest cities in the Levant...
in Vichy French-held Syria
French Mandate of Syria
Officially the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon was a League of Nations mandate founded after the First World War and the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire...
. On 10 May, the mission reached Mosul
Mosul
Mosul , is a city in northern Iraq and the capital of the Ninawa Governorate, some northwest of Baghdad. The original city stands on the west bank of the Tigris River, opposite the ancient Assyrian city of Nineveh on the east bank, but the metropolitan area has now grown to encompass substantial...
and, after contactoing the Iraqi government, Grobba was told to come to Baghdad
Baghdad
Baghdad is the capital of Iraq, as well as the coterminous Baghdad Governorate. The population of Baghdad in 2011 is approximately 7,216,040...
as soon as was possible. On 11 May, they reached Baghdad.
On May 16, Grobba met in Baghdad with Colonel Junck, Rashid Ali, General Amin Zaki
Muhamed Amin Zaki
Muhamed Amin Zaki, , was a Kurdish writer, historian, statesman and politician. He was born in Sulaimaniya, attended the Military and Staff College at Istanbul and served as a staff officer in the Ottoman army. He also served in the Iraqi administration under the British mandate in the 1920s and...
, Colonel Nur ed-Din Mahmud, and Mahmud Salman. The group agreed to a number of priorities for Fliegerführer Irak. The first priority was to prevent the British flying column
Flying column
A flying column is a small, independent, military land unit capable of rapid mobility and usually composed of all arms. It is often an ad hoc unit, formed during the course of operations....
Kingcol
Kingcol
-Creation and composition:Kingcol was created to allow a portion of Habforce to relieve RAF Habbaniya as soon as possible. The column was named after its commander, Brigadier J.J. Kingstone...
from relieving RAF Habbaniya. The second priority was for Iraqi ground forces to take Habbaniyah
Habbaniyah
Al Habbaniyah or Habbaniya is a city in Al-Anbar Province, in central Iraq.-References:...
with air support provided by Fliegerführer Irak. An overall priority for the Germans was to provide the Royal Iraqi Army
Iraqi Army
The Iraqi Army is the land component of the Iraqi military, active in various forms since being formed by the British during their mandate over the country after World War I....
with a "spine straightening." Much of the RIrA was known to be terrified of bombing by British aircraft.
In the end, Fliegerführer Irak failed to make the impact envisioned by the Germans, RAF Habbaniya was not taken by the Iraqi ground forces, and whether or not the Germans stopped Kingcol did not matter. The air and ground forces at the besieged air base drove off the Iraqis before Kingcol arrived. On 7 May, RAF armoured cars confirmed that the Iraqis on the escarpment above the base were gone. It was not until 18 May that Kingcol finally arrived to "relieve" Habbaniya. By 22 May, British and Commonwealth ground forces advancing from Habbaniya took and held Fallujah
Fallujah
Fallujah is a city in the Iraqi province of Al Anbar, located roughly west of Baghdad on the Euphrates. Fallujah dates from Babylonian times and was host to important Jewish academies for many centuries....
for good. They then began the advance on Baghdad itself.
On 28 May, Grobba sent a panicked message from Baghdad reporting that the British were close to the city with more than one-hundred tanks. By then, Junck had no serviceable Messerschmitt 110 fighters and only two Heinkel 111 bombers with just four bombs between them. Late on 29 May, Rashid Ali, several of his key supporters, and the German military mission fled under cover of darkness. On 30 May, Grobba himself fled Baghdad.
Grobba's escape took him through Mosul and then through Vichy French-held Syria. A British flying column
Flying column
A flying column is a small, independent, military land unit capable of rapid mobility and usually composed of all arms. It is often an ad hoc unit, formed during the course of operations....
commanded by Major
Major
Major is a rank of commissioned officer, with corresponding ranks existing in almost every military in the world.When used unhyphenated, in conjunction with no other indicator of rank, the term refers to the rank just senior to that of an Army captain and just below the rank of lieutenant colonel. ...
R. E. S. Gooch and nicknamed Gocol
Gocol
Gocol was a flying column created by the British Army shortly after the Anglo-Iraqi War had ended.-Creation and composition:Gocol was a truck-borne flying column created in early June 1941 specifically to pursue and capture Dr. Fritz Grobba, the German Ambassador to the Kingdom of Iraq...
was created to pursue and capture Grobba. To accomplish this, Gocol first made its way to Mosul and arrived there 3 June. The column then drove west and illegally entered French territory just prior to the commencement of the Syria-Lebanon Campaign
Syria-Lebanon campaign
The Syria–Lebanon campaign, also known as Operation Exporter, was the Allied invasion of Vichy French-controlled Syria and Lebanon, in June–July 1941, during World War II. Time Magazine referred to the fighting as a "mixed show" while it was taking place and the campaign remains little known, even...
. During the week following 7 June Gocol made every effort to capture Grobba. The column entered Al-Qamishli in Syria fully expecting to capture him there. But they were disappointed to find that Grobba had already been there and had already gone. In the end, Gocol failed in its mission and Grobba successfully escaped to Nazi occupied Europe.
German occupied Europe
In February 1942, Grobba was named foreign ministry plenipotentiaryPlenipotentiary
The word plenipotentiary has two meanings. As a noun, it refers to a person who has "full powers." In particular, the term commonly refers to a diplomat fully authorized to represent his government as a prerogative...
for the Arab States, a job that entailed liaison between the Nazi German government and Arab exiles in Berlin, like Mohammad Amin al-Husayni
Mohammad Amin al-Husayni
Haj Mohammed Effendi Amin el-Husseini was a Palestinian Arab nationalist and Muslim leader in the British Mandate of Palestine. From as early as 1920, in order to secure the independence of Palestine as an Arab state he actively opposed Zionism, and was implicated as a leader of a violent riot...
. In December 1942, Grobba was named to the Paris
Paris
Paris is the capital and largest city in France, situated on the river Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the Île-de-France region...
branch of the German archives commission. He held this post until his brief return to the foreign ministry in April 1944. In June 1944, Grobba was officially retired from the foreign ministry. However, he continued to work there until the end of the year. In 1945, Grobba worked briefly in the economics department of the government of Saxony
Saxony
The Free State of Saxony is a landlocked state of Germany, contingent with Brandenburg, Saxony Anhalt, Thuringia, Bavaria, the Czech Republic and Poland. It is the tenth-largest German state in area, with of Germany's sixteen states....
, in Dresden
Dresden
Dresden is the capital city of the Free State of Saxony in Germany. It is situated in a valley on the River Elbe, near the Czech border. The Dresden conurbation is part of the Saxon Triangle metropolitan area....
.
At the end of the war
End of World War II in Europe
The final battles of the European Theatre of World War II as well as the German surrender to the Western Allies and the Soviet Union took place in late April and early May 1945.-Timeline of surrenders and deaths:...
, Grobba was captured and was kept in Soviet
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....
captivity until 1955.
Memoirs
In his 1957 memoirs (Men and Power in the Orient), Grobba summarized as "wasted opportunities" the Middle EastMiddle East
The Middle East is a region that encompasses Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is often used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East...
policy of Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany , also known as the Third Reich , but officially called German Reich from 1933 to 1943 and Greater German Reich from 26 June 1943 onward, is the name commonly used to refer to the state of Germany from 1933 to 1945, when it was a totalitarian dictatorship ruled by...
during the 1930s. In his opinion, Germany did not take advantage of the Arab
Arab
Arab people, also known as Arabs , are a panethnicity primarily living in the Arab world, which is located in Western Asia and North Africa. They are identified as such on one or more of genealogical, linguistic, or cultural grounds, with tribal affiliations, and intra-tribal relationships playing...
hostility towards both Britain
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
and France
French Third Republic
The French Third Republic was the republican government of France from 1870, when the Second French Empire collapsed due to the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, to 1940, when France was overrun by Nazi Germany during World War II, resulting in the German and Italian occupations of France...
. According to Grobba, Germany's failure in the Middle East tracked directly to Hitler. In addition to directing it toward the Jews, Hitler directed his racism towards the Arabs. In general, Hitler expressed disinterest in the Middle East. Hitler deferred to both British and Italian
Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)
The Kingdom of Italy was a state forged in 1861 by the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which was its legal predecessor state...
interests in the Mediterranean
Mediterranean Sea
The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean surrounded by the Mediterranean region and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Anatolia and Europe, on the south by North Africa, and on the east by the Levant...
area. Hitler also expressed a disinclination to entirely eliminate the power of the British. Ultimately, Grobba indicated that Hitler was never willing to lend his support to Arab independence and national self-determination.
See also
- Führer Directive No. 30: German Intervention in IraqFuhrer Directive No. 30Führer Directive No. 30 was a directive issued by German dictator Adolf Hitler during World War II.-Overview and background:Führer Directive No. 30 dealt with German intervention in support of Arab nationalists in the Kingdom of Iraq...
- AhnenerbeAhnenerbeThe Ahnenerbe was a Nazi German think tank that promoted itself as a "study society for Intellectual Ancient History." Founded on July 1, 1935, by Heinrich Himmler, Herman Wirth, and Richard Walther Darré, the Ahnenerbe's goal was to research the anthropological and cultural history of the Aryan...
- A Nazi German think tank that promoted itself as a "study society for Intellectual Ancient History." - FarhudFarhudFarhud refers to the pogrom or "violent dispossession" carried out against the Jewish population of Baghdad, Iraq, on June 1-2, 1941 during the Jewish holiday of Shavuot. The riots occurred in a power vacuum following the collapse of the pro-Nazi government of Rashid Ali while the city was in a...
- A violent pogromPogromA pogrom is a form of violent riot, a mob attack directed against a minority group, and characterized by killings and destruction of their homes and properties, businesses, and religious centres...
against the Jews of Baghdad, Iraq on 1 and 2 June 1941. - Werner Otto von HentigWerner Otto von HentigWerner Otto von Hentig was a German diplomat from Berlin. He was the elder brother of criminal psychologist Hans von Hentig and the father of Hartmut von Hentig....
- A bitter rival of Grobba; whereas Grobba belonged to a faction in the Foreign OfficeForeign Office (Germany)The Foreign Office is the foreign ministry of Germany, a federal agency responsible for both the country's foreign politics and its relationship with the European Union. From 1871 to 1919, it was led by a Foreign Secretary, and since 1919, it has been led by the Foreign Minister of Germany...
that favored the massive incitement of Muslims to jihadJihadJihad , an Islamic term, is a religious duty of Muslims. In Arabic, the word jihād translates as a noun meaning "struggle". Jihad appears 41 times in the Quran and frequently in the idiomatic expression "striving in the way of God ". A person engaged in jihad is called a mujahid; the plural is...
in the colonial hinterland of Britain, France, and RussiaRussiaRussia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
, Hentig opposed it. - Franz von PapenFranz von PapenLieutenant-Colonel Franz Joseph Hermann Michael Maria von Papen zu Köningen was a German nobleman, Roman Catholic monarchist politician, General Staff officer, and diplomat, who served as Chancellor of Germany in 1932 and as Vice-Chancellor under Adolf Hitler in 1933–1934...
- German ambassador to Turkey from 1939 to 1944. - Fawzi al-QawuqjiFawzi Al-QawuqjiFawzi al-Qawuqji was the field commander of the Arab Liberation Army during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War in Palestine, and a rival of the principal Palestinian Arab leader, the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Haj Amin al-Husseini.-Biography:...
- An Arab nationalist who fought against the British and the French in the British Mandate of Palestine, the French Mandate of SyriaFrench Mandate of SyriaOfficially the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon was a League of Nations mandate founded after the First World War and the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire...
, and the Kingdom of IraqKingdom of IraqThe Kingdom of Iraq was the sovereign state of Iraq during and after the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. The League of Nations mandate started in 1920. The kingdom began in August 1921 with the coronation of Faisal bin al-Hussein bin Ali al-Hashemi as King Faisal I...
. - Mohammad Amin al-HusayniMohammad Amin al-HusayniHaj Mohammed Effendi Amin el-Husseini was a Palestinian Arab nationalist and Muslim leader in the British Mandate of Palestine. From as early as 1920, in order to secure the independence of Palestine as an Arab state he actively opposed Zionism, and was implicated as a leader of a violent riot...