Irish Race Conventions
Encyclopedia
The Irish Race Conventions were a disconnected series of convention
s held in Europe and America between 1881 and 1994. None was concerned in defining the Irish
as an ethnic race, but they were arranged to discuss some pressing or emerging political issues at the time concerning Irish Nationalism
. As such they are a notable barometer of the progress of Irish independence. The main participants and financial supporters of the conventions were usually Irish-Americans.
had visited Chicago and the American branch of the Irish National Land League
was established there. The first convention was held on 30 November - 2 December 1881, following a Clan na Gael
convention in August. It covered the recent emerging links between the more violent groups, such as the Fenian
s, the Land League and the growing Irish Home Rule movement that was led by Parnell.
, and the Home Rule movement had split over its support for Parnell. A Conservative
and Liberal Unionist
coalition was in power, both being firmly opposed to Home Rule. The main purpose of the Convention was to try to re-unite the Redmond
and Dillon
factions that had divided the Irish Parliamentary Party
in 1890.
Archbishop Walsh of Toronto
had said: "Let a great National Convention be held in Dublin, composed of chosen representatives of the clergy and people of Ireland and of an advisory representation of the Irish race abroad." John Dillon
on behalf of the INF replied: "That this party approves of the suggestion made by the Archbishop of Toronto in favour of a "National Convention representative of the Irish race throughout the world."
Pope Leo XIII
sent a blessing in Latin
: "SANCTISSIMUS, BONUM SPIRITUALE ET TEMPORALE HIBERNORUM
EXOPTANS, FINEM DISSENSIONUM PRECATUR" The convention thanked him profusely: "The Irish Race Convention begs to express its profound gratitude to the Holy Father for his most kind and salutary message, which all the delegates receive as a signal favour, and as the happiest augury of peace."
A number of practical resolutions followed, primarily on the progress of land ownership reform. Eventually the Irish Parliamentary Party did reunite in 1900, chaired by Redmond, and achieved the enactment of the Home Rule Act 1914
, but this was suspended for the duration of the First World War.
, and considered the division between the home Rule parties and the more militant nationalists. The Rising would be supported by Clan na Gael, but other members remained hopeful that the 1914 Home Rule Act
, which had been passed but suspended during World War I, might work.
A majority at the convention supported the American policy of neutrality
during the war, and were opposed to any alliance with Britain. Woodrow Wilson
won the United States presidential election, 1916
with help from Irish-Americans and his campaign slogan: "He kept us out of War".
An important result was the formation of the "Friends of Irish Freedom
" that worked as a co-ordinating body to support: ".. the independence of Ireland, the industrial development of Ireland, the use and sale of Irish products, and to revive Irish culture."
, which was opposed to British rule in Ireland, and proclaiming the loyalty of Irish-Americans to the USA. America had enacted conscription in 1917, but the Irish Conscription Crisis of 1918 had recently arisen, unifying most nationalist parties in Ireland.
In America the Hindu German Conspiracy Trial
had just ended, revealing the link between Clan na Gael and the defendants. Public relations and selecting the convention chairman were therefore unusually important. This also caused an immediate division between John Devoy
, who proposed the moderate Father Hurton, being mindful of the "hostile press", and Hanna Sheehy-Skeffington
and Jim Larkin
who proposed the more combative John Forrest Kelly
. The convention ended with an address by Judge Goff
to President Wilson which was considered to be mild and conciliatory: to take such measures as are best calculated to bring about the independence of Ireland.
in the 1918 election, the declaration in January of the Irish Republic
in Dublin, and the hope that America would support Irish participation at the forthcoming Paris peace conference
. The principle of self-determination
at article 5 in Wilson's Fourteen Points
was expected to apply to Ireland. Much mention was made of the bravery of the "Fighting 69th"
in the war. The hero of the hour was the American-born Irish republican leader Éamon de Valera
.
In the event, Irish participation at Paris was excluded, Woodrow Wilson refused his support, and in retaliation Irish pressure groups refused to vote as usual for the Democratic Party
in the United States presidential election, 1920
, partially causing Harding's
victory.
A fund-raising drive by the Friends of Irish Freedom (FOIF) to sell bonds issued by the Irish Republic eventually raised over $5m., but disputes arose over the management of the money. The FOIF was led by John Devoy and Judge Cohalan
(a judge of the New York Supreme Court
), and believed that a sophisticated and conciliatory approach would ensure the best diplomatic support for Ireland at the Paris conference. De Valera and other Irish delegates expected the FOIF to demand and secure immediate recognition by the USA of the Irish Republic. A division on policy arose, Sinn Féin tried unsuccessfully to reform the FOIF and severed mutual links in October 1920.
In turn, the FOIF President Bishop Gallagher
called de Valera a "foreign potentate", and Bishop Turner referred to him as the "Pancho Villa
of Ireland". Membership of the FOIF soon declined from over 100,000 to less than 20,000.
that had just been ratified and which divided nationalist opinion. It was held in Paris to emphasise Ireland's emerging status as an independent state to the rest of Europe. The proposed Irish Free State
was to be created in December 1922.
The Irish delegation was supposed to represent "the Irish people", but this comprised senior members of Sinn Féin who were for and against the treaty. Debate on the treaty turned on the definition of whether or not the treaty embodied Ireland's "full" right to independence. Those against the treaty said not; those in favour said it was a significant step towards full independence.
The body organising the convention was named "Fine Ghaedhail", (Transl: The children of the Gaels) which was to be made permanent and to be funded by the formative Irish government
. The Chair, Rev. Dr. O'Reilly was perplexed: "..at first he had not been able to understand how the word 'full' could be political, but he had now been enlightened by the speeches of Mr. de Valera's
supporters." Father Shanley said that Americans would still continue to help Ireland, and would send arms as before. The outcome was a rare moral victory for de Valera's anti-treaty followers; the seven-man executive committee had four of his nominees, while the pro-treaty side only had one of its candidates elected, Eoin MacNeill
.
MacNeill deplored that: ".. the undertaking obtained from Mr. de Valera that party politics should not be introduced into the Congress, and that its funds and machinery would not be applied to party purposes has already been violated in one important particular, and that the undertaking in which Mr. de Valera and his nominees went to Paris as part of the official Irish Delegation was violated by them."
was effectively a republic, and had remained neutral in World War 2
. The main issue in 1947 was to end the partition of Ireland
.
America was supporting Britain through the Marshall Aid plan, and the solution was to make this aid conditional upon the end of partition. Congressman
John E. Fogarty
was the main mover, but in the event the condition was defeated in Congress
by 206 votes to 139, with 83 abstaining. A factor that swung some votes against his motion was that Ireland had remained neutral during the world war.
of Sinn Féin as its guest speaker. The "Troubles" that had developed since 1970 in Northern Ireland
had achieved little. While outwardly trenchant and hoping for further Irish-American support, the convention helped prepare the ground for the August 1994 ceasefire, an essential step in the Northern Ireland peace process
that led on to the 1998 Belfast Agreement
.
Convention (meeting)
A convention, in the sense of a meeting, is a gathering of individuals who meet at an arranged place and time in order to discuss or engage in some common interest. The most common conventions are based upon industry, profession, and fandom...
s held in Europe and America between 1881 and 1994. None was concerned in defining the Irish
Irish people
The Irish people are an ethnic group who originate in Ireland, an island in northwestern Europe. Ireland has been populated for around 9,000 years , with the Irish people's earliest ancestors recorded having legends of being descended from groups such as the Nemedians, Fomorians, Fir Bolg, Tuatha...
as an ethnic race, but they were arranged to discuss some pressing or emerging political issues at the time concerning Irish Nationalism
Irish nationalism
Irish nationalism manifests itself in political and social movements and in sentiment inspired by a love for Irish culture, language and history, and as a sense of pride in Ireland and in the Irish people...
. As such they are a notable barometer of the progress of Irish independence. The main participants and financial supporters of the conventions were usually Irish-Americans.
Places and dates
- 1881 Chicago
- 1896 Dublin
- 1916 New York City
- 1918 New York City
- 1919 Philadelphia
- 1922 Paris
- 1947 New York City
- 1994 New York City
Chicago 1881
In 1880 Charles Stewart ParnellCharles Stewart Parnell
Charles Stewart Parnell was an Irish landowner, nationalist political leader, land reform agitator, and the founder and leader of the Irish Parliamentary Party...
had visited Chicago and the American branch of the Irish National Land League
Irish National Land League
The Irish Land League was an Irish political organization of the late 19th century which sought to help poor tenant farmers. Its primary aim was to abolish landlordism in Ireland and enable tenant farmers to own the land they worked on...
was established there. The first convention was held on 30 November - 2 December 1881, following a Clan na Gael
Clan na Gael
The Clan na Gael was an Irish republican organization in the United States in the late 19th and 20th centuries, successor to the Fenian Brotherhood and a sister organization to the Irish Republican Brotherhood...
convention in August. It covered the recent emerging links between the more violent groups, such as the Fenian
Fenian
The Fenians , both the Fenian Brotherhood and Irish Republican Brotherhood , were fraternal organisations dedicated to the establishment of an independent Irish Republic in the 19th and early 20th century. The name "Fenians" was first applied by John O'Mahony to the members of the Irish republican...
s, the Land League and the growing Irish Home Rule movement that was led by Parnell.
Dublin 1896
By 1896 two Home Rule Bills had been defeated in the London parliamentPalace of Westminster
The Palace of Westminster, also known as the Houses of Parliament or Westminster Palace, is the meeting place of the two houses of the Parliament of the United Kingdom—the House of Lords and the House of Commons...
, and the Home Rule movement had split over its support for Parnell. A Conservative
Conservative Party (UK)
The Conservative Party, formally the Conservative and Unionist Party, is a centre-right political party in the United Kingdom that adheres to the philosophies of conservatism and British unionism. It is the largest political party in the UK, and is currently the largest single party in the House...
and Liberal Unionist
Liberal Unionist Party
The Liberal Unionist Party was a British political party that was formed in 1886 by a faction that broke away from the Liberal Party. Led by Lord Hartington and Joseph Chamberlain, the party formed a political alliance with the Conservative Party in opposition to Irish Home Rule...
coalition was in power, both being firmly opposed to Home Rule. The main purpose of the Convention was to try to re-unite the Redmond
John Redmond
John Edward Redmond was an Irish nationalist politician, barrister, MP in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and leader of the Irish Parliamentary Party from 1900 to 1918...
and Dillon
Irish National Federation
The Irish National Federation was a nationalist political party in Ireland. It was founded in March 1891 by former members of the Irish National League who had left the Irish Parliamentary Party in protest when Charles Stewart Parnell refused to resign the party leadership as a result of his...
factions that had divided the Irish Parliamentary Party
Irish Parliamentary Party
The Irish Parliamentary Party was formed in 1882 by Charles Stewart Parnell, the leader of the Nationalist Party, replacing the Home Rule League, as official parliamentary party for Irish nationalist Members of Parliament elected to the House of Commons at...
in 1890.
Archbishop Walsh of Toronto
Toronto
Toronto is the provincial capital of Ontario and the largest city in Canada. It is located in Southern Ontario on the northwestern shore of Lake Ontario. A relatively modern city, Toronto's history dates back to the late-18th century, when its land was first purchased by the British monarchy from...
had said: "Let a great National Convention be held in Dublin, composed of chosen representatives of the clergy and people of Ireland and of an advisory representation of the Irish race abroad." John Dillon
John Dillon
John Dillon was an Irish land reform agitator from Dublin, an Irish Home Rule activist, a nationalist politician, a Member of Parliament for over 35 years, and the last leader of the Irish Parliamentary Party....
on behalf of the INF replied: "That this party approves of the suggestion made by the Archbishop of Toronto in favour of a "National Convention representative of the Irish race throughout the world."
Pope Leo XIII
Pope Leo XIII
Pope Leo XIII , born Vincenzo Gioacchino Raffaele Luigi Pecci to an Italian comital family, was the 256th Pope of the Roman Catholic Church, reigning from 1878 to 1903...
sent a blessing in Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
: "SANCTISSIMUS, BONUM SPIRITUALE ET TEMPORALE HIBERNORUM
EXOPTANS, FINEM DISSENSIONUM PRECATUR" The convention thanked him profusely: "The Irish Race Convention begs to express its profound gratitude to the Holy Father for his most kind and salutary message, which all the delegates receive as a signal favour, and as the happiest augury of peace."
A number of practical resolutions followed, primarily on the progress of land ownership reform. Eventually the Irish Parliamentary Party did reunite in 1900, chaired by Redmond, and achieved the enactment of the Home Rule Act 1914
Home Rule Act 1914
The Government of Ireland Act 1914 , also known as the Third Home Rule Bill, was an Act passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom intended to provide self-government for Ireland within the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.The Act was the first law ever passed by the Parliament of...
, but this was suspended for the duration of the First World War.
New York City 1916
The 1916 convention, comprising 2,300 delegates at the Hotel Astor, was held six weeks before the Easter RisingEaster Rising
The Easter Rising was an insurrection staged in Ireland during Easter Week, 1916. The Rising was mounted by Irish republicans with the aims of ending British rule in Ireland and establishing the Irish Republic at a time when the British Empire was heavily engaged in the First World War...
, and considered the division between the home Rule parties and the more militant nationalists. The Rising would be supported by Clan na Gael, but other members remained hopeful that the 1914 Home Rule Act
Home Rule Act 1914
The Government of Ireland Act 1914 , also known as the Third Home Rule Bill, was an Act passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom intended to provide self-government for Ireland within the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.The Act was the first law ever passed by the Parliament of...
, which had been passed but suspended during World War I, might work.
A majority at the convention supported the American policy of neutrality
Neutrality (international relations)
A neutral power in a particular war is a sovereign state which declares itself to be neutral towards the belligerents. A non-belligerent state does not need to be neutral. The rights and duties of a neutral power are defined in Sections 5 and 13 of the Hague Convention of 1907...
during the war, and were opposed to any alliance with Britain. Woodrow Wilson
Woodrow Wilson
Thomas Woodrow Wilson was the 28th President of the United States, from 1913 to 1921. A leader of the Progressive Movement, he served as President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910, and then as the Governor of New Jersey from 1911 to 1913...
won the United States presidential election, 1916
United States presidential election, 1916
The United States presidential election of 1916 took place while Europe was embroiled in World War I. Public sentiment in the still neutral United States leaned towards the British and French forces, due to the harsh treatment of civilians by the German Army, which had invaded and occupied large...
with help from Irish-Americans and his campaign slogan: "He kept us out of War".
An important result was the formation of the "Friends of Irish Freedom
Friends of Irish Freedom
The Friends of Irish Freedom was an Irish-American Republican organisation founded at the third Irish Race Convention held in New York . Supported by the United Irish League, the Ancient Order of Hibernians and other leading Irish-American organisations...
" that worked as a co-ordinating body to support: ".. the independence of Ireland, the industrial development of Ireland, the use and sale of Irish products, and to revive Irish culture."
New York City 1918
Held on 18–19 May, and organised by the Friends for Irish Freedom, this convention looked forward to the end of the world war, in which America was now an ally of Britain. The convention therefore had the difficult task of steering between its support for militant groups such as Sinn FéinSinn Féin
Sinn Féin is a left wing, Irish republican political party in Ireland. The name is Irish for "ourselves" or "we ourselves", although it is frequently mistranslated as "ourselves alone". Originating in the Sinn Féin organisation founded in 1905 by Arthur Griffith, it took its current form in 1970...
, which was opposed to British rule in Ireland, and proclaiming the loyalty of Irish-Americans to the USA. America had enacted conscription in 1917, but the Irish Conscription Crisis of 1918 had recently arisen, unifying most nationalist parties in Ireland.
In America the Hindu German Conspiracy Trial
Hindu German Conspiracy Trial
The Hindu–German Conspiracy Trial commenced in the District Court in San Francisco, California on November 12, 1917 following the uncovering of the Indo German plot for initiating a revolt in India...
had just ended, revealing the link between Clan na Gael and the defendants. Public relations and selecting the convention chairman were therefore unusually important. This also caused an immediate division between John Devoy
John Devoy
John Devoy was an Irish rebel leader and exile.-Early life:Devoy was born near Kill, County Kildare. In 1861 he travelled to France with an introduction from T. D. Sullivan to John Mitchel...
, who proposed the moderate Father Hurton, being mindful of the "hostile press", and Hanna Sheehy-Skeffington
Hanna Sheehy-Skeffington
Johanna Mary Sheehy-Skeffington, was a suffragette and Irish nationalist. Along with her husband and Margaret Cousins and James Cousins she founded the Irish Women's Franchise League in 1908 with the aim of obtaining women's voting rights...
and Jim Larkin
James Larkin
James Larkin was an Irish trade union leader and socialist activist, born to Irish parents in Liverpool, England. He and his family later moved to a small cottage in Burren, southern County Down. Growing up in poverty, he received little formal education and began working in a variety of jobs...
who proposed the more combative John Forrest Kelly
John Forrest Kelly
John Forrest Kelly was born March 28, 1859 in the vicinity of Carrick-on-Suir, Ireland, the son of two Fenian schoolteachers, Jeremiah and Kate Forrest Kelly, who had eleven other children; he emigrated to America in 1873. He was educated in Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, New Jersey,...
. The convention ended with an address by Judge Goff
John Goff
John William Goff was an American lawyer and politician from New York.-Biography:Born in County Wexford, Goff emigrated with his family to the United States while still a child. The family settled in New York City, where Goff worked for ten years as a clerk in a dry goods store while attending...
to President Wilson which was considered to be mild and conciliatory: to take such measures as are best calculated to bring about the independence of Ireland.
Philadelphia 1919
This convention was held on 22–23 February, with 5,000 delegates, and discussed the success of Sinn FéinSinn Féin
Sinn Féin is a left wing, Irish republican political party in Ireland. The name is Irish for "ourselves" or "we ourselves", although it is frequently mistranslated as "ourselves alone". Originating in the Sinn Féin organisation founded in 1905 by Arthur Griffith, it took its current form in 1970...
in the 1918 election, the declaration in January of the Irish Republic
Irish Republic
The Irish Republic was a revolutionary state that declared its independence from Great Britain in January 1919. It established a legislature , a government , a court system and a police force...
in Dublin, and the hope that America would support Irish participation at the forthcoming Paris peace conference
Paris Peace Conference, 1919
The Paris Peace Conference was the meeting of the Allied victors following the end of World War I to set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers following the armistices of 1918. It took place in Paris in 1919 and involved diplomats from more than 32 countries and nationalities...
. The principle of self-determination
Self-determination
Self-determination is the principle in international law that nations have the right to freely choose their sovereignty and international political status with no external compulsion or external interference...
at article 5 in Wilson's Fourteen Points
Fourteen Points
The Fourteen Points was a speech given by United States President Woodrow Wilson to a joint session of Congress on January 8, 1918. The address was intended to assure the country that the Great War was being fought for a moral cause and for postwar peace in Europe...
was expected to apply to Ireland. Much mention was made of the bravery of the "Fighting 69th"
69th Infantry Regiment (United States)
The 69th Infantry Regiment was a Regular Army infantry regiment in the United States Army.-History:There have been three different lineages started under this number: The Famous 69th Infantry Regiment , and two under the Federal designation....
in the war. The hero of the hour was the American-born Irish republican leader Éamon de Valera
Éamon de Valera
Éamon de Valera was one of the dominant political figures in twentieth century Ireland, serving as head of government of the Irish Free State and head of government and head of state of Ireland...
.
In the event, Irish participation at Paris was excluded, Woodrow Wilson refused his support, and in retaliation Irish pressure groups refused to vote as usual for the Democratic Party
Democratic Party (United States)
The Democratic Party is one of two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The party's socially liberal and progressive platform is largely considered center-left in the U.S. political spectrum. The party has the lengthiest record of continuous...
in the United States presidential election, 1920
United States presidential election, 1920
The United States presidential election of 1920 was dominated by the aftermath of World War I and a hostile response to certain policies of Woodrow Wilson, the Democratic president. The wartime economic boom had collapsed. Politicians were arguing over peace treaties and the question of America's...
, partially causing Harding's
Warren G. Harding
Warren Gamaliel Harding was the 29th President of the United States . A Republican from Ohio, Harding was an influential self-made newspaper publisher. He served in the Ohio Senate , as the 28th Lieutenant Governor of Ohio and as a U.S. Senator...
victory.
A fund-raising drive by the Friends of Irish Freedom (FOIF) to sell bonds issued by the Irish Republic eventually raised over $5m., but disputes arose over the management of the money. The FOIF was led by John Devoy and Judge Cohalan
Daniel F. Cohalan
Daniel Cohalan was an Irish-American leader and judge of the Supreme Court of New York State .Born in Middletown, New York where he joined and became a prominent member of the Democratic Party and later involved in the leadership of the Tammany Society .In 1912, Cohalan was appointed a Judge of...
(a judge of the New York Supreme Court
New York Supreme Court
The Supreme Court of the State of New York is the trial-level court of general jurisdiction in thestate court system of New York, United States. There is a supreme court in each of New York State's 62 counties, although some smaller counties share judges with neighboring counties...
), and believed that a sophisticated and conciliatory approach would ensure the best diplomatic support for Ireland at the Paris conference. De Valera and other Irish delegates expected the FOIF to demand and secure immediate recognition by the USA of the Irish Republic. A division on policy arose, Sinn Féin tried unsuccessfully to reform the FOIF and severed mutual links in October 1920.
In turn, the FOIF President Bishop Gallagher
Michael Gallagher (bishop)
Michael James Gallagher was the Roman Catholic bishop of the Diocese of Detroit from 1918 to 1937. He was ordained a priest for the diocese of Grand Rapids, Michigan on March 19, 1893. On July 5, 1915, he was appointed titular archbishop of Tipasa in Mauritania...
called de Valera a "foreign potentate", and Bishop Turner referred to him as the "Pancho Villa
Pancho Villa
José Doroteo Arango Arámbula – better known by his pseudonym Francisco Villa or its hypocorism Pancho Villa – was one of the most prominent Mexican Revolutionary generals....
of Ireland". Membership of the FOIF soon declined from over 100,000 to less than 20,000.
Paris 1922
In January 1922 the convention had to consider the Anglo-Irish TreatyAnglo-Irish Treaty
The Anglo-Irish Treaty , officially called the Articles of Agreement for a Treaty Between Great Britain and Ireland, was a treaty between the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and representatives of the secessionist Irish Republic that concluded the Irish War of...
that had just been ratified and which divided nationalist opinion. It was held in Paris to emphasise Ireland's emerging status as an independent state to the rest of Europe. The proposed Irish Free State
Irish Free State
The Irish Free State was the state established as a Dominion on 6 December 1922 under the Anglo-Irish Treaty, signed by the British government and Irish representatives exactly twelve months beforehand...
was to be created in December 1922.
The Irish delegation was supposed to represent "the Irish people", but this comprised senior members of Sinn Féin who were for and against the treaty. Debate on the treaty turned on the definition of whether or not the treaty embodied Ireland's "full" right to independence. Those against the treaty said not; those in favour said it was a significant step towards full independence.
The body organising the convention was named "Fine Ghaedhail", (Transl: The children of the Gaels) which was to be made permanent and to be funded by the formative Irish government
Provisional Government of Southern Ireland
The provisional Government of Southern Ireland was the provisional government for the administration of Southern Ireland between 16 January 1922 and 6 December 1922. The government was effectively a transitional administration for the period between the ratifying of the Anglo-Irish Treaty and the...
. The Chair, Rev. Dr. O'Reilly was perplexed: "..at first he had not been able to understand how the word 'full' could be political, but he had now been enlightened by the speeches of Mr. de Valera's
Éamon de Valera
Éamon de Valera was one of the dominant political figures in twentieth century Ireland, serving as head of government of the Irish Free State and head of government and head of state of Ireland...
supporters." Father Shanley said that Americans would still continue to help Ireland, and would send arms as before. The outcome was a rare moral victory for de Valera's anti-treaty followers; the seven-man executive committee had four of his nominees, while the pro-treaty side only had one of its candidates elected, Eoin MacNeill
Eoin MacNeill
Eoin MacNeill was an Irish scholar, nationalist, revolutionary and politician. MacNeill is regarded as the father of the modern study of early Irish medieval history. He was a co-founder of the Gaelic League, to preserve Irish language and culture, going on to establish the Irish Volunteers...
.
MacNeill deplored that: ".. the undertaking obtained from Mr. de Valera that party politics should not be introduced into the Congress, and that its funds and machinery would not be applied to party purposes has already been violated in one important particular, and that the undertaking in which Mr. de Valera and his nominees went to Paris as part of the official Irish Delegation was violated by them."
New York City 1947
By this stage the Irish Free StateIrish Free State
The Irish Free State was the state established as a Dominion on 6 December 1922 under the Anglo-Irish Treaty, signed by the British government and Irish representatives exactly twelve months beforehand...
was effectively a republic, and had remained neutral in World War 2
Irish neutrality during World War II
The policy of Irish neutrality during World War II was adopted by Dáil Éireann at the instigation of Éamon de Valera, its Taoiseach upon the outbreak of hostilities in Europe and maintained throughout the conflict. De Valera refrained from joining either the Allies or Axis powers...
. The main issue in 1947 was to end the partition of Ireland
Partition of Ireland
The partition of Ireland was the division of the island of Ireland into two distinct territories, now Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland . Partition occurred when the British Parliament passed the Government of Ireland Act 1920...
.
America was supporting Britain through the Marshall Aid plan, and the solution was to make this aid conditional upon the end of partition. Congressman
United States Congress
The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C....
John E. Fogarty
John E. Fogarty
John Edward Fogarty was a Congressman from Rhode Island for 26 years.Congressman John E. Fogarty was first elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1940 and served until his death on January 10, 1967 as he was being sworn in for his fourteenth consecutive term...
was the main mover, but in the event the condition was defeated in Congress
United States Congress
The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C....
by 206 votes to 139, with 83 abstaining. A factor that swung some votes against his motion was that Ireland had remained neutral during the world war.
New York City 1994
This convention was organised for June at the Jacob Javits Convention Center by Dennis Prebenson, with Gerry AdamsGerry Adams
Gerry Adams is an Irish republican politician and Teachta Dála for the constituency of Louth. From 1983 to 1992 and from 1997 to 2011, he was an abstentionist Westminster Member of Parliament for Belfast West. He is the president of Sinn Féin, the second largest political party in Northern...
of Sinn Féin as its guest speaker. The "Troubles" that had developed since 1970 in Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland is one of the four countries of the United Kingdom. Situated in the north-east of the island of Ireland, it shares a border with the Republic of Ireland to the south and west...
had achieved little. While outwardly trenchant and hoping for further Irish-American support, the convention helped prepare the ground for the August 1994 ceasefire, an essential step in the Northern Ireland peace process
Northern Ireland peace process
The peace process, when discussing the history of Northern Ireland, is often considered to cover the events leading up to the 1994 Provisional Irish Republican Army ceasefire, the end of most of the violence of the Troubles, the Belfast Agreement, and subsequent political developments.-Towards a...
that led on to the 1998 Belfast Agreement
Belfast Agreement
The Good Friday Agreement or Belfast Agreement , sometimes called the Stormont Agreement, was a major political development in the Northern Ireland peace process...
.