History of Isan
Encyclopedia
The history of Isan
has been determined by its geography, situated as it is on the Korat Plateau
between Cambodia
, Laos
and Thailand
.
The term "Isan" originally meant "invisible power", and is derived from Isanapura, the ancient capital of the northern Chenla Kingdom, established in 613
AD near modern-day Sambor Prey Kuk near Kompong Thom in central Cambodia. The name of the capital was conferred in 628
by its ancient Khmer-speaking king Isana Varman I (616-635AD), in dedication to the Hindu god Shiva
, to whom he erected a statue following his victory over the kingdom of Funan, to which the kingdom of Chenla had been vassal
s.
Siam's King Rama VI reinvoked the ancient name, designating the northeast sector of the Kingdom of Siam as Isan. Previously, in the reign of Rama V in early twentieth century, the sector was generally called Hua Muang Lao for the area north of Nakhon Ratchasima
(Korat,} and Khamen Pa Dong for the townships to the east. Later the term Isan came into wide. if unofficial, use as a term for the Northeastern Region, and Khon Isan as a general term for the peoples of Isan.
Isan has been dominated by each of its neighbors in turn, although its relative infertility meant it was more often a battleground than a prize. Rather than being incorporated into the respective empires of each power, the area was divided into meuang or statelets, each paying tribute
to one or more powers under the mandala system
.
Throughout the 20th century, the Thai government took steps to cement Isan's status as a part of Thailand and to de-emphasize the Lao
, Khmer
. and Kuy origins of its population: a process known as "Thaification
" by some scholars.
The majority of people in present-day Isan are Lao-speaking; many Khmer-speakers live in the southern part; and substantial minorities of Katuic (i.e. Kuy, Bru, and So) speakers also exist. Most Isan people are both conversant and to some degree literate in Thai.
fossil
skull fragments found in northern Thailand's Hat Pudui cave (Ko Kha District, Lampang Province) by Thai paleontologists Somsak Pramankij and Vadhana Subhavanin, were in deposits dating from the mid-Pleistocene era, which was before the Khorat Plateau had uplifted from an extensive plain. Professor Phillip V. Tobias
of Johannesburg's University of the Witwatersrand
examined the fragments and said: "It seems unavoidable but to conclude that Thailand must have been a highway or crossroads in the movement of hominids — members of the family of man."
Pha Taem
cliff painting
s alongside the Mekong
in Udon Thani Province
date to around 1500 BC. They are younger than but similar in composition to the Rock Paintings of Hua Mountain
in southern China, which are attributed to the Luoyue people of what is today the lowland plains of northern Vietnam, particularly the marshy, agriculturally rich area of the Red River Delta, and particularly associated with the Bronze Age
Đông Sơn culture of mainland Southeast Asia.
The Ban Chiang
archaeological site
, dating from around 3000 BC to 300 AD, attracted attention in 1966 as seemingly the world's oldest site showing traces of a Bronze Age culture, due to errors in dating. In Fine Arts, the site is remarkable for its pottery; further investigation into ancient skeletal remains raised serious questions about transitions to sedentism
and intensified agriculture
. The question as to why the site was abandoned until resettled by 19th–century Lao émigrés remains to be settled. The Bronze Age site of Ban Non Wat
in the southeast of the plateau is also under investigation (2002–present.)
The first major civilisation to occupy Isan was considered, by the study of artifacts, under the Dvaravati
culture. The remains of walled and moated towns scattered the region, in the valleys of Chi and Mun river
s. The remains often show the Buddhist and Hinduist influence, perhaps expanding from the western part or the coastal and the Chao Phraya river
basin.
/Mon
culture from Chao Phraya River basin was gradually displaced by the Khmer Empire
of Angkor
. Many principal centers became Angkor's tributary kingdom
s. Consequently, a number of temples influenced by ancient Khmer art were found in Isan, most notably in southern part, at Phanom Rung and Phimai
, which lie on the so-called Ancient Khmer Highway
, the direct link to Angkor
. Inscriptions found also told the connections between vassal
towns and the court of Angkor.
broke free from the Angkor Empire around the thirteenth century. Although Isan is not thought to have been a part of the Sukhothai kingdom due to the lack of clear evidence, the Khmer empire became weaker and retreated to its Cambodian heartlands, leaving Isan in the hands of fragmented muang city-state
s or statelets. However, many Khmer-speaking
people remained and are still a prominent fixture in the southern area, constituting the majority in present-day southern part of the region such as in present day Surin Province
, Buriram Province
and are also numerous in part of Sisaket Province
.
However, the history of Isan from the period of the retreat of Khmer empire to the end of the eighteenth century largely remained 'silent'. No details about communities in Isan were mentioned in contemporary sources, such as Ayutthaya's Chronicles
or Codes. Apparently Ayutthaya limited its influence in Nakhon Ratchasima
which was founded in the seventeenth century, and thought the frontier's stronghold of Ayutthaya Kingdom in the east.
(Lan Chang) was established in Luang Prabang
in the fourteenth century by Fa Ngum
, with help from the Khmers. The kingdom's name means Million Elephants, echoing the name of the neighboring northern kingdom of Lanna
, Million Fields. Lan Xang was to provide Isan with much of its later population. As the Khmer empire continued to retreat under pressure from the Thai kingdom of Ayutthaya
, Lan Xang was able to expand its influence in Isan. Lao settlers might gradually moved across the Mekong into northern Isan between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries. However no clear evidence suggests any significant settlement in hinterland Isan during this period. Ayutthaya which arose as a major power from the late fourteenth century, limited its border only at Nakhon Ratchasima
and Phimai
.
ese kingdoms, Thonburi
and Bangkok, following the fall of Ayutthaya
to the Burmese. Isan area and Laos were divided into a series of muang with varying degrees of autonomy
, but each paying tribute
to Siam.
With the rise of King Taksin
, Siam began, perhaps for the first time, expanding its 'direct' control to the region. Siam forces invaded and took control of Luang Prabang
and Vientiane
kingdoms. Isan region were brought under more severe control of Siam.
During late eighteenth century to early nineteenth century, there was also struggle between the three Lao kingdoms of Luang Prabang
, Vientiane
and the newly founded Champassak. The 'losers' and 'dissidents' began migrating or taking refuge into the area of Isan
. Most of them recognized the superior status of Siam. The local leaders were granted 'fiefdom
' and title of 'governor', having full right of ruling over their towns. Thus, they eventually became the subjects of Siamese royal court in Bangkok. New towns were founded such as Chaiyaphum
, Udon Thani
, Khon Kaen
and Ubon Ratchathani
, along with many minor towns such as Han Chai Cham Na.
In 1827, King Anouvong (or Chao Anu) of Vientiane rebelled against Siam. After a successful attack on the stronghold of Korat
, he was defeated and died in a cage; the victor then brought his army to rest in Yasothon where he raised a memorial. The defeat of Anu's revolt was followed by forced migration
s from defeated Lao kingdoms to Isan, further increasing the dominance of Lao culture in the region but weakening the muang of modern-day Laos. According to traditional rule
, the governors of these new towns were semi-autonomous. They had right to rule, to tax their own subject, part of which might be transferred to Bangkok periodically. If time of war, these local rulers had a duty to send troops to defend Siam.
Following defeat in the Franco-Siamese War, Siam ceded Luang Prabang and Champasak to France in 1893 and 1904. Isan became the kingdom's north-east frontier as the 'buffer zone' between French Indochina
and Siam, with Siam becoming a 'buffer zone' between Briton and France with the Entente cordiale
. Thus began the process of annexation of Isan area into the modern Siamese nation.
Prince Damrong Rajanubhab
as the new Minister of Interior
(1892,) introduced the Monthon
administration system known as thesaphiban ( - literally, control over territory) - officially adopted by the 1897 Local Administration Act, which transferred much power from the traditional provincial governors drawn from the local nobility to the newly established monthon commissioners and civil servants (รองอำมาตย์ - court support) appointed by Bangkok
. In 1902, local revolts broke out in Isan, often led by charismatic religious leaders called ) or Holy man). One of the most serious of these rebellions recalled the resistance toThonburi authority by the monk Chao Phra Faang, 1768–1770. A former monk and Phu Mi Bun in the Ubon Ratchathani area headed a millenarian sect inspired by his predictions of 'apocalyptic' vision. His apocalyptic prophecy created panic among almost all of the Isan people until the Bangkok government eventually crushed it.
From the 20th century onwards, Siam gradually consolidated its control over Isan through a programme of "Thaification
". The introduction of a national school system in the 1920s replaced instruction by monk
s in the Isan Lao language with teaching in the Thai language only. Radio and television, when they began, also broadcast in Thai. They included (and still do) twice daily broadcasts of the national anthem
.
Even after the Revolution in 1932, which the democratic rule started, Isan had been ignored from newly 'democratic' Thai government. Most of the region was underdeveloped. Apparently new or necessary infrastructure were hardly built. Albeit the biggest part of Thailand, until now, there are still only two railways in the region and most of modern paved roads were built in the sixties and seventies.
. The region's poverty, special history, remoteness and inaccessible terrain all contributed to this fear.
Inevitably, the extent to which Communist insurgents were a real threat in Isan is hard to determine. It is known that there were a number of political attacks from the 1960s onwards, and that Communist activists and equipment entered the region from Laos. On the other hand, the number of guerrillas probably never exceeded a few thousand, and the combination of action by the security forces and the offers of amnesties had largely ended the threat by the early 1980s.
, Nakhon Phanom, Udon Thani
, Nakhon Sawan
and Ubon Ratchathani
. Although the bases were directed at Communists in Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam
, they had an indirect effect in promoting development and opposing Communism in Isan. The bases required the creation of improved transport links, facilitating the integration of Isan with the rest of Thailand. The most important of these was Highway 2 named the Mittraphap Road (Friendship Highway,) which links with Bangkok and the eastern seaboard. and other northeast highways that being with the numeral 2, which link the region's major cities with each other. These remain Isan's primary road links, with many later to be incorporated into the 21st-century Asian Highway Network
. Complemented by Thai government programs to build minor roads, these projects did much to bind rural Isan more closely to the cities and to Bangkok.
The number of US servicemen reached its peak in 1969 at 50,000 http://www.aznet.net/~rmyers/Chapt3.htm#_ftn8. This influx of US personnel also had a direct effect in exposing the region to western culture. This helped to promote the development of the region, but it also created a sizable sex industry
in the vicinity of the bases. Finally, the US military presence contributed substantial sums of money to the area's economy, with emigrant-spouses who accompanied American servicemen continuing to send substantial sums home. The bases were closed at the end of the Vietnam War
in 1975.
, who took control of the country in 1958, was a native of Isan and promoted a number of development projects there.
From the 1960s onwards, the government launched a string of development programmes aimed wholly or in part at Isan. These began with a five year development plan announced in 1961 and backed by US aid. The program's "top down" approach was satirized in a country song still being sung decades later. An Accelerated Rural Development Programme followed in 1964, again with US support. This was administered by provincial governors in the hope of circumventing the inefficiencies of central government, but it could not evade the problems of bureaucracy, corruption and a conservative mindset which hampered all development efforts.
1960s projects to introduce improved crop
strains have been criticised for forcing farmers to take out loans to pay for the seed
, fertiliser and equipment required, while reducing genetic diversity
. Even in the 1970s, government per capita spending on rural assistance programmes was lower in Isan than anywhere else in Thailand http://www.aznet.net/~rmyers/Chapt3.htm#_ftn35.
Nevertheless, much was achieved: Mobile Rural Development Units focusing on health education
trained about 1000 field workers per year in the late 1960s; hydroelectric schemes such as Nam Pong/Ubon Ratana power station
in Khon Kaen and Lam Pao in Kalasin provided electricity
; modern toilet
s were distributed; government rice purchase programmes maintained prices.
Education efforts increased the proportion of children attending high school
from 4.4% in 1970 to 80% by 2000. Universities were established beginning with Khon Kaen University
in 1964, soon followed by Mahasarakham University
and Suranee University of Technology.
in the district of Khong Chiam
, in Ubon Ratchathani Province
. The project was completed in 1994, flooding 117 square kilometres of land and displacing around 3000 families. The project has been criticised for insufficient compensation payments, adverse effects on the fisheries of the Mun River
, and failure to produce the projected power output.
Protesters against the Pak Mun dam joined with other grassroots activists in 1995 to form the Assembly of the Poor
, a group seeking to promote the involvement of the poor in decision-making processes, and to have their interests taken into account. The group has organised a number of protests against the project in Bangkok. The now deposed prime minister, Thaksin Shinawatra
, responded by claiming that activists NGO
Living River Siam
are trouble-makers who do not reflect the opinions of ordinary people. The same issue arose with the Rasi Salai Dam
in Sisaket Province
, which was also completed in 1994 for the generation of electricity; it was abandoned for that purpose in 2000 and converted into a recreation area
.
A longer lasting political issue in Isan, however, has been the ability of political parties, notably closely affiliated with or part of, the populist traditional leadership in the area, including Thailand's old generals, to sway the electorate to vote for them en masses, often by buying votes but more effectively by delegating vote buying to a select few representatives. Isan's electorate are not widely attuned to the clash between their interests and the vested interests of those they vote into office.
Isan
Isan is the northeastern region of Thailand. It is located on the Khorat Plateau, bordered by the Mekong River to the north and east, by Cambodia to the southeast and the Prachinburi mountains south of Nakhon Ratchasima...
has been determined by its geography, situated as it is on the Korat Plateau
Khorat Plateau
The Khorat Plateau also Korat Plateau, is a plateau in the northeastern region of Thailand, named for the short form of Nakhon Ratchasima, an historical stronghold controlling access to and from the plateau.-Geography:...
between Cambodia
Cambodia
Cambodia , officially known as the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country located in the southern portion of the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia...
, Laos
Laos
Laos Lao: ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ Sathalanalat Paxathipatai Paxaxon Lao, officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic, is a landlocked country in Southeast Asia, bordered by Burma and China to the northwest, Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the south and Thailand to the west...
and Thailand
Thailand
Thailand , officially the Kingdom of Thailand , formerly known as Siam , is a country located at the centre of the Indochina peninsula and Southeast Asia. It is bordered to the north by Burma and Laos, to the east by Laos and Cambodia, to the south by the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia, and to the...
.
The term "Isan" originally meant "invisible power", and is derived from Isanapura, the ancient capital of the northern Chenla Kingdom, established in 613
613
Year 613 was a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar. The denomination 613 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.- Europe :* Clotaire II reunites the Frankish kingdoms...
AD near modern-day Sambor Prey Kuk near Kompong Thom in central Cambodia. The name of the capital was conferred in 628
628
Year 628 was a leap year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar. The denomination 628 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.- Asia :* January – Third Perso-Turkic War: Emperor...
by its ancient Khmer-speaking king Isana Varman I (616-635AD), in dedication to the Hindu god Shiva
Shiva
Shiva is a major Hindu deity, and is the destroyer god or transformer among the Trimurti, the Hindu Trinity of the primary aspects of the divine. God Shiva is a yogi who has notice of everything that happens in the world and is the main aspect of life. Yet one with great power lives a life of a...
, to whom he erected a statue following his victory over the kingdom of Funan, to which the kingdom of Chenla had been vassal
Vassal
A vassal or feudatory is a person who has entered into a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. The obligations often included military support and mutual protection, in exchange for certain privileges, usually including the grant of land held...
s.
Siam's King Rama VI reinvoked the ancient name, designating the northeast sector of the Kingdom of Siam as Isan. Previously, in the reign of Rama V in early twentieth century, the sector was generally called Hua Muang Lao for the area north of Nakhon Ratchasima
Nakhon Ratchasima
Nakhon Ratchasima or is a city in the north-east of Thailand and gateway to Isan. It is the capital of the Nakhon Ratchasima Province and Nakhon Ratchasima district...
(Korat,} and Khamen Pa Dong for the townships to the east. Later the term Isan came into wide. if unofficial, use as a term for the Northeastern Region, and Khon Isan as a general term for the peoples of Isan.
Isan has been dominated by each of its neighbors in turn, although its relative infertility meant it was more often a battleground than a prize. Rather than being incorporated into the respective empires of each power, the area was divided into meuang or statelets, each paying tribute
Tribute
A tribute is wealth, often in kind, that one party gives to another as a sign of respect or, as was often the case in historical contexts, of submission or allegiance. Various ancient states, which could be called suzerains, exacted tribute from areas they had conquered or threatened to conquer...
to one or more powers under the mandala system
Mandala (Southeast Asian history)
Mandala is a Sanskrit word that means "circle". The mandala is a model for describing the patterns of diffuse political power in early Southeast Asian history when local power was more important...
.
Throughout the 20th century, the Thai government took steps to cement Isan's status as a part of Thailand and to de-emphasize the Lao
Lao people
The Lao are an ethnic subgroup of Tai/Dai in Southeast Asia.-Names:The etymology of the word Lao is uncertain, although it may be related to tribes known as the Ai Lao who appear in Han Dynasty records in China and Vietnam as a people of what is now Yunan Province...
, Khmer
Khmer people
Khmer people are the predominant ethnic group in Cambodia, accounting for approximately 90% of the 14.8 million people in the country. They speak the Khmer language, which is part of the larger Mon–Khmer language family found throughout Southeast Asia...
. and Kuy origins of its population: a process known as "Thaification
Thaification
Thaification is the process by which people of different cultural and ethnic origins living in Thailand become assimilated to the dominant Thai culture, or more precisely, to the culture of the Central Thais...
" by some scholars.
The majority of people in present-day Isan are Lao-speaking; many Khmer-speakers live in the southern part; and substantial minorities of Katuic (i.e. Kuy, Bru, and So) speakers also exist. Most Isan people are both conversant and to some degree literate in Thai.
Prehistory
Four Homo erectusHomo erectus
Homo erectus is an extinct species of hominid that lived from the end of the Pliocene epoch to the later Pleistocene, about . The species originated in Africa and spread as far as India, China and Java. There is still disagreement on the subject of the classification, ancestry, and progeny of H...
fossil
Fossil
Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of animals , plants, and other organisms from the remote past...
skull fragments found in northern Thailand's Hat Pudui cave (Ko Kha District, Lampang Province) by Thai paleontologists Somsak Pramankij and Vadhana Subhavanin, were in deposits dating from the mid-Pleistocene era, which was before the Khorat Plateau had uplifted from an extensive plain. Professor Phillip V. Tobias
Phillip V. Tobias
Phillip Vallentine Tobias is a South African palaeoanthropologist and Professor Emeritus at the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg...
of Johannesburg's University of the Witwatersrand
University of the Witwatersrand
The University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg is a South African university situated in the northern areas of central Johannesburg. It is more commonly known as Wits University...
examined the fragments and said: "It seems unavoidable but to conclude that Thailand must have been a highway or crossroads in the movement of hominids — members of the family of man."
Pha Taem
Pha Taem
Pha Taem is a national park in the Ubon Ratchathani province of Isan, Thailand. It is notable for extensive rock art on cliffs above the Mekong river. The art is estimated to be 3000 years old...
cliff painting
Prehistoric art
In the history of art, prehistoric art is all art produced in preliterate, prehistorical cultures beginning somewhere in very late geological history, and generally continuing until that culture either develops writing or other methods of record-keeping, or it makes significant contact with another...
s alongside the Mekong
Mekong
The Mekong is a river that runs through China, Burma, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam. It is the world's 10th-longest river and the 7th-longest in Asia. Its estimated length is , and it drains an area of , discharging of water annually....
in Udon Thani Province
Udon Thani Province
Udon Thani is one of the north-eastern provinces of Thailand. Neighboring provinces are Nong Khai, Sakon Nakhon, Kalasin, Khon Kaen, Nong Bua Lamphu and Loei.- Geography :...
date to around 1500 BC. They are younger than but similar in composition to the Rock Paintings of Hua Mountain
Rock Paintings of Hua Mountain
The Rock Paintings of Hua Mountain are an extensive assembly of historical rock art that were painted on limestone cliff faces in Guangxi, southern China over a period of several hundred years at least. The paintings are located on the west bank of the Ming River which is a tributary of the Zuo...
in southern China, which are attributed to the Luoyue people of what is today the lowland plains of northern Vietnam, particularly the marshy, agriculturally rich area of the Red River Delta, and particularly associated with the Bronze Age
Bronze Age
The Bronze Age is a period characterized by the use of copper and its alloy bronze as the chief hard materials in the manufacture of some implements and weapons. Chronologically, it stands between the Stone Age and Iron Age...
Đông Sơn culture of mainland Southeast Asia.
Ban Chiang
Ban Chiang is an archeological site located in Nong Han district, Udon Thani Province, Thailand. It has been on the UNESCO world heritage list since 1992....
archaeological site
Archaeological site
An archaeological site is a place in which evidence of past activity is preserved , and which has been, or may be, investigated using the discipline of archaeology and represents a part of the archaeological record.Beyond this, the definition and geographical extent of a 'site' can vary widely,...
, dating from around 3000 BC to 300 AD, attracted attention in 1966 as seemingly the world's oldest site showing traces of a Bronze Age culture, due to errors in dating. In Fine Arts, the site is remarkable for its pottery; further investigation into ancient skeletal remains raised serious questions about transitions to sedentism
Sedentism
In evolutionary anthropology and archaeology, sedentism , is a term applied to the transition from nomadic to permanent, year-round settlement.- Requirements for permanent settlements :...
and intensified agriculture
Agriculture
Agriculture is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi and other life forms for food, fiber, and other products used to sustain life. Agriculture was the key implement in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the...
. The question as to why the site was abandoned until resettled by 19th–century Lao émigrés remains to be settled. The Bronze Age site of Ban Non Wat
Ban Non Wat
Ban Non Wat is a village in central Thailand, in the Non Sung district, Nakhon Ratchasima Province, located near the small city of Phimai. It has been the subject of recent excavation of what are thought to be late neolithic and early bronze age burials...
in the southeast of the plateau is also under investigation (2002–present.)
Early history
Charles F Keyes in 1974 wrote:The first major civilisation to occupy Isan was considered, by the study of artifacts, under the Dvaravati
Dvaravati
The Dvaravati period lasted from the 6th to the 13th centuries. Dvaravati refers to both a culture and a disparate conglomerate of principalities.- History :...
culture. The remains of walled and moated towns scattered the region, in the valleys of Chi and Mun river
Mun River
The Mun River , sometimes spelled Moon River, is a tributary of the Mekong river. It carries approximately 21,000 cubic kilometres of water per year.-Geography:...
s. The remains often show the Buddhist and Hinduist influence, perhaps expanding from the western part or the coastal and the Chao Phraya river
Chao Phraya River
The Chao Phraya is a major river in Thailand, with its low alluvial plain forming the centre of the country. It runs through Bangkok, the capital city, and then empties into the Gulf of Thailand.-Etymology:...
basin.
Khmer Domination
From the 11th century, the DvaravatiDvaravati
The Dvaravati period lasted from the 6th to the 13th centuries. Dvaravati refers to both a culture and a disparate conglomerate of principalities.- History :...
/Mon
Mon people
The Mon are an ethnic group from Burma , living mostly in Mon State, Bago Division, the Irrawaddy Delta, and along the southern Thai–Burmese border. One of the earliest peoples to reside in Southeast Asia, the Mon were responsible for the spread of Theravada Buddhism in Burma and Thailand...
culture from Chao Phraya River basin was gradually displaced by the Khmer Empire
Khmer Empire
The Khmer Empire was one of the most powerful empires in Southeast Asia. The empire, which grew out of the former kingdom of Chenla, at times ruled over and/or vassalized parts of modern-day Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, Burma, and Malaysia. Its greatest legacy is Angkor, the site of the capital city...
of Angkor
Angkor
Angkor is a region of Cambodia that served as the seat of the Khmer Empire, which flourished from approximately the 9th to 15th centuries. The word Angkor is derived from the Sanskrit nagara , meaning "city"...
. Many principal centers became Angkor's tributary kingdom
Tributary state
The term tributary state refers to one of the two main ways in which a pre-modern state might be subordinate to a more powerful neighbour. The heart of the relationship was that the tributary would send a regular token of submission to the superior power...
s. Consequently, a number of temples influenced by ancient Khmer art were found in Isan, most notably in southern part, at Phanom Rung and Phimai
Phimai historical park
The Phimai historical park protects one of the most important Khmer temples of Thailand. It is located in the town of Phimai, Nakhon Ratchasima province....
, which lie on the so-called Ancient Khmer Highway
Ancient Khmer Highway
The Ancient Khmer Highway was a 225 km roadway going northwest between Angkor and Phimai . While it was not the only such road built by the Khmer, it was the most important one....
, the direct link to Angkor
Angkor
Angkor is a region of Cambodia that served as the seat of the Khmer Empire, which flourished from approximately the 9th to 15th centuries. The word Angkor is derived from the Sanskrit nagara , meaning "city"...
. Inscriptions found also told the connections between vassal
Vassal
A vassal or feudatory is a person who has entered into a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. The obligations often included military support and mutual protection, in exchange for certain privileges, usually including the grant of land held...
towns and the court of Angkor.
Sukhothai and Ayutthaya
The Sukhothai KingdomSukhothai kingdom
The Sukhothai Kingdom ) was an early kingdom in the area around the city Sukhothai, in north central Thailand. The Kingdom existed from 1238 till 1438...
broke free from the Angkor Empire around the thirteenth century. Although Isan is not thought to have been a part of the Sukhothai kingdom due to the lack of clear evidence, the Khmer empire became weaker and retreated to its Cambodian heartlands, leaving Isan in the hands of fragmented muang city-state
City-state
A city-state is an independent or autonomous entity whose territory consists of a city which is not administered as a part of another local government.-Historical city-states:...
s or statelets. However, many Khmer-speaking
Khmer language
Khmer , or Cambodian, is the language of the Khmer people and the official language of Cambodia. It is the second most widely spoken Austroasiatic language , with speakers in the tens of millions. Khmer has been considerably influenced by Sanskrit and Pali, especially in the royal and religious...
people remained and are still a prominent fixture in the southern area, constituting the majority in present-day southern part of the region such as in present day Surin Province
Surin Province
Surin is one of the north-eastern provinces of Thailand. Neighboring provinces are Buriram, Maha Sarakham, Roi Et and Sisaket...
, Buriram Province
Buriram Province
Buri Ram or is one of the north-eastern provinces of Thailand. Neighboring provinces are Sa Kaeo, Nakhon Ratchasima, Khon Kaen, Maha Sarakham and Surin. To the south-east it borders Oddar Meancheay of Cambodia...
and are also numerous in part of Sisaket Province
Sisaket Province
Sisaket , is one of the north-eastern provinces of Thailand. Neighboring provinces are Surin, Roi Et, Yasothon and Ubon Ratchathani. To the south it borders Oddar Meancheay and Preah Vihear of Cambodia.-Geography:...
.
However, the history of Isan from the period of the retreat of Khmer empire to the end of the eighteenth century largely remained 'silent'. No details about communities in Isan were mentioned in contemporary sources, such as Ayutthaya's Chronicles
Chronicles
Chronicles may refer to:* Books of Chronicles, in the Bible* Chronicle: Medieval historical histories, like those in :Category:Chronicles* Holinshed's Chronicles, the collected works of Raphael Holinshed...
or Codes. Apparently Ayutthaya limited its influence in Nakhon Ratchasima
Nakhon Ratchasima
Nakhon Ratchasima or is a city in the north-east of Thailand and gateway to Isan. It is the capital of the Nakhon Ratchasima Province and Nakhon Ratchasima district...
which was founded in the seventeenth century, and thought the frontier's stronghold of Ayutthaya Kingdom in the east.
Lan Xang
When the Lao kingdom of Lan XangLan Xang
The Lao kingdom of Lan Xang Hom Kao was established in 1354 by Fa Ngum.Exiled as an infant to Cambodia, Prince Fa Ngum of Xieng Dong Xieng Thong married a daughter of the Khmer king. In 1349 he set out from Angkor at the head of a 10,000-man army to establish his own country...
(Lan Chang) was established in Luang Prabang
Luang Prabang
Luang Prabang, or Louangphrabang , is a city located in north central Laos, where the Nam Khan river meets the Mekong River about north of Vientiane. It is the capital of Luang Prabang Province...
in the fourteenth century by Fa Ngum
Fa Ngum
Somdetch Brhat-Anya Fa Ladhuraniya Sri Sadhana Kanayudha Maharaja Brhat Rajadharana Sri Chudhana Negara better known as Fa Ngum established the Lao kingdom of Lan Xang in 1354....
, with help from the Khmers. The kingdom's name means Million Elephants, echoing the name of the neighboring northern kingdom of Lanna
Lanna
The Kingdom of Lanna was a kingdom centered in present-day northern Thailand from the 13th to 18th centuries. The cultural development of the people of Lanna, the Tai Yuan people, had begun long before as successive Tai Yuan kingdoms preceded Lanna...
, Million Fields. Lan Xang was to provide Isan with much of its later population. As the Khmer empire continued to retreat under pressure from the Thai kingdom of Ayutthaya
Ayutthaya kingdom
Ayutthaya was a Siamese kingdom that existed from 1350 to 1767. Ayutthaya was friendly towards foreign traders, including the Chinese, Vietnamese , Indians, Japanese and Persians, and later the Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch and French, permitting them to set up villages outside the walls of the...
, Lan Xang was able to expand its influence in Isan. Lao settlers might gradually moved across the Mekong into northern Isan between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries. However no clear evidence suggests any significant settlement in hinterland Isan during this period. Ayutthaya which arose as a major power from the late fourteenth century, limited its border only at Nakhon Ratchasima
Nakhon Ratchasima
Nakhon Ratchasima or is a city in the north-east of Thailand and gateway to Isan. It is the capital of the Nakhon Ratchasima Province and Nakhon Ratchasima district...
and Phimai
Phimai
Phimai is a township in the Nakhon Ratchasima Province in the northeast of Thailand. The town is located at . As of 2005 the town has a population of 9,768...
.
Siam
This new power vacuum was filled by the newly founded SiamSiam (disambiguation)
Siam is an exonym that was used as the name of Thailand before 24 June 1939 and again from 8 September 1945 to 20 July 1949; see History of Thailand...
ese kingdoms, Thonburi
Thonburi Kingdom
Thon Buri was the capital of Siam for a short time during the reign of King Taksin the Great, after the ruin of capital Ayutthaya by the Burmese. King Rama I removed the capital to Bangkok on the other side of the Chao Phraya River in 1782...
and Bangkok, following the fall of Ayutthaya
Ayutthaya kingdom
Ayutthaya was a Siamese kingdom that existed from 1350 to 1767. Ayutthaya was friendly towards foreign traders, including the Chinese, Vietnamese , Indians, Japanese and Persians, and later the Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch and French, permitting them to set up villages outside the walls of the...
to the Burmese. Isan area and Laos were divided into a series of muang with varying degrees of autonomy
Autonomy
Autonomy is a concept found in moral, political and bioethical philosophy. Within these contexts, it is the capacity of a rational individual to make an informed, un-coerced decision...
, but each paying tribute
Tribute
A tribute is wealth, often in kind, that one party gives to another as a sign of respect or, as was often the case in historical contexts, of submission or allegiance. Various ancient states, which could be called suzerains, exacted tribute from areas they had conquered or threatened to conquer...
to Siam.
With the rise of King Taksin
Taksin
Taksin ; was the only King of the Thonburi Kingdom...
, Siam began, perhaps for the first time, expanding its 'direct' control to the region. Siam forces invaded and took control of Luang Prabang
Luang Prabang
Luang Prabang, or Louangphrabang , is a city located in north central Laos, where the Nam Khan river meets the Mekong River about north of Vientiane. It is the capital of Luang Prabang Province...
and Vientiane
Vientiane
-Geography:Vientiane is situated on a bend of the Mekong river, which forms the border with Thailand at this point.-Climate:Vientiane features a tropical wet and dry climate with a distinct monsoon season and a dry season. Vientiane’s dry season spans from November through March. April marks the...
kingdoms. Isan region were brought under more severe control of Siam.
During late eighteenth century to early nineteenth century, there was also struggle between the three Lao kingdoms of Luang Prabang
Luang Prabang
Luang Prabang, or Louangphrabang , is a city located in north central Laos, where the Nam Khan river meets the Mekong River about north of Vientiane. It is the capital of Luang Prabang Province...
, Vientiane
Vientiane
-Geography:Vientiane is situated on a bend of the Mekong river, which forms the border with Thailand at this point.-Climate:Vientiane features a tropical wet and dry climate with a distinct monsoon season and a dry season. Vientiane’s dry season spans from November through March. April marks the...
and the newly founded Champassak. The 'losers' and 'dissidents' began migrating or taking refuge into the area of Isan
Isan
Isan is the northeastern region of Thailand. It is located on the Khorat Plateau, bordered by the Mekong River to the north and east, by Cambodia to the southeast and the Prachinburi mountains south of Nakhon Ratchasima...
. Most of them recognized the superior status of Siam. The local leaders were granted 'fiefdom
Fiefdom
A fee was the central element of feudalism and consisted of heritable lands granted under one of several varieties of feudal tenure by an overlord to a vassal who held it in fealty in return for a form of feudal allegiance and service, usually given by the...
' and title of 'governor', having full right of ruling over their towns. Thus, they eventually became the subjects of Siamese royal court in Bangkok. New towns were founded such as Chaiyaphum
Chaiyaphum
Chaiyaphum ) is a town in Northeastern Thailand, capital of Chaiyaphum province. As of 2006 it has a population of 37,490, and covers the full tambon Nai Mueang of Mueang Chaiyaphum district.-External links:...
, Udon Thani
Udon Thani
Udon Thani is a city in Isan, north-east Thailand, and the capital of Udon Thani Province.-Location:The province of Udon Thani has a population of 1,467.200, the city alone 500.000. Geographical location and is approximately 560 km from Bangkok...
, Khon Kaen
Khon Kaen
Khon Kaen is a city in Isan, Thailand. It is also the capital of Khon Kaen province and the Khon Kaen district.-Geography and demography:Khon Kaen is located in the Khorat Plateau, in the central-northwestern area of Isaan...
and Ubon Ratchathani
Ubon Ratchathani
Ubon Ratchathani is a city on the Mun River in the south-east of the Isan region of Thailand. It is known as Ubon for short. The name means "Royal Lotus City." The provincial seal features a pond with a lotus flower and leaves in a circular frame. Ubon is the administrative centre of Ubon...
, along with many minor towns such as Han Chai Cham Na.
Korat
Korats are a slate blue-grey shorthair domestic cat with a small to medium build and a low percentage of body fat. Their bodies are semi-cobby, and surprisingly heavy for their size. They are intelligent, playful, active cats and form strong bonds with people. Among Korats' distinguishing...
, he was defeated and died in a cage; the victor then brought his army to rest in Yasothon where he raised a memorial. The defeat of Anu's revolt was followed by forced migration
Forced migration
Forced migration refers to the coerced movement of a person or persons away from their home or home region...
s from defeated Lao kingdoms to Isan, further increasing the dominance of Lao culture in the region but weakening the muang of modern-day Laos. According to traditional rule
Mandala (Southeast Asian history)
Mandala is a Sanskrit word that means "circle". The mandala is a model for describing the patterns of diffuse political power in early Southeast Asian history when local power was more important...
, the governors of these new towns were semi-autonomous. They had right to rule, to tax their own subject, part of which might be transferred to Bangkok periodically. If time of war, these local rulers had a duty to send troops to defend Siam.
Following defeat in the Franco-Siamese War, Siam ceded Luang Prabang and Champasak to France in 1893 and 1904. Isan became the kingdom's north-east frontier as the 'buffer zone' between French Indochina
French Indochina
French Indochina was part of the French colonial empire in southeast Asia. A federation of the three Vietnamese regions, Tonkin , Annam , and Cochinchina , as well as Cambodia, was formed in 1887....
and Siam, with Siam becoming a 'buffer zone' between Briton and France with the Entente cordiale
Entente Cordiale
The Entente Cordiale was a series of agreements signed on 8 April 1904 between the United Kingdom and the French Republic. Beyond the immediate concerns of colonial expansion addressed by the agreement, the signing of the Entente Cordiale marked the end of almost a millennium of intermittent...
. Thus began the process of annexation of Isan area into the modern Siamese nation.
Prince Damrong Rajanubhab
Damrong Rajanubhab
Ditsawarakuman Damrong Rajanubhab was the founder of the modern Thai education system as well as the modern provincial administration...
as the new Minister of Interior
Ministry of Interior (Thailand)
The Ministry of Interior of the Kingdom of Thailand is an important Cabinet-level department in the Government of Thailand. The Ministry is given wide ranging responsibilities over many aspects...
(1892,) introduced the Monthon
Monthon
A monthon |]], literally "circle") was a country subdivision of Thailand in the beginning of the 20th century. The Thai word 'monthon' is a translation of the word Mandala. These were created as a part of the thesaphiban bureaucratic administrative system, introduced by Prince Damrong Rajanubhab...
administration system known as thesaphiban ( - literally, control over territory) - officially adopted by the 1897 Local Administration Act, which transferred much power from the traditional provincial governors drawn from the local nobility to the newly established monthon commissioners and civil servants (รองอำมาตย์ - court support) appointed by Bangkok
Bangkok
Bangkok is the capital and largest urban area city in Thailand. It is known in Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon or simply Krung Thep , meaning "city of angels." The full name of Bangkok is Krung Thep Mahanakhon Amon Rattanakosin Mahintharayutthaya Mahadilok Phop Noppharat Ratchathani Burirom...
. In 1902, local revolts broke out in Isan, often led by charismatic religious leaders called ) or Holy man). One of the most serious of these rebellions recalled the resistance toThonburi authority by the monk Chao Phra Faang, 1768–1770. A former monk and Phu Mi Bun in the Ubon Ratchathani area headed a millenarian sect inspired by his predictions of 'apocalyptic' vision. His apocalyptic prophecy created panic among almost all of the Isan people until the Bangkok government eventually crushed it.
From the 20th century onwards, Siam gradually consolidated its control over Isan through a programme of "Thaification
Thaification
Thaification is the process by which people of different cultural and ethnic origins living in Thailand become assimilated to the dominant Thai culture, or more precisely, to the culture of the Central Thais...
". The introduction of a national school system in the 1920s replaced instruction by monk
Monk
A monk is a person who practices religious asceticism, living either alone or with any number of monks, while always maintaining some degree of physical separation from those not sharing the same purpose...
s in the Isan Lao language with teaching in the Thai language only. Radio and television, when they began, also broadcast in Thai. They included (and still do) twice daily broadcasts of the national anthem
Phleng Chat
The national anthem of Thailand was adopted on 10 December 1939. The melody was composed by Phra Jenduriyang and the words are by Luang Saranuprapan. Phleng Chat , literally meaning "national anthem", is a general word for national anthem...
.
Even after the Revolution in 1932, which the democratic rule started, Isan had been ignored from newly 'democratic' Thai government. Most of the region was underdeveloped. Apparently new or necessary infrastructure were hardly built. Albeit the biggest part of Thailand, until now, there are still only two railways in the region and most of modern paved roads were built in the sixties and seventies.
Communism
In the latter half of the 20th century, Isan was perceived by the Thai government as a potential breeding ground for CommunismCommunism
Communism is a social, political and economic ideology that aims at the establishment of a classless, moneyless, revolutionary and stateless socialist society structured upon common ownership of the means of production...
. The region's poverty, special history, remoteness and inaccessible terrain all contributed to this fear.
Inevitably, the extent to which Communist insurgents were a real threat in Isan is hard to determine. It is known that there were a number of political attacks from the 1960s onwards, and that Communist activists and equipment entered the region from Laos. On the other hand, the number of guerrillas probably never exceeded a few thousand, and the combination of action by the security forces and the offers of amnesties had largely ended the threat by the early 1980s.
US bases
The fight against Communism persuaded the government to allow the establishment of a number of US bases in Isan, notably in the provinces of Nakhon RatchasimaKorat Royal Thai Air Force Base
Korat Royal Thai Air Force Base is a base of the Royal Thai Air Force. It is located in northeast Thailand, located approximately 157 miles northeast of Bangkok and about 5 miles south of Nakhon Ratchasima , the second largest city in Thailand.During the Vietnam War, Korat RTAFB was the...
, Nakhon Phanom, Udon Thani
Udorn Royal Thai Air Force Base
Udorn Royal Thai Air Force Base is a Royal Thai Air Force base, the home of 2nd Air Division/23rd Wing Air Combat Command.The 231 Squadron "Hunter" is assigned to Udorn, equipped with the Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet-A.-History:...
, Nakhon Sawan
Takhli Royal Thai Air Force Base
Takhli Royal Thai Air Force Base is a Royal Thai Air Force facility. It is located in Central Thailand, approximately 144 miles northwest of Bangkok in Takhli district, Nakhon Sawan Province, near the city of Nakhon Sawan.- Units :...
and Ubon Ratchathani
Ubon Royal Thai Air Force Base
Ubon Royal Thai Air Force Base is a Royal Thai Air Force facility and is the home of Wing 21 of the RTAF 2nd Air Division. It is located in East-Central Thailand, near the city of Ubon Ratchathani, in the Ubon Ratchathani Province. It is approximately 305 miles North-East of Bangkok...
. Although the bases were directed at Communists in Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam
Vietnam
Vietnam – sometimes spelled Viet Nam , officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam – is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by China to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea –...
, they had an indirect effect in promoting development and opposing Communism in Isan. The bases required the creation of improved transport links, facilitating the integration of Isan with the rest of Thailand. The most important of these was Highway 2 named the Mittraphap Road (Friendship Highway,) which links with Bangkok and the eastern seaboard. and other northeast highways that being with the numeral 2, which link the region's major cities with each other. These remain Isan's primary road links, with many later to be incorporated into the 21st-century Asian Highway Network
Asian Highway Network
The Asian Highway project, also known as the Great Asian Highway, is a cooperative project among countries in Asia and Europe and the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific , to improve the highway systems in Asia...
. Complemented by Thai government programs to build minor roads, these projects did much to bind rural Isan more closely to the cities and to Bangkok.
The number of US servicemen reached its peak in 1969 at 50,000 http://www.aznet.net/~rmyers/Chapt3.htm#_ftn8. This influx of US personnel also had a direct effect in exposing the region to western culture. This helped to promote the development of the region, but it also created a sizable sex industry
Prostitution in Thailand
Prostitution in Thailand is illegal, although in practice it is tolerated and partly regulated. Prostitution is practised openly throughout the country. Local officials with commercial interests in prostitution often protect the practice. The precise number of prostitutes is difficult to assess;...
in the vicinity of the bases. Finally, the US military presence contributed substantial sums of money to the area's economy, with emigrant-spouses who accompanied American servicemen continuing to send substantial sums home. The bases were closed at the end of the Vietnam War
Vietnam War
The Vietnam War was a Cold War-era military conflict that occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. This war followed the First Indochina War and was fought between North Vietnam, supported by its communist allies, and the government of...
in 1975.
Development
The Thai government promoted development in Isan as one weapon in the fight against Communism. In particular, Field Marshal Sarit DhanarajataSarit Dhanarajata
Field Marshal Sarit Thanarat , was a Thai career soldier who staged a coup in 1957, thereafter serving as Thailand's Prime Minister until his death in 1963. He was born in Bangkok, but grew up in his mother's home town in Lao-speaking northeastern Thailand and considered himself a northeasterner...
, who took control of the country in 1958, was a native of Isan and promoted a number of development projects there.
From the 1960s onwards, the government launched a string of development programmes aimed wholly or in part at Isan. These began with a five year development plan announced in 1961 and backed by US aid. The program's "top down" approach was satirized in a country song still being sung decades later. An Accelerated Rural Development Programme followed in 1964, again with US support. This was administered by provincial governors in the hope of circumventing the inefficiencies of central government, but it could not evade the problems of bureaucracy, corruption and a conservative mindset which hampered all development efforts.
1960s projects to introduce improved crop
Agriculture
Agriculture is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi and other life forms for food, fiber, and other products used to sustain life. Agriculture was the key implement in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the...
strains have been criticised for forcing farmers to take out loans to pay for the seed
Seed
A seed is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat, usually with some stored food. It is the product of the ripened ovule of gymnosperm and angiosperm plants which occurs after fertilization and some growth within the mother plant...
, fertiliser and equipment required, while reducing genetic diversity
Genetic diversity
Genetic diversity, the level of biodiversity, refers to the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species. It is distinguished from genetic variability, which describes the tendency of genetic characteristics to vary....
. Even in the 1970s, government per capita spending on rural assistance programmes was lower in Isan than anywhere else in Thailand http://www.aznet.net/~rmyers/Chapt3.htm#_ftn35.
Nevertheless, much was achieved: Mobile Rural Development Units focusing on health education
Health education
Health education is the profession of educating people about health. Areas within this profession encompass environmental health, physical health, social health, emotional health, intellectual health, and spiritual health...
trained about 1000 field workers per year in the late 1960s; hydroelectric schemes such as Nam Pong/Ubon Ratana power station
Power station
A power station is an industrial facility for the generation of electric energy....
in Khon Kaen and Lam Pao in Kalasin provided electricity
Electricity
Electricity is a general term encompassing a variety of phenomena resulting from the presence and flow of electric charge. These include many easily recognizable phenomena, such as lightning, static electricity, and the flow of electrical current in an electrical wire...
; modern toilet
Toilet
A toilet is a sanitation fixture used primarily for the disposal of human excrement, often found in a small room referred to as a toilet/bathroom/lavatory...
s were distributed; government rice purchase programmes maintained prices.
Education efforts increased the proportion of children attending high school
High school
High school is a term used in parts of the English speaking world to describe institutions which provide all or part of secondary education. The term is often incorporated into the name of such institutions....
from 4.4% in 1970 to 80% by 2000. Universities were established beginning with Khon Kaen University
Khon Kaen University
Khon Kaen University is an internationally-recognized university in Asia. It is located in the Isan region of Thailand. The university is a central hub of education in north-east Thailand.-History:...
in 1964, soon followed by Mahasarakham University
Mahasarakham University
Mahasarakham University is a public university located in the province of Maha Sarakham in the northeast region of Thailand. Currently, the university has two main campuses, one on the outskirts of Mahasarakham province and another at Kamrieng district about 8 kilometres away on the Kalasin road...
and Suranee University of Technology.
Recent history
An important political issue at the end of the 20th century was the construction of the Pak Mun damPak Mun dam
The Pak Mun Dam is a gravity dam located 5.5 km west of the confluence of the Mun and Mekong rivers in Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand...
in the district of Khong Chiam
Amphoe Khong Chiam
Khong Chiam is the easternmost district of Ubon Ratchathani Province of Thailand.-History:The area of the district was the central district Khwaeng of Mueang Khong Chiam, which is now Si Mueang Mai district...
, in Ubon Ratchathani Province
Ubon Ratchathani Province
-History:The area was part of the Khmer Empire. Before the late eighteenth century, this area evidently was outside Siamese or Thai Ayutthaya Kingdom....
. The project was completed in 1994, flooding 117 square kilometres of land and displacing around 3000 families. The project has been criticised for insufficient compensation payments, adverse effects on the fisheries of the Mun River
Mun River
The Mun River , sometimes spelled Moon River, is a tributary of the Mekong river. It carries approximately 21,000 cubic kilometres of water per year.-Geography:...
, and failure to produce the projected power output.
Protesters against the Pak Mun dam joined with other grassroots activists in 1995 to form the Assembly of the Poor
Assembly of the Poor
Thai: สมัชชาคนจน) is a non-governmental organization in Thailand. Its aim is to help those affected by development projects and industries to become involved inthe process of development, so that they benefit from those projects.-Thailand: Assembly of the Poor:...
, a group seeking to promote the involvement of the poor in decision-making processes, and to have their interests taken into account. The group has organised a number of protests against the project in Bangkok. The now deposed prime minister, Thaksin Shinawatra
Thaksin Shinawatra
Thaksin Shinawatra is a Thai businessman and politician, who was Prime Minister of Thailand from 2001 to 2006, when he was overthrown in a military coup....
, responded by claiming that activists NGO
Non-governmental organization
A non-governmental organization is a legally constituted organization created by natural or legal persons that operates independently from any government. The term originated from the United Nations , and is normally used to refer to organizations that do not form part of the government and are...
Living River Siam
Living River Siam
Living River Siam is a Thai non-governmental organization which analyzes the impact of Thailand's various dam projects and coordinates the research of indigenous peoples to give Thai villagers the power to document the influence of local rivers and dams...
are trouble-makers who do not reflect the opinions of ordinary people. The same issue arose with the Rasi Salai Dam
Rasi Salai Dam
The Rasi Salai Dam is a dam in Amphoe Rasi Salai that was in use from 1994 to 2000. It was constructed by Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand with assistance from the World Bank, despite local protest. Living River Siam, an NGO, helped Thai villagers document the effects of the dam on...
in Sisaket Province
Sisaket Province
Sisaket , is one of the north-eastern provinces of Thailand. Neighboring provinces are Surin, Roi Et, Yasothon and Ubon Ratchathani. To the south it borders Oddar Meancheay and Preah Vihear of Cambodia.-Geography:...
, which was also completed in 1994 for the generation of electricity; it was abandoned for that purpose in 2000 and converted into a recreation area
Recreation area
A recreation area is a type of protected area designated in some jurisdictions. In the United States, National Recreation Areas are administered by several different agencies. They typically do not meet the strict guidelines to become national parks. In U.S...
.
A longer lasting political issue in Isan, however, has been the ability of political parties, notably closely affiliated with or part of, the populist traditional leadership in the area, including Thailand's old generals, to sway the electorate to vote for them en masses, often by buying votes but more effectively by delegating vote buying to a select few representatives. Isan's electorate are not widely attuned to the clash between their interests and the vested interests of those they vote into office.
See also
- Peopling of LaosPeopling of LaosThe Peopling of Laos refers to the process by which the ethnic groups that comprise the population of present-day Laos came to inhabit the region...
- Decline of Angkor & the Emergence of a Theravada Kingdom (section}
- Khorat PlateauKhorat PlateauThe Khorat Plateau also Korat Plateau, is a plateau in the northeastern region of Thailand, named for the short form of Nakhon Ratchasima, an historical stronghold controlling access to and from the plateau.-Geography:...
(Geography, Geology and Archeology sections) - Nang Ai, Phadaeng, and Phangkhi (section)
External links
- Isan: The People and Region of Northeast Thailand by Ron Myers
- Isan History by Char Karnchanapee
- Origins of Angkor Archaeological Project
Additional reading
- Twentieth century impressions of Siam its history, people, commerce, industries, and resources, with which is incorporated an abridged edition of Twentieth century impressions of British Malaya. Editor in chief: Arnold Wright. Assistant editor: Oliver T. Breakspear. Published 1908 by Lloyds Greater Britain Publishing Company, Ltd. in London [etc.] Library of Congress classification: DS565.W7. Survey and map making in Siam. Open Library