Partition of Ireland
Encyclopedia
The partition of Ireland was the division of the island of Ireland
into two distinct territories, now Northern Ireland
(a part of the United Kingdom
) and the Republic of Ireland
(an independent state). Partition occurred when the British Parliament passed the Government of Ireland Act 1920
. From 1801 to 1920 the whole island had formed an integral part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
and was governed as one unit. The Act of 1920 was intended to create two separate self-governing territories within the UK, but partition was reinforced in 1922 when the greater part of Ireland was separated from the United Kingdom.
Since partition began, a key aspiration of Irish nationalists has been to bring about a united Ireland
, with the whole island forming one independent state. This goal conflicts with that of unionists in Northern Ireland, whose objective is to remain part of the United Kingdom. The British and Irish governments have agreed, under the 1998 Belfast Agreement
, that the status of Northern Ireland will not change without the consent of the majority there.
) in 1918, through the Irish War of Independence
, Irish republicans
attempted to force the secession of Ireland from the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
. Meanwhile, Irish Unionistsmost of whom lived in the north-east of the islandwere just as determined to maintain the Union. Seeking perhaps to defuse the situation by introducing a variation of the Home Rule Act that had lapsed with the onset of the Great War, the British Government decided to establish two devolved administrations
, dividing the island into two territories: Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland
. The Government of Ireland Act 1920
entered into force on 3 May 1921 and provided that Northern Ireland would consist of the six north-eastern counties, while the remainder of the island would form Southern Ireland. It was intended that each jurisdiction would be granted home rule but remain within the United Kingdom. The Government of Southern Ireland received limited acceptance: the war continued until the two sides agreed a truce in July 1921, ending with the Anglo-Irish Treaty
in December 1921.
On 6 December 1922, the Irish Free State
seceded from the United Kingdom. The new state had the status of a dominion
of the British Commonwealth. The secession occurred in accordance with the Treaty, which was given legislative effect in the United Kingdom by the Irish Free State (Agreement) Act 1922
.
Under the treaty, Northern Ireland was permitted to remain outside of the new Irish Free State, provided that the Parliament of Northern Ireland chose to do so. However, under the form of words agreed upon, the Irish Free State was regarded as temporarily including the whole island of Ireland, until Northern Ireland expressly chose whether to be included or not. Therefore, in strict legal terms, Northern Ireland left the United Kingdom for a brief period along with the rest of Ireland, but then chose to opt-out of the Free State and rejoin the Union. However this had no practical effect, because in the interim the powers of the Irish Free State to govern Northern Ireland were declared to be suspended for up to a month, and Northern Ireland continued to be administered as a part of the United Kingdom.
On 7 December 1922 the houses of the Parliament of Northern Ireland
approved an address to the British King, George V, requesting that its territory not be included in the Irish Free State. This was presented to the King the following day, and then entered into effect, in accordance with the provisions of Section 12 of the Irish Free State (Agreement) Act 1922.
Following independence the southern state gradually severed all remaining constitutional links with the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
and the British King. In 1937 the Free State was renamed to "Ireland" (a reflection of the fact that the state then claimed sovereignty over the whole of the island). In 1949 the state was declared to be a republic, under the Republic of Ireland Act
.
, Ireland was partitioned into two autonomous regions, Northern Ireland (six north-eastern counties) and Southern Ireland (the rest of the island), on 3 May 1921. The Parliament and Governmental institutions for Northern Ireland were quickly established afterwards. In contrast, the Parliament
and Governmental institutions for Southern Ireland failed to function or take root. This was because of the political circumstances in Ireland at the time – with the very large majority of Irish Members of Parliament giving their allegiance to Dáil Éireann and supporting the Irish War of Independence
.
through the Irish Free State Constitution Act 1922
, and in Ireland by formal ratification by Dáil Éireann
. Under that Act, at 1pm on 6 December 1922, the King (at a meeting of his Privy Council
at Buckingham Palace
) signed a proclamation establishing the new Irish Free State.
The Irish Free State then established encompassed the whole island of Ireland. Therefore on 6 December 1922 Northern Ireland stopped being part of the United Kingdom
and became part of the newly created Irish Free State
. This remarkable constitutional episode arose because of the terms of the Anglo-Irish Treaty and the legislation introduced to give that Treaty legal effect.
The Treaty and the laws which implemented it, however, also allowed Northern Ireland
to opt out of the Irish Free State. Under Article 12 of the Treaty, Northern Ireland could exercise its opt-out by presenting an address to the King
, requesting not to be part of the Irish Free State. Once the Treaty was ratified, the Houses of Parliament of Northern Ireland had one month (dubbed the Ulster month) to exercise this opt-out during which month the Irish Free State Government could not legislate for Northern Ireland, holding the Free State’s effective jurisdiction in abeyance for a month.
, Sir James Craig, speaking in the Parliament
in October 1922 said that "when the 6th of December is passed the month begins in which we will have to make the choice either to vote out or remain within the Free State." He said it was important that that choice was made as soon as possible after 6 December 1922 "in order that it may not go forth to the world that we had the slightest hesitation." On 7 December 1922 (the day after the establishment of the Irish Free State), the Parliament demonstrated its lack of hesitation by resolving to make the following address to the King so as to opt out of the Irish Free State:
Discussion in the Parliament of the address was short. Prime Minister Craig left for London with the memorial embodying the address on the night boat that evening, 7 December 1922. The King received it the following day, The Times reporting:
With this, Northern Ireland had left the Irish Free State and rejoined the United Kingdom - after just over two days as part of the Irish Free State. If the Houses of Parliament of Northern Ireland had not made such a declaration, under Article 14 of the Treaty Northern Ireland, its Parliament and government would have continued in being but the Oireachtas
would have had jurisdiction to legislate for Northern Ireland in matters not delegated to Northern Ireland under the Government of Ireland Act. This, of course, never came to pass. On 13 December 1922, Prime Minister Craig addressed the Parliament
informing them that the King had responded to the Parliament’s address as follows:
the nationalist Irish Parliamentary Party
held the balance of power in the House of Commons, and entered into an alliance with the Liberals
. Its leader, Charles Stewart Parnell
convinced William Gladstone
to introduce the First Irish Home Rule Bill in 1886. Immediately, an Irish Unionist Party
was founded and organised demonstrations in Belfast
against the Bill, fearing that separation from Great Britain
would bring industrial decline and religious persecution of Protestants by a Roman Catholic-dominated Irish government. Randolph Churchill
proclaimed: the Orange card is the one to play, which was later expressed in the popular slogan, Home Rule means Rome Rule
.
In the more rural parts of Ireland a "Land War
" (1879–1890) was under way, supported by nationalists, that had led to sporadic violence. The Representation of the People Act 1884
had enlarged the popular franchise, and unionist property-owners were concerned that their interests would be reduced by a new Irish political class.
Although the Bill was defeated, Gladstone remained undaunted and introduced a Second Irish Home Rule Bill in 1892 that passed the Commons. Accompanied by similar massed Unionist protests, Joseph Chamberlain
called for a (separate) provincial government for Ulster
even before the bill was rejected by the House of Lords
. The seriousness of the situation was highlighted when Irish Unionists throughout the island assembled conventions in Dublin and Belfast to oppose the Bill and the proposed partition.
When, in 1910, the Irish Party again held the balance of power in the Commons, Herbert Asquith introduced a Third Home Rule Bill
in 1912. The Unionists adopted the positions they had demonstrated previously in 1886 and 1893. With the anti-democratic veto of the Lords removed by the Parliament Act 1911
, and the clear prospect of Home Rule passing into law, Ulster loyalists established an army the Ulster Volunteers in 1914 to oppose enactment of the Bill (and what they called its "Coercion of Ulster"), and threatened to establish a Provisional Ulster Government.
While the Home Rule Bill was still being debated, on 20 March 1914 many Army officers resigned (and others threatened to), in what became known as the "Curragh Incident
" (also known, incorrectly, as "The Curragh Mutiny"), rather than be mobilised to enforce the Act on Ulster. This meant that the British government could legislate for Home Rule but could not be sure of making it a reality on the ground. This led on to an amending Bill that would exclude Ulster for an indefinite period, and the new fear of a civil war (between Unionism and Nationalism) in Ireland led to the Buckingham Palace Conference
in July.
books with Royal Assent
in September 1914 but, because of the First World War, its commencement was suspended for one year or for the duration of what was expected to be a short war. Originally intended to grant self-government to the entire island of Ireland as a single jurisdiction under Dublin administration, the final version as enacted in 1914 included an amendment clause for six Ulster counties to remain under London administration for a proposed trial period of six years, yet to be finally agreed. This was belatedly conceded by John Redmond
leader of the Irish Party as a compromise in order to pacify Ulster Unionists and avoid civil war.
In 1917-18 the Irish Convention
attempted to resolve what sort of Home Rule would follow the First World War. Unionist and Nationalist politicians met for the last time before partition. The Ulster Unionists preferred to remain within the United Kingdom; the Nationalist Home Rule parties and the Southern Unionists argued against partition. The nascent Sinn Féin
party refused to attend.
Soon after the end of the war Sinn Féin
won the overwhelming majority of the Irish parliamentary seats in the United Kingdom general election of 1918
, and in January 1919 the Sinn Féin members declared unilaterally an independent (all-island) Irish Republic
. Unionists, however, won a majority of seats in four of the nine counties of Ulster and affirmed their continuing loyalty to the United Kingdom. Following the Paris Peace Conference
, in September 1919 Lloyd George
tasked the Long Committee to implement Britain’s commitment to introduce Home Rule, which was based on the policy of Walter Long, and some findings of the Irish Convention
. The result was to be two home-rule Irelands, and in November 1920 the Government of Ireland Act 1920
was enacted. As a result of this, in April 1921 the island was partitioned into Southern and Northern Ireland.
In June 1921, shortly before the truce that ended the Anglo-Irish War, David Lloyd-George invited the nationalist leader Éamon de Valera
to talks in London on an equal footing with the Unionist leader (and new Northern Irish prime minister) Sir James Craig
, which De Valera attended. On 20 July Lloyd-George declared to De Valera that: In reply, De Valera wrote
The Treaty as ratified in December 1921-January 1922 allowed for a re-drawing of the mutual border by a Boundary Commission
. Northern Ireland was deemed to be a part of the Irish Free State, whenever it became established, but its parliament would be allowed to vote to secede within a month; the so-called "Ulster month".
, the Prime Minister of Northern Ireland objected to aspects of the Anglo-Irish Treaty
. In a letter to Mr Austin Chamberlain dated 14 December 1921, he stated:
(as represented by the Oath of Allegiance and Fidelity) for Southern Ireland
, rather than as an independent all-Ireland republic
, but continuing partition was a significant matter for Ulstermen like Sean MacEntee
, who spoke strongly against partition or re-partition of any kind. The pro-Treaty side argued that the proposed Boundary Commission would satisfy the greatest number on each side of the eventual border, and felt that the Council of Ireland
(as envisaged by the 1920 Home Rule Act) would lead to unity by consent over a longer period.
The anti-Treaty group's leader, Éamon de Valera
, had drafted his own preferred text of the Treaty in December 1921, known as "Document No. 2". An "Addendum North East Ulster" indicates his acceptance of the 1920 partition for the time being, and of the rest of Treaty text as signed in regard to Northern Ireland:
When the Irish Free State (Agreement) Bill was being debated on 21 March 1922, amendments were proposed which would have provided that the Ulster Month would run from the passing of the Irish Free State (Agreement) Act and not the Act that would establish the Irish Free State. Essentially, those who put down the amendments wished to bring forward the month during which Northern Ireland could exercise its right to opt out of the Irish Free State. They justified this view on the basis that if Northern Ireland could exercise its option to opt out at an earlier date, this would help to settle any state of anxiety or trouble on the Northern Ireland frontier. The Treaty was ambiguous on whether the month should run from the date the Anglo-Irish Treaty was ratified or the date that the Irish Free State was established. The British Government took the view that the Ulster Month should run from the date the Irish Free State was established and not beforehand, Viscount Peel for the Government remarking:
Viscount Peel continued by saying the government desired that there should be no ambiguity and would to add a proviso to the Irish Free State (Agreement) Bill providing that the Ulster month should run from the passing of the Act establishing the Irish Free State. He further explained that the members of the Parliament of Southern Ireland
had agreed to put that interpretation upon it. He noted that he had received from Mr. Arthur Griffith
the following letter dated 20 March 1922:
On 7 December 1922, the day after the establishment of the Irish Free State, the House of Commons of Northern Ireland
heard an address by Sir James Craig to King George V requesting: "...that the powers of the Parliament and Government of the Irish Free State shall no longer extend to Northern Ireland". No division or vote was requested on the address, which was described as the Constitution Act and was then approved by the Senate of Northern Ireland
.
, which could adjust the border as drawn up in 1920. Most leaders in the Free State, both pro- and anti-Treaty, assumed that the commission would award largely nationalist areas such as County Fermanagh
, County Tyrone
, South Londonderry
, South Armagh
and South Down
, and the City of Derry
to the Free State, and that the remnant of Northern Ireland would not be economically viable and would eventually opt for union with the rest of the island as well. In the event, the commission's decision was made for it by the inter-governmental agreement of 3 December 1925 that was published later that day by Stanley Baldwin
. As a result the Commission's report was not published; the detailed article explains the factors involved.
The Dáil voted to approve the agreement, by a supplementary Act, on 10 December 1925 by a vote of 71 to 20.
At the time of that Act, both Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland were to remain parts of the United Kingdom. Perhaps because of this, the Act did not explicitly address the position of territorial waters, although section 11(4) provided that neither Southern Ireland nor Northern Ireland would have any competence to make laws in respect of “lighthouses, buoys, or beacons (except so far as they can consistently with any general Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom be constructed or maintained by a local harbour authority)”.
When the territory that was Southern Ireland
ultimately became a separate self-governing dominion outside the United Kingdom known as the Irish Free State
, the status of the territorial waters naturally took on a significance it had not had before. The Northern Ireland Unionists were conscious of this matter from an early stage. They were keen to put it beyond doubt that the territorial waters around Northern Ireland would not belong to the Irish Free State. In this regard, Sir James Craig
, the Prime Minister of Northern Ireland
put the following question in the British House of Commons on 27 November 1922 (the month before the establishment of the Irish Free State):
In response the Attorney General, Sir Douglas Hogg
, said that “I have considered the question, and I have given an opinion that that is so [i.e. the territorial waters do go with the counties]".
. Lough Foyle lies between County Londonderry
in Northern Ireland and County Donegal
in the then Irish Free State. A court case in the Free State in 1923 relating to fishing rights in Lough Foyle held that the Free State’s territorial waters ran right up to the shore of County Londonderry. In 1925, the Chief Justice of the Irish Free State, Hugh Kennedy
advised the President of the Executive Council of the Irish Free State
, WT Cosgrave as follows:
In 1927, illegal fishing on Lough Foyle had become so grave that Northern Ireland Prime Minister, James Craig entered into correspondence with his Free State counterpart, W. T. Cosgrave. Craig indicated to Cosgrave that he proposed to introduce a Bill giving the Royal Ulster Constabulary
powers to stop and search vessels on Lough Foyle. Cosgrave asserted all of Lough Foyle was Free State territory and that as such a Bill of that nature would be rejected by the Free State and its introduction would create “a very serious situation”. Cosgrave then raised the matter with the British government.
In 1936 in Dáil Éireann
, the Minister for External Affairs was asked if he intends to take any steps to safeguard and maintain the rights to fishing in certain parts of Lough Foyle, claimed by and hitherto enjoyed by Free State nationals. The Vice-President (for the Minister for External Affairs), responding, noted that there had been correspondence between the two Governments in recent years. He summarised the position as currently being that:
The Minister was criticised by Opposition politicians for his government's overall indecision on whether the Irish Free State should remain part of the British Commonwealth, a spokesman claiming this was why the Government had such difficulty with the British Government's first pre-condition.
In September 1940 Maffey approached the Irish External Affairs Secretary, Joseph Walshe, to inform him ‘of the intended increase of light naval craft’ in Lough Foyle. The Royal Navy increased its use of Lough Foyle in the early months of 1941. The Royal Navy remained concerned that there might be a challenge to its use of the Foyle on the grounds that ships navigating the river to Lisahally and Londonderry might be infringing Irish neutrality. If the border followed the median line of Lough Foyle then the channel might be in Irish waters as it "lies near to the Eire shore". In mid-November 1941, legal opinions of solicitors to The Honourable The Irish Society were presented to the Royal Navy. The Hon. The Irish Society's view was that the whole of Lough Foyle was part of County Londonderry and accordingly the border could not be that of the median line of Lough Foyle. The Royal Navy continued to use its new base on the Foyle until 1970.
, Norman Brook
. Its report dated 1 January 1949 was presented by Prime Minister Clement Attlee
to the Cabinet on 7 January 1949. The following is para 23 of the Working Party's report (which speaks for itself):
, during a Dáil debate on 29 February 1972:
Incidents have occurred from time to time in the disputed waters and they have been discussed in Dáil Éireann
occasionally.
) is still not settled. As recently as 2005, when asked to list those areas of EU member states where border definition is in dispute, a British Government minister responding for the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs
stated:
In 2009, the territorial dispute concerning Lough Foyle was raised in a meeting of the Northern Ireland Assembly
's Committee for Enterprise Trade and Investment. The Committee was meeting to discuss Project Kelvin, a project involving the construction of an optic fibre submarine telecommunications cable between North America and Northern Ireland. Mr Derek Bullock, an executive from Hibernia Atlantic Limited, the cable-laying company leading the project's implementation had to explain to the Committee why the cable landing station was going to be located at Coleraine rather than Derry City as initially indicated. He explained that one of the reasons it had been decided not to locate the cable landing station in Lough Foyle was because:
The Foreign and Commonwealth Office
underlined its view on 2 June 2009 that all of Lough Foyle is in the United Kingdom, a spokesperson stating:
, Hurling
, Cricket
and Rugby union
, are organised on an all-island basis, with a single team representing Ireland in international competitions. Other sports, such as association football, have separate organising bodies in Northern Ireland
(Irish Football Association
) and the Republic of Ireland
(Football Association of Ireland
). At the Olympics
, a person from Northern Ireland
can choose to represent either the Republic of Ireland
team (which competes as "Ireland") or United Kingdom
team (which competes as "Great Britain"). Selection usually depends on whether his or her sport is organised on an all-Ireland, a Northern Ireland, or a UK basis. Sports organised on an all-Ireland basis are affiliated to the Republic of Ireland’s Olympic association
, whereas those organised on a Northern Ireland or UK basis are generally affiliated to the UK’s Olympic association
.
was seriously affected by partition. The railway network on either side of the Border relied on cross-border routes, and eventually a large section of the Irish railway's route network was shut down. Today only the cross-border route from Dublin to Belfast remains, and counties Cavan
, Donegal
, Fermanagh
, Monaghan
and Tyrone
have no rail services.
which in 1937 was adopted by plebiscite in the Irish Free State
. Its articles 2 and 3 defined the 'national territory' as: 'the whole island of Ireland, its islands and the territorial seas. The state was named 'Ireland' (in English) and 'Éire
' (in Irish
); a United Kingdom Act of 1938
described the state as "Eire".
To unionists in Northern Ireland, the 1937 constitution made the ending of partition even less desirable than before. Most were Protestants, but article 44 recognised the 'special position' of the Roman Catholic Church. Further, the preamble referred to: "...our Divine Lord, Jesus Christ, Who sustained our fathers through centuries of trial, Gratefully remembering their heroic and unremitting struggle to regain the rightful independence of our Nation,"; this was an independence that unionists had opposed, and seemed to imply in an insulting fashion that Jesus had sustained only the Irish independence movement, and never the unionist cause. All spoke English, but article 8 stipulated that the new 'national language' and 'first official language' was to be Irish, with English as the 'second official language'.
The irrendentist
texts in Articles 2 and 3 were deleted by the Nineteenth Amendment
in 1998, as part of the Belfast Agreement
.
(1928) which was renamed the Irish Union Association and then the Anti-Partition League in 1938. These were followed by the Northern Council for Unity
, the Irish Anti-Partition League, the All Ireland Anti-Partition League
and finally National Unity (Ireland)
in 1964. None achieved an electoral majority and they were prone to divisions.
In America the 1947 Irish Race Convention
arranged for a vote in the US Congress
whereby Marshall Aid for Britain would be conditional on the end of partition. The vote was lost by 206 votes to 139, with 83 abstaining.
on 28 June 1940 and sent to Éamon de Valera. On their rejection, neither the London or Dublin governments publicised the matter.
Ireland/Éire
would effectively join the allies against Germany by allowing British ships to use its ports, arresting Germans and Italians, setting up a joint defence council and allowing overflights.
In return, arms would be provided to Éire and British forces would cooperate on a German invasion. London would declare that it accepted 'the principle of a United Ireland' in the form of an undertaking 'that the Union is to become at an early date an accomplished fact from which there shall be no turning back.'
Clause ii of the offer promised a Joint Body to work out the practical and constitutional details, 'the purpose of the work being to establish at as early a date as possible the whole machinery of government of the Union'.
The proposals were first published in 1970 in a biography of de Valera.
introduced a motion in the Dáil strongly against the terms of the UK's Ireland Act 1949
that confirmed partition for as long as a majority of the electorate in Northern Ireland wanted it, styled in Dublin as the Unionist Veto. This was a change from his position supporting the Boundary Commission back in 1925, when he was a legal adviser to the Irish government. A possible cause was that his coalition
government was supported by the strongly republican Clann na Poblachta
. From this point on, all the political parties in the Republic were formally in favour of ending partition, regardless of the opinion of the electorate in Northern Ireland.
The new Republic could not and in any event did not wish to remain in the Commonwealth
and it chose not to join NATO when it was founded in 1949. These decisions broadened the effects of partition but were in line with the evolving policy of Irish neutrality
.
In 1966 the Taoiseach Seán Lemass
visited Northern Ireland
in secrecy, leading to a return visit to Dublin by Terence O'Neill
; it had taken four decades to achieve such a simple meeting. The impact was further reduced when both countries joined the European Economic Community
in 1973. With the onset of The Troubles
(1969–98) a 1973 referendum showed that a majority of the electorate in Northern Ireland did want to continue the link to Britain, as expected, but the referendum was boycotted by Nationalist voters.
was signed by the Irish and British governments in 1973. This collapsed in May 1974 due to the Ulster Workers' Council strike
, and the new British Prime Minister Harold Wilson
considered a rapid withdrawal of the British Army and administration from Northern Ireland in 1974–75 as a serious policy option. The relevant cabinet notes remained secret until 2005.
The effect of such a withdrawal was considered by Garret FitzGerald
, the then Minister for Foreign Affairs in Dublin, and recalled in his 2006 essay. The Irish cabinet concluded that such a withdrawal would lead to widescale civil war and a greater loss of life, which the Irish Army of 12,500 men could do little to prevent.
was ratified by two referendums in both parts of Ireland, including an acceptance by the Republic that its claim to Northern Ireland would only be achieved by persuasion and peaceful means. This was an important part of the Northern Ireland peace process
that has been under way since 1993.
Ireland
Ireland is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth...
into two distinct territories, now Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland is one of the four countries of the United Kingdom. Situated in the north-east of the island of Ireland, it shares a border with the Republic of Ireland to the south and west...
(a part of the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
) and the Republic of Ireland
Republic of Ireland
Ireland , described as the Republic of Ireland , is a sovereign state in Europe occupying approximately five-sixths of the island of the same name. Its capital is Dublin. Ireland, which had a population of 4.58 million in 2011, is a constitutional republic governed as a parliamentary democracy,...
(an independent state). Partition occurred when the British Parliament passed the Government of Ireland Act 1920
Government of Ireland Act 1920
The Government of Ireland Act 1920 was the Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which partitioned Ireland. The Act's long title was "An Act to provide for the better government of Ireland"; it is also known as the Fourth Home Rule Bill or as the Fourth Home Rule Act.The Act was intended...
. From 1801 to 1920 the whole island had formed an integral part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom during the period when what is now the Republic of Ireland formed a part of it....
and was governed as one unit. The Act of 1920 was intended to create two separate self-governing territories within the UK, but partition was reinforced in 1922 when the greater part of Ireland was separated from the United Kingdom.
Since partition began, a key aspiration of Irish nationalists has been to bring about a united Ireland
United Ireland
A united Ireland is the term used to refer to the idea of a sovereign state which covers all of the thirty-two traditional counties of Ireland. The island of Ireland includes the territory of two independent sovereign states: the Republic of Ireland, which covers 26 counties of the island, and the...
, with the whole island forming one independent state. This goal conflicts with that of unionists in Northern Ireland, whose objective is to remain part of the United Kingdom. The British and Irish governments have agreed, under the 1998 Belfast Agreement
Belfast Agreement
The Good Friday Agreement or Belfast Agreement , sometimes called the Stormont Agreement, was a major political development in the Northern Ireland peace process...
, that the status of Northern Ireland will not change without the consent of the majority there.
Overview
Beginning (or resumingEaster Rising
The Easter Rising was an insurrection staged in Ireland during Easter Week, 1916. The Rising was mounted by Irish republicans with the aims of ending British rule in Ireland and establishing the Irish Republic at a time when the British Empire was heavily engaged in the First World War...
) in 1918, through the Irish War of Independence
Irish War of Independence
The Irish War of Independence , Anglo-Irish War, Black and Tan War, or Tan War was a guerrilla war mounted by the Irish Republican Army against the British government and its forces in Ireland. It began in January 1919, following the Irish Republic's declaration of independence. Both sides agreed...
, Irish republicans
Irish Republic
The Irish Republic was a revolutionary state that declared its independence from Great Britain in January 1919. It established a legislature , a government , a court system and a police force...
attempted to force the secession of Ireland from the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom during the period when what is now the Republic of Ireland formed a part of it....
. Meanwhile, Irish Unionistsmost of whom lived in the north-east of the islandwere just as determined to maintain the Union. Seeking perhaps to defuse the situation by introducing a variation of the Home Rule Act that had lapsed with the onset of the Great War, the British Government decided to establish two devolved administrations
Devolution in the United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, devolution refers to the statutory granting of powers from the Parliament of the United Kingdom to the Scottish Parliament, the National Assembly for Wales and the Northern Ireland Assembly and to their associated executive bodies the Scottish Government, the Welsh Government...
, dividing the island into two territories: Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland
Southern Ireland
Southern Ireland was a short-lived autonomous region of the United Kingdom established on 3 May 1921 and dissolved on 6 December 1922.Southern Ireland was established under the Government of Ireland Act 1920 together with its sister region, Northern Ireland...
. The Government of Ireland Act 1920
Government of Ireland Act 1920
The Government of Ireland Act 1920 was the Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which partitioned Ireland. The Act's long title was "An Act to provide for the better government of Ireland"; it is also known as the Fourth Home Rule Bill or as the Fourth Home Rule Act.The Act was intended...
entered into force on 3 May 1921 and provided that Northern Ireland would consist of the six north-eastern counties, while the remainder of the island would form Southern Ireland. It was intended that each jurisdiction would be granted home rule but remain within the United Kingdom. The Government of Southern Ireland received limited acceptance: the war continued until the two sides agreed a truce in July 1921, ending with the Anglo-Irish Treaty
Anglo-Irish Treaty
The Anglo-Irish Treaty , officially called the Articles of Agreement for a Treaty Between Great Britain and Ireland, was a treaty between the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and representatives of the secessionist Irish Republic that concluded the Irish War of...
in December 1921.
On 6 December 1922, the Irish Free State
Irish Free State
The Irish Free State was the state established as a Dominion on 6 December 1922 under the Anglo-Irish Treaty, signed by the British government and Irish representatives exactly twelve months beforehand...
seceded from the United Kingdom. The new state had the status of a dominion
Dominion
A dominion, often Dominion, refers to one of a group of autonomous polities that were nominally under British sovereignty, constituting the British Empire and British Commonwealth, beginning in the latter part of the 19th century. They have included Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Newfoundland,...
of the British Commonwealth. The secession occurred in accordance with the Treaty, which was given legislative effect in the United Kingdom by the Irish Free State (Agreement) Act 1922
Irish Free State (Agreement) Act 1922
The Irish Free State Act 1922 was an Act of the British Parliament passed on 31 March 1922. It gave the force of law to the Anglo-Irish Treaty, which was scheduled to the Act.-Main provisions:...
.
Under the treaty, Northern Ireland was permitted to remain outside of the new Irish Free State, provided that the Parliament of Northern Ireland chose to do so. However, under the form of words agreed upon, the Irish Free State was regarded as temporarily including the whole island of Ireland, until Northern Ireland expressly chose whether to be included or not. Therefore, in strict legal terms, Northern Ireland left the United Kingdom for a brief period along with the rest of Ireland, but then chose to opt-out of the Free State and rejoin the Union. However this had no practical effect, because in the interim the powers of the Irish Free State to govern Northern Ireland were declared to be suspended for up to a month, and Northern Ireland continued to be administered as a part of the United Kingdom.
On 7 December 1922 the houses of the Parliament of Northern Ireland
Parliament of Northern Ireland
The Parliament of Northern Ireland was the home rule legislature of Northern Ireland, created under the Government of Ireland Act 1920, which sat from 7 June 1921 to 30 March 1972, when it was suspended...
approved an address to the British King, George V, requesting that its territory not be included in the Irish Free State. This was presented to the King the following day, and then entered into effect, in accordance with the provisions of Section 12 of the Irish Free State (Agreement) Act 1922.
Following independence the southern state gradually severed all remaining constitutional links with the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
and the British King. In 1937 the Free State was renamed to "Ireland" (a reflection of the fact that the state then claimed sovereignty over the whole of the island). In 1949 the state was declared to be a republic, under the Republic of Ireland Act
Republic of Ireland Act
The Republic of Ireland Act 1948 is an Act of the Oireachtas which declared the Irish state to be a republic, and vested in the President of Ireland the power to exercise the executive authority of the state in its external relations, on the advice of the Government of Ireland...
.
Government of Ireland Act
Under Britain's Government of Ireland Act 1920Government of Ireland Act 1920
The Government of Ireland Act 1920 was the Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which partitioned Ireland. The Act's long title was "An Act to provide for the better government of Ireland"; it is also known as the Fourth Home Rule Bill or as the Fourth Home Rule Act.The Act was intended...
, Ireland was partitioned into two autonomous regions, Northern Ireland (six north-eastern counties) and Southern Ireland (the rest of the island), on 3 May 1921. The Parliament and Governmental institutions for Northern Ireland were quickly established afterwards. In contrast, the Parliament
Parliament of Southern Ireland
The Parliament of Southern Ireland was a home rule legislature set up by the British Government during the Irish War of Independence under the Fourth Home Rule Bill...
and Governmental institutions for Southern Ireland failed to function or take root. This was because of the political circumstances in Ireland at the time – with the very large majority of Irish Members of Parliament giving their allegiance to Dáil Éireann and supporting the Irish War of Independence
Irish War of Independence
The Irish War of Independence , Anglo-Irish War, Black and Tan War, or Tan War was a guerrilla war mounted by the Irish Republican Army against the British government and its forces in Ireland. It began in January 1919, following the Irish Republic's declaration of independence. Both sides agreed...
.
Anglo-Irish Treaty
That Irish War of Independence ultimately led to the Anglo-Irish Treaty. The Treaty was given legal effect in the United KingdomUnited Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
through the Irish Free State Constitution Act 1922
Irish Free State Constitution Act 1922
The Irish Free State Constitution Act 1922 was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, passed in 1922 to confirm the Constitution of the Irish Free State, and to ratify the 1921 Anglo-Irish Treaty....
, and in Ireland by formal ratification by Dáil Éireann
Second Dáil
The Second Dáil was Dáil Éireann as it convened from 16 August 1921 until 8 June 1922. From 1919–1922 Dáil Éireann was the revolutionary parliament of the self-proclaimed Irish Republic. The Second Dáil consisted of members elected in 1921...
. Under that Act, at 1pm on 6 December 1922, the King (at a meeting of his Privy Council
Privy council
A privy council is a body that advises the head of state of a nation, typically, but not always, in the context of a monarchic government. The word "privy" means "private" or "secret"; thus, a privy council was originally a committee of the monarch's closest advisors to give confidential advice on...
at Buckingham Palace
Buckingham Palace
Buckingham Palace, in London, is the principal residence and office of the British monarch. Located in the City of Westminster, the palace is a setting for state occasions and royal hospitality...
) signed a proclamation establishing the new Irish Free State.
The Irish Free State then established encompassed the whole island of Ireland. Therefore on 6 December 1922 Northern Ireland stopped being part of the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
and became part of the newly created Irish Free State
Irish Free State
The Irish Free State was the state established as a Dominion on 6 December 1922 under the Anglo-Irish Treaty, signed by the British government and Irish representatives exactly twelve months beforehand...
. This remarkable constitutional episode arose because of the terms of the Anglo-Irish Treaty and the legislation introduced to give that Treaty legal effect.
The Treaty and the laws which implemented it, however, also allowed Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland is one of the four countries of the United Kingdom. Situated in the north-east of the island of Ireland, it shares a border with the Republic of Ireland to the south and west...
to opt out of the Irish Free State. Under Article 12 of the Treaty, Northern Ireland could exercise its opt-out by presenting an address to the King
George V of the United Kingdom
George V was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, and Emperor of India, from 6 May 1910 through the First World War until his death in 1936....
, requesting not to be part of the Irish Free State. Once the Treaty was ratified, the Houses of Parliament of Northern Ireland had one month (dubbed the Ulster month) to exercise this opt-out during which month the Irish Free State Government could not legislate for Northern Ireland, holding the Free State’s effective jurisdiction in abeyance for a month.
Northern Ireland opts-out
Realistically, it was always certain that Northern Ireland would opt out. The Prime Minister of Northern IrelandPrime Minister of Northern Ireland
The Prime Minister of Northern Ireland was the de facto head of the Government of Northern Ireland. No such office was provided for in the Government of Ireland Act 1920. However the Lord Lieutenant, as with Governors-General in other Westminster Systems such as in Canada, chose to appoint someone...
, Sir James Craig, speaking in the Parliament
Parliament of Northern Ireland
The Parliament of Northern Ireland was the home rule legislature of Northern Ireland, created under the Government of Ireland Act 1920, which sat from 7 June 1921 to 30 March 1972, when it was suspended...
in October 1922 said that "when the 6th of December is passed the month begins in which we will have to make the choice either to vote out or remain within the Free State." He said it was important that that choice was made as soon as possible after 6 December 1922 "in order that it may not go forth to the world that we had the slightest hesitation." On 7 December 1922 (the day after the establishment of the Irish Free State), the Parliament demonstrated its lack of hesitation by resolving to make the following address to the King so as to opt out of the Irish Free State:
Discussion in the Parliament of the address was short. Prime Minister Craig left for London with the memorial embodying the address on the night boat that evening, 7 December 1922. The King received it the following day, The Times reporting:
With this, Northern Ireland had left the Irish Free State and rejoined the United Kingdom - after just over two days as part of the Irish Free State. If the Houses of Parliament of Northern Ireland had not made such a declaration, under Article 14 of the Treaty Northern Ireland, its Parliament and government would have continued in being but the Oireachtas
Oireachtas
The Oireachtas , sometimes referred to as Oireachtas Éireann, is the "national parliament" or legislature of Ireland. The Oireachtas consists of:*The President of Ireland*The two Houses of the Oireachtas :**Dáil Éireann...
would have had jurisdiction to legislate for Northern Ireland in matters not delegated to Northern Ireland under the Government of Ireland Act. This, of course, never came to pass. On 13 December 1922, Prime Minister Craig addressed the Parliament
Parliament of Northern Ireland
The Parliament of Northern Ireland was the home rule legislature of Northern Ireland, created under the Government of Ireland Act 1920, which sat from 7 June 1921 to 30 March 1972, when it was suspended...
informing them that the King had responded to the Parliament’s address as follows:
1886–1914
In the United Kingdom general election, 1885United Kingdom general election, 1885
-Seats summary:-See also:*List of MPs elected in the United Kingdom general election, 1885*Parliamentary Franchise in the United Kingdom 1885–1918*Representation of the People Act 1884*Redistribution of Seats Act 1885-References:...
the nationalist Irish Parliamentary Party
Irish Parliamentary Party
The Irish Parliamentary Party was formed in 1882 by Charles Stewart Parnell, the leader of the Nationalist Party, replacing the Home Rule League, as official parliamentary party for Irish nationalist Members of Parliament elected to the House of Commons at...
held the balance of power in the House of Commons, and entered into an alliance with the Liberals
Liberal Party (UK)
The Liberal Party was one of the two major political parties of the United Kingdom during the 19th and early 20th centuries. It was a third party of negligible importance throughout the latter half of the 20th Century, before merging with the Social Democratic Party in 1988 to form the present day...
. Its leader, Charles Stewart Parnell
Charles Stewart Parnell
Charles Stewart Parnell was an Irish landowner, nationalist political leader, land reform agitator, and the founder and leader of the Irish Parliamentary Party...
convinced William Gladstone
William Ewart Gladstone
William Ewart Gladstone FRS FSS was a British Liberal statesman. In a career lasting over sixty years, he served as Prime Minister four separate times , more than any other person. Gladstone was also Britain's oldest Prime Minister, 84 years old when he resigned for the last time...
to introduce the First Irish Home Rule Bill in 1886. Immediately, an Irish Unionist Party
Irish Unionist Party
The Irish Unionist Alliance was a Unionist party founded in Ireland in 1891 to oppose plans for Gladstonian and Parnellite Home Rule for Ireland. The party was led for much of its life by Colonel Edward James Saunderson and later by the William St John Brodrick, Earl of Midleton...
was founded and organised demonstrations in Belfast
1886 Belfast riots
The 1886 Belfast riots were a series of intense riots that occurred in Belfast during the summer and autumn of 1886.-Background:In the late 19th century Catholics began to migrate in large numbers to the prosperous Protestant city of Belfast in search of work. By the time of the riots Catholics...
against the Bill, fearing that separation from Great Britain
Great Britain
Great Britain or Britain is an island situated to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island, as well as the largest of the British Isles...
would bring industrial decline and religious persecution of Protestants by a Roman Catholic-dominated Irish government. Randolph Churchill
Lord Randolph Churchill
Lord Randolph Henry Spencer-Churchill MP was a British statesman. He was the third son of the 7th Duke of Marlborough and his wife Lady Frances Anne Emily Vane , daughter of the 3rd Marquess of Londonderry...
proclaimed: the Orange card is the one to play, which was later expressed in the popular slogan, Home Rule means Rome Rule
Rome Rule
"Rome Rule" was a term used by Irish unionists and socialists to describe the belief that the Roman Catholic Church would gain political control over their interests with the passage of a Home Rule Bill...
.
In the more rural parts of Ireland a "Land War
Land War
The Land War in Irish history was a period of agrarian agitation in rural Ireland in the 1870s, 1880s and 1890s. The agitation was led by the Irish National Land League and was dedicated to bettering the position of tenant farmers and ultimately to a redistribution of land to tenants from...
" (1879–1890) was under way, supported by nationalists, that had led to sporadic violence. The Representation of the People Act 1884
Representation of the People Act 1884
In the United Kingdom, the Representation of the People Act 1884 and the Redistribution Act of the following year were laws which further extended the suffrage in Britain after the Disraeli Government's Reform Act 1867...
had enlarged the popular franchise, and unionist property-owners were concerned that their interests would be reduced by a new Irish political class.
Although the Bill was defeated, Gladstone remained undaunted and introduced a Second Irish Home Rule Bill in 1892 that passed the Commons. Accompanied by similar massed Unionist protests, Joseph Chamberlain
Joseph Chamberlain
Joseph Chamberlain was an influential British politician and statesman. Unlike most major politicians of the time, he was a self-made businessman and had not attended Oxford or Cambridge University....
called for a (separate) provincial government for Ulster
Ulster
Ulster is one of the four provinces of Ireland, located in the north of the island. In ancient Ireland, it was one of the fifths ruled by a "king of over-kings" . Following the Norman invasion of Ireland, the ancient kingdoms were shired into a number of counties for administrative and judicial...
even before the bill was rejected by the House of Lords
House of Lords
The House of Lords is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster....
. The seriousness of the situation was highlighted when Irish Unionists throughout the island assembled conventions in Dublin and Belfast to oppose the Bill and the proposed partition.
When, in 1910, the Irish Party again held the balance of power in the Commons, Herbert Asquith introduced a Third Home Rule Bill
Home Rule Act 1914
The Government of Ireland Act 1914 , also known as the Third Home Rule Bill, was an Act passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom intended to provide self-government for Ireland within the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.The Act was the first law ever passed by the Parliament of...
in 1912. The Unionists adopted the positions they had demonstrated previously in 1886 and 1893. With the anti-democratic veto of the Lords removed by the Parliament Act 1911
Parliament Act 1911
The Parliament Act 1911 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It is constitutionally important and partly governs the relationship between the House of Commons and the House of Lords which make up the Houses of Parliament. This Act must be construed as one with the Parliament Act 1949...
, and the clear prospect of Home Rule passing into law, Ulster loyalists established an army the Ulster Volunteers in 1914 to oppose enactment of the Bill (and what they called its "Coercion of Ulster"), and threatened to establish a Provisional Ulster Government.
While the Home Rule Bill was still being debated, on 20 March 1914 many Army officers resigned (and others threatened to), in what became known as the "Curragh Incident
Curragh Incident
The Curragh Incident of 20 March 1914, also known as the Curragh Mutiny, occurred in the Curragh, County Kildare, Ireland. The Curragh Camp was then the main base for the British Army in Ireland, which at the time formed part of the United Kingdom....
" (also known, incorrectly, as "The Curragh Mutiny"), rather than be mobilised to enforce the Act on Ulster. This meant that the British government could legislate for Home Rule but could not be sure of making it a reality on the ground. This led on to an amending Bill that would exclude Ulster for an indefinite period, and the new fear of a civil war (between Unionism and Nationalism) in Ireland led to the Buckingham Palace Conference
Buckingham Palace Conference
The Buckingham Palace Conference, sometimes referred to as the Buckingham Palace Conference on Ireland, was a conference called in Buckingham Palace in 1914 by King George V of the United Kingdom to which the leaders of Irish Nationalism and Irish Unionism were invited to discuss plans to introduce...
in July.
1914–1922
The Home Rule Act reached the statuteStatute
A statute is a formal written enactment of a legislative authority that governs a state, city, or county. Typically, statutes command or prohibit something, or declare policy. The word is often used to distinguish law made by legislative bodies from case law, decided by courts, and regulations...
books with Royal Assent
Royal Assent
The granting of royal assent refers to the method by which any constitutional monarch formally approves and promulgates an act of his or her nation's parliament, thus making it a law...
in September 1914 but, because of the First World War, its commencement was suspended for one year or for the duration of what was expected to be a short war. Originally intended to grant self-government to the entire island of Ireland as a single jurisdiction under Dublin administration, the final version as enacted in 1914 included an amendment clause for six Ulster counties to remain under London administration for a proposed trial period of six years, yet to be finally agreed. This was belatedly conceded by John Redmond
John Redmond
John Edward Redmond was an Irish nationalist politician, barrister, MP in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and leader of the Irish Parliamentary Party from 1900 to 1918...
leader of the Irish Party as a compromise in order to pacify Ulster Unionists and avoid civil war.
In 1917-18 the Irish Convention
Irish Convention
The Irish Convention was an assembly which sat in Dublin, Ireland from July 1917 until March 1918 to address the Irish Question and other constitutional problems relating to an early enactment of self-government for Ireland, to debate its wider future, discuss and come to an understanding on...
attempted to resolve what sort of Home Rule would follow the First World War. Unionist and Nationalist politicians met for the last time before partition. The Ulster Unionists preferred to remain within the United Kingdom; the Nationalist Home Rule parties and the Southern Unionists argued against partition. The nascent Sinn Féin
Sinn Féin
Sinn Féin is a left wing, Irish republican political party in Ireland. The name is Irish for "ourselves" or "we ourselves", although it is frequently mistranslated as "ourselves alone". Originating in the Sinn Féin organisation founded in 1905 by Arthur Griffith, it took its current form in 1970...
party refused to attend.
Soon after the end of the war Sinn Féin
Sinn Féin
Sinn Féin is a left wing, Irish republican political party in Ireland. The name is Irish for "ourselves" or "we ourselves", although it is frequently mistranslated as "ourselves alone". Originating in the Sinn Féin organisation founded in 1905 by Arthur Griffith, it took its current form in 1970...
won the overwhelming majority of the Irish parliamentary seats in the United Kingdom general election of 1918
United Kingdom general election, 1918
The United Kingdom general election of 1918 was the first to be held after the Representation of the People Act 1918, which meant it was the first United Kingdom general election in which nearly all adult men and some women could vote. Polling was held on 14 December 1918, although the count did...
, and in January 1919 the Sinn Féin members declared unilaterally an independent (all-island) Irish Republic
Irish Republic
The Irish Republic was a revolutionary state that declared its independence from Great Britain in January 1919. It established a legislature , a government , a court system and a police force...
. Unionists, however, won a majority of seats in four of the nine counties of Ulster and affirmed their continuing loyalty to the United Kingdom. Following the Paris Peace Conference
Paris Peace Conference, 1919
The Paris Peace Conference was the meeting of the Allied victors following the end of World War I to set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers following the armistices of 1918. It took place in Paris in 1919 and involved diplomats from more than 32 countries and nationalities...
, in September 1919 Lloyd George
David Lloyd George
David Lloyd George, 1st Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor OM, PC was a British Liberal politician and statesman...
tasked the Long Committee to implement Britain’s commitment to introduce Home Rule, which was based on the policy of Walter Long, and some findings of the Irish Convention
Irish Convention
The Irish Convention was an assembly which sat in Dublin, Ireland from July 1917 until March 1918 to address the Irish Question and other constitutional problems relating to an early enactment of self-government for Ireland, to debate its wider future, discuss and come to an understanding on...
. The result was to be two home-rule Irelands, and in November 1920 the Government of Ireland Act 1920
Government of Ireland Act 1920
The Government of Ireland Act 1920 was the Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which partitioned Ireland. The Act's long title was "An Act to provide for the better government of Ireland"; it is also known as the Fourth Home Rule Bill or as the Fourth Home Rule Act.The Act was intended...
was enacted. As a result of this, in April 1921 the island was partitioned into Southern and Northern Ireland.
In June 1921, shortly before the truce that ended the Anglo-Irish War, David Lloyd-George invited the nationalist leader Éamon de Valera
Éamon de Valera
Éamon de Valera was one of the dominant political figures in twentieth century Ireland, serving as head of government of the Irish Free State and head of government and head of state of Ireland...
to talks in London on an equal footing with the Unionist leader (and new Northern Irish prime minister) Sir James Craig
James Craig, 1st Viscount Craigavon
James Craig, 1st Viscount Craigavon, PC, PC , was a prominent Irish unionist politician, leader of the Ulster Unionist Party and the first Prime Minister of Northern Ireland...
, which De Valera attended. On 20 July Lloyd-George declared to De Valera that: In reply, De Valera wrote
The Treaty as ratified in December 1921-January 1922 allowed for a re-drawing of the mutual border by a Boundary Commission
Boundary Commission (Ireland)
The Irish Boundary Commission was a commission which met in 1924–25 to decide on the precise delineation of the border between the Irish Free State and Northern Ireland...
. Northern Ireland was deemed to be a part of the Irish Free State, whenever it became established, but its parliament would be allowed to vote to secede within a month; the so-called "Ulster month".
Unionist objections to Anglo-Irish Treaty
Sir James CraigJames Craig, 1st Viscount Craigavon
James Craig, 1st Viscount Craigavon, PC, PC , was a prominent Irish unionist politician, leader of the Ulster Unionist Party and the first Prime Minister of Northern Ireland...
, the Prime Minister of Northern Ireland objected to aspects of the Anglo-Irish Treaty
Anglo-Irish Treaty
The Anglo-Irish Treaty , officially called the Articles of Agreement for a Treaty Between Great Britain and Ireland, was a treaty between the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and representatives of the secessionist Irish Republic that concluded the Irish War of...
. In a letter to Mr Austin Chamberlain dated 14 December 1921, he stated:
Nationalist objections to the Anglo-Irish Treaty
The Treaty terms were ratified by the Dáil on 7 January 1922 by 64-57, but the minority refused to be bound by the result. The main dispute centred on the proposed status as a dominionDominion
A dominion, often Dominion, refers to one of a group of autonomous polities that were nominally under British sovereignty, constituting the British Empire and British Commonwealth, beginning in the latter part of the 19th century. They have included Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Newfoundland,...
(as represented by the Oath of Allegiance and Fidelity) for Southern Ireland
Southern Ireland
Southern Ireland was a short-lived autonomous region of the United Kingdom established on 3 May 1921 and dissolved on 6 December 1922.Southern Ireland was established under the Government of Ireland Act 1920 together with its sister region, Northern Ireland...
, rather than as an independent all-Ireland republic
Republic
A republic is a form of government in which the people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over the government and where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people. In modern times, a common simplified definition of a republic is a government where the head of...
, but continuing partition was a significant matter for Ulstermen like Sean MacEntee
Seán MacEntee
Seán MacEntee was an Irish politician. In a career that spanned over forty years as a Fianna Fáil Teachta Dála, MacEntee was one of the most important figures in post-independence Ireland. He served in the governments of Éamon de Valera and Seán Lemass in a range of ministerial positions,...
, who spoke strongly against partition or re-partition of any kind. The pro-Treaty side argued that the proposed Boundary Commission would satisfy the greatest number on each side of the eventual border, and felt that the Council of Ireland
Council of Ireland
The Council of Ireland may refer to one of two councils, one established in the 1920s, the other in the 1970s.-Council of Ireland :...
(as envisaged by the 1920 Home Rule Act) would lead to unity by consent over a longer period.
The anti-Treaty group's leader, Éamon de Valera
Éamon de Valera
Éamon de Valera was one of the dominant political figures in twentieth century Ireland, serving as head of government of the Irish Free State and head of government and head of state of Ireland...
, had drafted his own preferred text of the Treaty in December 1921, known as "Document No. 2". An "Addendum North East Ulster" indicates his acceptance of the 1920 partition for the time being, and of the rest of Treaty text as signed in regard to Northern Ireland:
Debate on Ulster Month
As described above, under the treaty it was provided that Northern Ireland would have a month – the "Ulster Month" – during which its Houses of Parliament could opt out of the Irish Free State. There was some debate on when that Ulster Month should run from: From the date that the Treaty was ratified (in March 1922 via the Irish Free State (Agreement) Act) or the date that the Constitution of the Irish Free State was approved and the Free State established (6 December 1922).When the Irish Free State (Agreement) Bill was being debated on 21 March 1922, amendments were proposed which would have provided that the Ulster Month would run from the passing of the Irish Free State (Agreement) Act and not the Act that would establish the Irish Free State. Essentially, those who put down the amendments wished to bring forward the month during which Northern Ireland could exercise its right to opt out of the Irish Free State. They justified this view on the basis that if Northern Ireland could exercise its option to opt out at an earlier date, this would help to settle any state of anxiety or trouble on the Northern Ireland frontier. The Treaty was ambiguous on whether the month should run from the date the Anglo-Irish Treaty was ratified or the date that the Irish Free State was established. The British Government took the view that the Ulster Month should run from the date the Irish Free State was established and not beforehand, Viscount Peel for the Government remarking:
Viscount Peel continued by saying the government desired that there should be no ambiguity and would to add a proviso to the Irish Free State (Agreement) Bill providing that the Ulster month should run from the passing of the Act establishing the Irish Free State. He further explained that the members of the Parliament of Southern Ireland
Parliament of Southern Ireland
The Parliament of Southern Ireland was a home rule legislature set up by the British Government during the Irish War of Independence under the Fourth Home Rule Bill...
had agreed to put that interpretation upon it. He noted that he had received from Mr. Arthur Griffith
Arthur Griffith
Arthur Griffith was the founder and third leader of Sinn Féin. He served as President of Dáil Éireann from January to August 1922, and was head of the Irish delegation at the negotiations in London that produced the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921.-Early life:...
the following letter dated 20 March 1922:
On 7 December 1922, the day after the establishment of the Irish Free State, the House of Commons of Northern Ireland
House of Commons of Northern Ireland
The House of Commons of Northern Ireland was the lower house of the Parliament of Northern Ireland created under the Government of Ireland Act 1920. The upper house in the bicameral parliament was called the Senate. It was abolished with the passing of the Northern Ireland Constitution Act...
heard an address by Sir James Craig to King George V requesting: "...that the powers of the Parliament and Government of the Irish Free State shall no longer extend to Northern Ireland". No division or vote was requested on the address, which was described as the Constitution Act and was then approved by the Senate of Northern Ireland
Senate of Northern Ireland
The Senate of Northern Ireland was the upper house of the Parliament of Northern Ireland created by the Government of Ireland Act 1920. It was abolished with the passing of the Northern Ireland Constitution Act 1973.-Powers:...
.
Boundary Commission 1922–25
The Anglo-Irish Treaty contained a provision that would establish a boundary commissionBoundary Commission (Ireland)
The Irish Boundary Commission was a commission which met in 1924–25 to decide on the precise delineation of the border between the Irish Free State and Northern Ireland...
, which could adjust the border as drawn up in 1920. Most leaders in the Free State, both pro- and anti-Treaty, assumed that the commission would award largely nationalist areas such as County Fermanagh
County Fermanagh
Fermanagh District Council is the only one of the 26 district councils in Northern Ireland that contains all of the county it is named after. The district council also contains a small section of County Tyrone in the Dromore and Kilskeery road areas....
, County Tyrone
County Tyrone
Historically Tyrone stretched as far north as Lough Foyle, and comprised part of modern day County Londonderry east of the River Foyle. The majority of County Londonderry was carved out of Tyrone between 1610-1620 when that land went to the Guilds of London to set up profit making schemes based on...
, South Londonderry
County Londonderry
The place name Derry is an anglicisation of the old Irish Daire meaning oak-grove or oak-wood. As with the city, its name is subject to the Derry/Londonderry name dispute, with the form Derry preferred by nationalists and Londonderry preferred by unionists...
, South Armagh
County Armagh
-History:Ancient Armagh was the territory of the Ulaid before the fourth century AD. It was ruled by the Red Branch, whose capital was Emain Macha near Armagh. The site, and subsequently the city, were named after the goddess Macha...
and South Down
County Down
-Cities:*Belfast *Newry -Large towns:*Dundonald*Newtownards*Bangor-Medium towns:...
, and the City of Derry
Derry
Derry or Londonderry is the second-biggest city in Northern Ireland and the fourth-biggest city on the island of Ireland. The name Derry is an anglicisation of the Irish name Doire or Doire Cholmcille meaning "oak-wood of Colmcille"...
to the Free State, and that the remnant of Northern Ireland would not be economically viable and would eventually opt for union with the rest of the island as well. In the event, the commission's decision was made for it by the inter-governmental agreement of 3 December 1925 that was published later that day by Stanley Baldwin
Stanley Baldwin
Stanley Baldwin, 1st Earl Baldwin of Bewdley, KG, PC was a British Conservative politician, who dominated the government in his country between the two world wars...
. As a result the Commission's report was not published; the detailed article explains the factors involved.
The Dáil voted to approve the agreement, by a supplementary Act, on 10 December 1925 by a vote of 71 to 20.
Background
The exact division of territorial waters as between Northern Ireland and the Irish Free State was to be a lingering matter of controversy for a number of years. Section 1(2) of the Government of Ireland Act 1920 defined the respective territories of Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland as follows:At the time of that Act, both Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland were to remain parts of the United Kingdom. Perhaps because of this, the Act did not explicitly address the position of territorial waters, although section 11(4) provided that neither Southern Ireland nor Northern Ireland would have any competence to make laws in respect of “lighthouses, buoys, or beacons (except so far as they can consistently with any general Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom be constructed or maintained by a local harbour authority)”.
When the territory that was Southern Ireland
Southern Ireland
Southern Ireland was a short-lived autonomous region of the United Kingdom established on 3 May 1921 and dissolved on 6 December 1922.Southern Ireland was established under the Government of Ireland Act 1920 together with its sister region, Northern Ireland...
ultimately became a separate self-governing dominion outside the United Kingdom known as the Irish Free State
Irish Free State
The Irish Free State was the state established as a Dominion on 6 December 1922 under the Anglo-Irish Treaty, signed by the British government and Irish representatives exactly twelve months beforehand...
, the status of the territorial waters naturally took on a significance it had not had before. The Northern Ireland Unionists were conscious of this matter from an early stage. They were keen to put it beyond doubt that the territorial waters around Northern Ireland would not belong to the Irish Free State. In this regard, Sir James Craig
James Craig, 1st Viscount Craigavon
James Craig, 1st Viscount Craigavon, PC, PC , was a prominent Irish unionist politician, leader of the Ulster Unionist Party and the first Prime Minister of Northern Ireland...
, the Prime Minister of Northern Ireland
Prime Minister of Northern Ireland
The Prime Minister of Northern Ireland was the de facto head of the Government of Northern Ireland. No such office was provided for in the Government of Ireland Act 1920. However the Lord Lieutenant, as with Governors-General in other Westminster Systems such as in Canada, chose to appoint someone...
put the following question in the British House of Commons on 27 November 1922 (the month before the establishment of the Irish Free State):
In response the Attorney General, Sir Douglas Hogg
Douglas Hogg, 1st Viscount Hailsham
Douglas McGarel Hogg, 1st Viscount Hailsham PC was a British lawyer and Conservative politician.-Background:...
, said that “I have considered the question, and I have given an opinion that that is so [i.e. the territorial waters do go with the counties]".
Dispute arises
A particular dispute arose between the Government of the Irish Free State of the one part and the Northern Ireland and UK Governments of the other part over territorial waters in Lough FoyleLough Foyle
Lough Foyle, sometimes Loch Foyle , is the estuary of the River Foyle in Ulster. It starts where the Foyle leaves Derry. It separates the Inishowen Peninsula in County Donegal, Republic of Ireland from County Londonderry in Northern Ireland.-Transport:...
. Lough Foyle lies between County Londonderry
County Londonderry
The place name Derry is an anglicisation of the old Irish Daire meaning oak-grove or oak-wood. As with the city, its name is subject to the Derry/Londonderry name dispute, with the form Derry preferred by nationalists and Londonderry preferred by unionists...
in Northern Ireland and County Donegal
County Donegal
County Donegal is a county in Ireland. It is part of the Border Region and is also located in the province of Ulster. It is named after the town of Donegal. Donegal County Council is the local authority for the county...
in the then Irish Free State. A court case in the Free State in 1923 relating to fishing rights in Lough Foyle held that the Free State’s territorial waters ran right up to the shore of County Londonderry. In 1925, the Chief Justice of the Irish Free State, Hugh Kennedy
Hugh Kennedy
Hugh Kennedy was the only Attorney-General of Southern Ireland and the first Attorney-General of the Irish Free State, and later the first Chief Justice of the Irish Free State. As a member of the Irish Free State Constitution Commission, he was also one of the constitutional architects of the...
advised the President of the Executive Council of the Irish Free State
President of the Executive Council of the Irish Free State
The President of the Executive Council of the Irish Free State was the head of government or prime minister of the Irish Free State which existed from 1922 to 1937...
, WT Cosgrave as follows:
In 1927, illegal fishing on Lough Foyle had become so grave that Northern Ireland Prime Minister, James Craig entered into correspondence with his Free State counterpart, W. T. Cosgrave. Craig indicated to Cosgrave that he proposed to introduce a Bill giving the Royal Ulster Constabulary
Royal Ulster Constabulary
The Royal Ulster Constabulary was the name of the police force in Northern Ireland from 1922 to 2000. Following the awarding of the George Cross in 2000, it was subsequently known as the Royal Ulster Constabulary GC. It was founded on 1 June 1922 out of the Royal Irish Constabulary...
powers to stop and search vessels on Lough Foyle. Cosgrave asserted all of Lough Foyle was Free State territory and that as such a Bill of that nature would be rejected by the Free State and its introduction would create “a very serious situation”. Cosgrave then raised the matter with the British government.
In 1936 in Dáil Éireann
Dáil Éireann
Dáil Éireann is the lower house, but principal chamber, of the Oireachtas , which also includes the President of Ireland and Seanad Éireann . It is directly elected at least once in every five years under the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote...
, the Minister for External Affairs was asked if he intends to take any steps to safeguard and maintain the rights to fishing in certain parts of Lough Foyle, claimed by and hitherto enjoyed by Free State nationals. The Vice-President (for the Minister for External Affairs), responding, noted that there had been correspondence between the two Governments in recent years. He summarised the position as currently being that:
The Minister was criticised by Opposition politicians for his government's overall indecision on whether the Irish Free State should remain part of the British Commonwealth, a spokesman claiming this was why the Government had such difficulty with the British Government's first pre-condition.
World War II
With the fall of France in 1940, the British Admiralty ordered convoys to be re-routed through the north-western approaches which would take them around the north coast and through the North Channel to the Irish Sea. However, escorting those convoys raised a problem: it became imperative to establish an escort base as far west in the United Kingdom as possible. There was one obvious location: Lough Foyle. However, it remained unclear where the border was between the UK and Ireland in Lough Foyle. On 31 August 1940, Sir John Maffey, the UK's representative to the Irish government, wrote to the Dominions Office in London that:In September 1940 Maffey approached the Irish External Affairs Secretary, Joseph Walshe, to inform him ‘of the intended increase of light naval craft’ in Lough Foyle. The Royal Navy increased its use of Lough Foyle in the early months of 1941. The Royal Navy remained concerned that there might be a challenge to its use of the Foyle on the grounds that ships navigating the river to Lisahally and Londonderry might be infringing Irish neutrality. If the border followed the median line of Lough Foyle then the channel might be in Irish waters as it "lies near to the Eire shore". In mid-November 1941, legal opinions of solicitors to The Honourable The Irish Society were presented to the Royal Navy. The Hon. The Irish Society's view was that the whole of Lough Foyle was part of County Londonderry and accordingly the border could not be that of the median line of Lough Foyle. The Royal Navy continued to use its new base on the Foyle until 1970.
British Cabinet Consideration in 1949
At a British Cabinet meeting on 22 November 1948 it was decided that a Working Party be established to "[consider] what consequential action may have to be taken by the United Kingdom Government as a result of Eire's ceasing to be a member of the Commonwealth". The Working Party was charied by the Cabinet SecretaryCabinet Secretary
A Cabinet Secretary is almost always a senior official who provides services and advice to a Cabinet of Ministers. In many countries, the position can have considerably wider functions and powers, including general responsibility for the entire civil service...
, Norman Brook
Norman Brook, 1st Baron Normanbrook
Norman Craven Brook, 1st Baron Normanbrook GCB, PC , known as Sir Norman Brook between 1946 and 1964, was a British civil servant...
. Its report dated 1 January 1949 was presented by Prime Minister Clement Attlee
Clement Attlee
Clement Richard Attlee, 1st Earl Attlee, KG, OM, CH, PC, FRS was a British Labour politician who served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1945 to 1951, and as the Leader of the Labour Party from 1935 to 1955...
to the Cabinet on 7 January 1949. The following is para 23 of the Working Party's report (which speaks for itself):
Dispute simmers
The division of the territorial waters continued to be a matter disputed between the two Governments. A good summary of the Irish position was given by the then Taoiseach, Mr. Jack LynchJack Lynch
John Mary "Jack" Lynch was the Taoiseach of Ireland, serving two terms in office; from 1966 to 1973 and 1977 to 1979....
, during a Dáil debate on 29 February 1972:
Incidents have occurred from time to time in the disputed waters and they have been discussed in Dáil Éireann
Dáil Éireann
Dáil Éireann is the lower house, but principal chamber, of the Oireachtas , which also includes the President of Ireland and Seanad Éireann . It is directly elected at least once in every five years under the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote...
occasionally.
Current status
The territorial dispute between Ireland and the United Kingdom concerning Lough Foyle (and similarly Carlingford LoughCarlingford Lough
Carlingford Lough is a glacial fjord or sea inlet that forms part of the border between Northern Ireland to the north and the Republic of Ireland to the south. On its northern shore is County Down and on its southern shore is County Louth...
) is still not settled. As recently as 2005, when asked to list those areas of EU member states where border definition is in dispute, a British Government minister responding for the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs
Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs
The Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, commonly referred to as the Foreign Secretary, is a senior member of Her Majesty's Government heading the Foreign and Commonwealth Office and regarded as one of the Great Offices of State...
stated:
In 2009, the territorial dispute concerning Lough Foyle was raised in a meeting of the Northern Ireland Assembly
Northern Ireland Assembly
The Northern Ireland Assembly is the devolved legislature of Northern Ireland. It has power to legislate in a wide range of areas that are not explicitly reserved to the Parliament of the United Kingdom, and to appoint the Northern Ireland Executive...
's Committee for Enterprise Trade and Investment. The Committee was meeting to discuss Project Kelvin, a project involving the construction of an optic fibre submarine telecommunications cable between North America and Northern Ireland. Mr Derek Bullock, an executive from Hibernia Atlantic Limited, the cable-laying company leading the project's implementation had to explain to the Committee why the cable landing station was going to be located at Coleraine rather than Derry City as initially indicated. He explained that one of the reasons it had been decided not to locate the cable landing station in Lough Foyle was because:
The Foreign and Commonwealth Office
Foreign and Commonwealth Office
The Foreign and Commonwealth Office, commonly called the Foreign Office or the FCO is a British government department responsible for promoting the interests of the United Kingdom overseas, created in 1968 by merging the Foreign Office and the Commonwealth Office.The head of the FCO is the...
underlined its view on 2 June 2009 that all of Lough Foyle is in the United Kingdom, a spokesperson stating:
Partition and sport
Following partition some social and sporting bodies divided but others did not. Today in Ireland many sports, such as boxing, Gaelic footballGaelic football
Gaelic football , commonly referred to as "football" or "Gaelic", or "Gah" is a form of football played mainly in Ireland...
, Hurling
Hurling
Hurling is an outdoor team game of ancient Gaelic origin, administered by the Gaelic Athletic Association, and played with sticks called hurleys and a ball called a sliotar. Hurling is the national game of Ireland. The game has prehistoric origins, has been played for at least 3,000 years, and...
, Cricket
Cricket
Cricket is a bat-and-ball game played between two teams of 11 players on an oval-shaped field, at the centre of which is a rectangular 22-yard long pitch. One team bats, trying to score as many runs as possible while the other team bowls and fields, trying to dismiss the batsmen and thus limit the...
and Rugby union
Rugby union
Rugby union, often simply referred to as rugby, is a full contact team sport which originated in England in the early 19th century. One of the two codes of rugby football, it is based on running with the ball in hand...
, are organised on an all-island basis, with a single team representing Ireland in international competitions. Other sports, such as association football, have separate organising bodies in Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland is one of the four countries of the United Kingdom. Situated in the north-east of the island of Ireland, it shares a border with the Republic of Ireland to the south and west...
(Irish Football Association
Irish Football Association
The Irish Football Association is the organising body for association football in Northern Ireland, and was historically the governing body for Ireland...
) and the Republic of Ireland
Republic of Ireland
Ireland , described as the Republic of Ireland , is a sovereign state in Europe occupying approximately five-sixths of the island of the same name. Its capital is Dublin. Ireland, which had a population of 4.58 million in 2011, is a constitutional republic governed as a parliamentary democracy,...
(Football Association of Ireland
Football Association of Ireland
The Football Association of Ireland is the governing body for the sport of association football in the Republic of Ireland. It should not to be confused with the Irish Football Association , which is the organising body for the sport in Northern Ireland.For the full history, statistics and records...
). At the Olympics
Olympic Games
The Olympic Games is a major international event featuring summer and winter sports, in which thousands of athletes participate in a variety of competitions. The Olympic Games have come to be regarded as the world’s foremost sports competition where more than 200 nations participate...
, a person from Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland is one of the four countries of the United Kingdom. Situated in the north-east of the island of Ireland, it shares a border with the Republic of Ireland to the south and west...
can choose to represent either the Republic of Ireland
Olympic Council of Ireland
The Olympic Council of Ireland or OCI is the National Olympic Committee of the Republic of Ireland. Its mission is "to develop and protect the Olympic Movement in Ireland, in accordance with the International Olympic Committee’s guiding document — the Olympic Charter."-History:After the First...
team (which competes as "Ireland") or United Kingdom
British Olympic Association
The British Olympic Association is the national Olympic committee for Great Britain and Northern Ireland. It was formed in 1905 in the House of Commons, and at that time consisted of seven national governing body members from the following sports: fencing, life-saving, cycling, skating, rowing,...
team (which competes as "Great Britain"). Selection usually depends on whether his or her sport is organised on an all-Ireland, a Northern Ireland, or a UK basis. Sports organised on an all-Ireland basis are affiliated to the Republic of Ireland’s Olympic association
Olympic Council of Ireland
The Olympic Council of Ireland or OCI is the National Olympic Committee of the Republic of Ireland. Its mission is "to develop and protect the Olympic Movement in Ireland, in accordance with the International Olympic Committee’s guiding document — the Olympic Charter."-History:After the First...
, whereas those organised on a Northern Ireland or UK basis are generally affiliated to the UK’s Olympic association
British Olympic Association
The British Olympic Association is the national Olympic committee for Great Britain and Northern Ireland. It was formed in 1905 in the House of Commons, and at that time consisted of seven national governing body members from the following sports: fencing, life-saving, cycling, skating, rowing,...
.
Partition and rail transport
Rail transport in IrelandHistory of rail transport in Ireland
The history of rail transport in Ireland began only a decade later than that of Great Britain. By its peak in 1920, Ireland counted 5,500 route kilometers...
was seriously affected by partition. The railway network on either side of the Border relied on cross-border routes, and eventually a large section of the Irish railway's route network was shut down. Today only the cross-border route from Dublin to Belfast remains, and counties Cavan
County Cavan
County Cavan is a county in Ireland. It is part of the Border Region and is also located in the province of Ulster. It is named after the town of Cavan. Cavan County Council is the local authority for the county...
, Donegal
County Donegal
County Donegal is a county in Ireland. It is part of the Border Region and is also located in the province of Ulster. It is named after the town of Donegal. Donegal County Council is the local authority for the county...
, Fermanagh
County Fermanagh
Fermanagh District Council is the only one of the 26 district councils in Northern Ireland that contains all of the county it is named after. The district council also contains a small section of County Tyrone in the Dromore and Kilskeery road areas....
, Monaghan
County Monaghan
County Monaghan is a county in Ireland. It is part of the Border Region and is also located in the province of Ulster. It is named after the town of Monaghan. Monaghan County Council is the local authority for the county...
and Tyrone
County Tyrone
Historically Tyrone stretched as far north as Lough Foyle, and comprised part of modern day County Londonderry east of the River Foyle. The majority of County Londonderry was carved out of Tyrone between 1610-1620 when that land went to the Guilds of London to set up profit making schemes based on...
have no rail services.
Constitution of Ireland 1937
De Valera came to power in Dublin in 1932 and drafted a new Constitution of IrelandConstitution of Ireland
The Constitution of Ireland is the fundamental law of the Irish state. The constitution falls broadly within the liberal democratic tradition. It establishes an independent state based on a system of representative democracy and guarantees certain fundamental rights, along with a popularly elected...
which in 1937 was adopted by plebiscite in the Irish Free State
Irish Free State
The Irish Free State was the state established as a Dominion on 6 December 1922 under the Anglo-Irish Treaty, signed by the British government and Irish representatives exactly twelve months beforehand...
. Its articles 2 and 3 defined the 'national territory' as: 'the whole island of Ireland, its islands and the territorial seas. The state was named 'Ireland' (in English) and 'Éire
Éire
is the Irish name for the island of Ireland and the sovereign state of the same name.- Etymology :The modern Irish Éire evolved from the Old Irish word Ériu, which was the name of a Gaelic goddess. Ériu is generally believed to have been the matron goddess of Ireland, a goddess of sovereignty, or...
' (in Irish
Irish language
Irish , also known as Irish Gaelic, is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family, originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish people. Irish is now spoken as a first language by a minority of Irish people, as well as being a second language of a larger proportion of...
); a United Kingdom Act of 1938
Eire (Confirmation of Agreements) Act 1938
The Eire Act 1938 was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed on 17 May 1938. It was the British implementing measure for the 1938 Anglo-Irish Agreements which were signed at London on 25 April 1938 by the Governments of Ireland and the United Kingdom...
described the state as "Eire".
To unionists in Northern Ireland, the 1937 constitution made the ending of partition even less desirable than before. Most were Protestants, but article 44 recognised the 'special position' of the Roman Catholic Church. Further, the preamble referred to: "...our Divine Lord, Jesus Christ, Who sustained our fathers through centuries of trial, Gratefully remembering their heroic and unremitting struggle to regain the rightful independence of our Nation,"; this was an independence that unionists had opposed, and seemed to imply in an insulting fashion that Jesus had sustained only the Irish independence movement, and never the unionist cause. All spoke English, but article 8 stipulated that the new 'national language' and 'first official language' was to be Irish, with English as the 'second official language'.
The irrendentist
Irredentism
Irredentism is any position advocating annexation of territories administered by another state on the grounds of common ethnicity or prior historical possession, actual or alleged. Some of these movements are also called pan-nationalist movements. It is a feature of identity politics and cultural...
texts in Articles 2 and 3 were deleted by the Nineteenth Amendment
Nineteenth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland
The Nineteenth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland introduced changes to Articles 2 and 3 of the constitution required by the 1998 Belfast Agreement . Prior to 1999, Articles 2 and 3 made the controversial claim that the whole island of Ireland formed one single "national territory"...
in 1998, as part of the Belfast Agreement
Belfast Agreement
The Good Friday Agreement or Belfast Agreement , sometimes called the Stormont Agreement, was a major political development in the Northern Ireland peace process...
.
Anti-partition groups
Nationalists also established a number of anti-partition groups campaigning against the border, starting with De Valera's National League of the NorthNational League of the North
The National League of the North was an Irish nationalist organisation active in Northern Ireland.The group was founded in May 1928 on the basis of a radical programme for the "National Unification of Ireland"...
(1928) which was renamed the Irish Union Association and then the Anti-Partition League in 1938. These were followed by the Northern Council for Unity
Northern Council for Unity
The Northern Council for Unity was an Irish republican political party founded in 1937 by Anthony Mulvey.The group was formed in 1937 following the promulgation of the Constitution of Ireland with the intention of opposing any measures that it felt helped to recognise the legitimacy of the...
, the Irish Anti-Partition League, the All Ireland Anti-Partition League
All Ireland Anti-Partition League
The Anti-Partition of Ireland League was a political organisation based in Northern Ireland. Founded in 1948, it campaigned for a united Ireland in both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland....
and finally National Unity (Ireland)
National Unity (Ireland)
National Unity was an Irish nationalist political study group in Northern Ireland.Nationalism in Northern Ireland in the late 1950s was dominated by the Nationalist Party. This effectively operated as a network of elected politicians. Its attempt to build a rank-and-file movement, the Irish...
in 1964. None achieved an electoral majority and they were prone to divisions.
In America the 1947 Irish Race Convention
Irish Race Conventions
The Irish Race Conventions were a disconnected series of conventions held in Europe and America between 1881 and 1994. None was concerned in defining the Irish as an ethnic race, but they were arranged to discuss some pressing or emerging political issues at the time concerning Irish Nationalism....
arranged for a vote in the US Congress
United States Congress
The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C....
whereby Marshall Aid for Britain would be conditional on the end of partition. The vote was lost by 206 votes to 139, with 83 abstaining.
British offer of unity in 1940
However, during the Second World War, after the French surrender, Britain made a qualified offer of Irish unity in June 1940, without reference to those living in Northern Ireland. The revised final terms were signed by Neville ChamberlainNeville Chamberlain
Arthur Neville Chamberlain FRS was a British Conservative politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from May 1937 to May 1940. Chamberlain is best known for his appeasement foreign policy, and in particular for his signing of the Munich Agreement in 1938, conceding the...
on 28 June 1940 and sent to Éamon de Valera. On their rejection, neither the London or Dublin governments publicised the matter.
Ireland/Éire
Éire
is the Irish name for the island of Ireland and the sovereign state of the same name.- Etymology :The modern Irish Éire evolved from the Old Irish word Ériu, which was the name of a Gaelic goddess. Ériu is generally believed to have been the matron goddess of Ireland, a goddess of sovereignty, or...
would effectively join the allies against Germany by allowing British ships to use its ports, arresting Germans and Italians, setting up a joint defence council and allowing overflights.
In return, arms would be provided to Éire and British forces would cooperate on a German invasion. London would declare that it accepted 'the principle of a United Ireland' in the form of an undertaking 'that the Union is to become at an early date an accomplished fact from which there shall be no turning back.'
Clause ii of the offer promised a Joint Body to work out the practical and constitutional details, 'the purpose of the work being to establish at as early a date as possible the whole machinery of government of the Union'.
The proposals were first published in 1970 in a biography of de Valera.
1945–1973
In May 1949 the Taoiseach John A. CostelloJohn A. Costello
John Aloysius Costello , a successful barrister, was one of the main legal advisors to the government of the Irish Free State after independence, Attorney General of Ireland from 1926–1932 and Taoiseach from 1948–1951 and 1954–1957....
introduced a motion in the Dáil strongly against the terms of the UK's Ireland Act 1949
Ireland Act 1949
The Ireland Act 1949 is a British Act of Parliament that was intended to deal with the consequences of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948 as passed by the Irish parliament...
that confirmed partition for as long as a majority of the electorate in Northern Ireland wanted it, styled in Dublin as the Unionist Veto. This was a change from his position supporting the Boundary Commission back in 1925, when he was a legal adviser to the Irish government. A possible cause was that his coalition
Coalition
A coalition is a pact or treaty among individuals or groups, during which they cooperate in joint action, each in their own self-interest, joining forces together for a common cause. This alliance may be temporary or a matter of convenience. A coalition thus differs from a more formal covenant...
government was supported by the strongly republican Clann na Poblachta
Clann na Poblachta
Clann na Poblachta , abbreviated CnaP, was an Irish republican and social democratic political party founded by former Irish Republican Army Chief of Staff Seán MacBride in 1946.-Foundation:...
. From this point on, all the political parties in the Republic were formally in favour of ending partition, regardless of the opinion of the electorate in Northern Ireland.
The new Republic could not and in any event did not wish to remain in the Commonwealth
Commonwealth of Nations
The Commonwealth of Nations, normally referred to as the Commonwealth and formerly known as the British Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of fifty-four independent member states...
and it chose not to join NATO when it was founded in 1949. These decisions broadened the effects of partition but were in line with the evolving policy of Irish neutrality
Irish neutrality
Ireland has a "traditional policy of military neutrality". In particular, Ireland remained neutral during World War II, and has never been a member of NATO or the Non-Aligned Movement. The formulation and justification of the neutrality policy has varied over time...
.
In 1966 the Taoiseach Seán Lemass
Seán Lemass
Seán Francis Lemass was one of the most prominent Irish politicians of the 20th century. He served as Taoiseach from 1959 until 1966....
visited Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland is one of the four countries of the United Kingdom. Situated in the north-east of the island of Ireland, it shares a border with the Republic of Ireland to the south and west...
in secrecy, leading to a return visit to Dublin by Terence O'Neill
Terence O'Neill
Terence Marne O'Neill, Baron O'Neill of the Maine, PC was the fourth Prime Minister of Northern Ireland and leader of the Ulster Unionist Party...
; it had taken four decades to achieve such a simple meeting. The impact was further reduced when both countries joined the European Economic Community
European Economic Community
The European Economic Community The European Economic Community (EEC) The European Economic Community (EEC) (also known as the Common Market in the English-speaking world, renamed the European Community (EC) in 1993The information in this article primarily covers the EEC's time as an independent...
in 1973. With the onset of The Troubles
The Troubles
The Troubles was a period of ethno-political conflict in Northern Ireland which spilled over at various times into England, the Republic of Ireland, and mainland Europe. The duration of the Troubles is conventionally dated from the late 1960s and considered by many to have ended with the Belfast...
(1969–98) a 1973 referendum showed that a majority of the electorate in Northern Ireland did want to continue the link to Britain, as expected, but the referendum was boycotted by Nationalist voters.
Possibility of British withdrawal in 1974
Following the start of the Troubles in Northern Ireland in 1969, the Sunningdale AgreementSunningdale Agreement
The Sunningdale Agreement was an attempt to establish a power-sharing Northern Ireland Executive and a cross-border Council of Ireland. The Agreement was signed at the Civil Service College in Sunningdale Park located in Sunningdale, Berkshire, on 9 December 1973.Unionist opposition, violence and...
was signed by the Irish and British governments in 1973. This collapsed in May 1974 due to the Ulster Workers' Council strike
Ulster Workers' Council Strike
The Ulster Workers' Council strike was a general strike that took place in Northern Ireland between 15 May and 28 May 1974, during "The Troubles". The strike was called by loyalists and unionists who were against the Sunningdale Agreement, which had been signed in December 1973...
, and the new British Prime Minister Harold Wilson
Harold Wilson
James Harold Wilson, Baron Wilson of Rievaulx, KG, OBE, FRS, FSS, PC was a British Labour Member of Parliament, Leader of the Labour Party. He was twice Prime Minister of the United Kingdom during the 1960s and 1970s, winning four general elections, including a minority government after the...
considered a rapid withdrawal of the British Army and administration from Northern Ireland in 1974–75 as a serious policy option. The relevant cabinet notes remained secret until 2005.
The effect of such a withdrawal was considered by Garret FitzGerald
Garret FitzGerald
Garret FitzGerald was an Irish politician who was twice Taoiseach of Ireland, serving in office from July 1981 to February 1982 and again from December 1982 to March 1987. FitzGerald was elected to Seanad Éireann in 1965 and was subsequently elected to Dáil Éireann as a Fine Gael TD in 1969. He...
, the then Minister for Foreign Affairs in Dublin, and recalled in his 2006 essay. The Irish cabinet concluded that such a withdrawal would lead to widescale civil war and a greater loss of life, which the Irish Army of 12,500 men could do little to prevent.
Belfast Agreement 1998
The 1998 AgreementBelfast Agreement
The Good Friday Agreement or Belfast Agreement , sometimes called the Stormont Agreement, was a major political development in the Northern Ireland peace process...
was ratified by two referendums in both parts of Ireland, including an acceptance by the Republic that its claim to Northern Ireland would only be achieved by persuasion and peaceful means. This was an important part of the Northern Ireland peace process
Northern Ireland peace process
The peace process, when discussing the history of Northern Ireland, is often considered to cover the events leading up to the 1994 Provisional Irish Republican Army ceasefire, the end of most of the violence of the Troubles, the Belfast Agreement, and subsequent political developments.-Towards a...
that has been under way since 1993.
See also
- Articles 2 and 3 of the Constitution of IrelandArticles 2 and 3 of the Constitution of IrelandArticle 2 and Article 3 of the Constitution of Ireland were adopted with the constitution as a whole on 29 December 1937, but completely revised by means of the Nineteenth Amendment which took effect on 2 December 1999...
- Boundary Commission (Ireland)Boundary Commission (Ireland)The Irish Boundary Commission was a commission which met in 1924–25 to decide on the precise delineation of the border between the Irish Free State and Northern Ireland...
- Common Travel AreaCommon Travel AreaThe Common Travel Area is a passport-free zone that comprises the islands of Ireland, Great Britain, the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands. The area's internal borders are subject to minimal or non-existent border controls and can normally be crossed by Irish and British citizens with only...
- History of Ireland (1801–1922)History of Ireland (1801–1922)The whole island of Ireland formed a constituent part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 1801 to 1922. For almost all of this period, Ireland was governed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom in London through its Dublin Castle administration in Ireland. Ireland faced...
- Crown of Ireland Act 1542Crown of Ireland Act 1542The Crown of Ireland Act 1542 is an Act of the Parliament of Ireland , declaring that King Henry VIII of England and his successors would also be Kings of Ireland. Since 1171 the monarch of England had held the title Lord of Ireland...
- History of Northern IrelandHistory of Northern IrelandNorthern Ireland is today one of the four countries of the United Kingdom, situated in the north-east of the island of Ireland, having been created as a separate legal entity on 3 May 1921, under the Government of Ireland Act 1920...
- History of the Republic of IrelandHistory of the Republic of IrelandThe Irish state originally came into being in 1922 as the Irish Free State, a dominion of the British Commonwealth, having seceded from the United Kingdom under the Anglo-Irish Treaty. It comprises of 26 of Ireland's 32 counties...
- Irish Civil WarIrish Civil WarThe Irish Civil War was a conflict that accompanied the establishment of the Irish Free State as an entity independent from the United Kingdom within the British Empire....
- Northern Ireland referendum, 1973Northern Ireland referendum, 1973The Northern Ireland sovereignty referendum of 1973 was a referendum held in Northern Ireland on 8 March 1973 on whether Northern Ireland should remain part of the United Kingdom or join with the Republic of Ireland to form a united Ireland...
- PartitionismPartitionismIn Ireland, partitionism refers to views on Irish politics, culture, geography or history that treat Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland as distinct. Partitionists may emphasise the perceived differences between the two jurisdictions and the people who live within them...
- Repartition of IrelandRepartition of IrelandThe repartition of Ireland has been suggested as a possible solution to the Troubles. It implies that the essential problem was that the partition of Ireland was gerrymandered, and as a result Northern Ireland contains a large Irish nationalist minority...
- Republic of Ireland-United Kingdom borderRepublic of Ireland-United Kingdom borderThe Republic of Ireland–United Kingdom border is the boundary between the sovereign states of the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland...
External links
- The Partition of Ireland (Workers Solidarity Movement - An anarchist organisation which supports the IRA)
- Ireland, Partition of (MSN Encarta)
- James Connolly: Labour and the Proposed Partition of Ireland (Marxists Internet Archive)
- The Socialist Environmental Alliance: The SWP and Partition of Ireland (The Blanket)
- Sean O Mearthaile Partition — what it means for Irish workers (The ETEXT Archives)
- Northern Ireland Timeline: Partition: Civil war 1922–1923 (BBC History)
- Home rule for Ireland, Scotland and Wales (LSE Library)
- Towards a Lasting Peace in Ireland ((Provisional) Sinn Féin)
- History of the Republic of Ireland (History World)