Japanese philosophy
Encyclopedia
Japanese Philosophy has historically been a fusion of both indigenous Shinto
and the continental religions, such as Buddhism
and Confucianism
. Formerly heavily influenced by both Chinese philosophy
and Indian philosophy
, as with Mitogaku
and Zen
, much modern Japanese philosophy is now also influenced by Western philosophy
.
was firmly established in Japan
, Buddhism
occupied the mainstream of Japanese thought. The Buddhism culture introduced politically by Prince Shotoku
is completed as the “making a country safe” thought in the Nara era. When the Heian era begins, in substitution for the “making a country safe thought”, mikkyo
becomes popular. However, in the late noble era when pessimism was popular due to the “belief that Buddhism will decline during the latter days of this world”, the Pure Land
movements spread out in the strong admiration to the future life in desperation over the life in this world. When the Kamakura era at which a samurai
grasps the government begins, the “new” Buddhism for the newly-risen class
(samurai) appears.
closely relates the national construction and the national centralization of power
. Prince Shotoku
and the Soga family, who overcame a war
against Mononobe family who had handled the Japanese ancient religion
, elaborated a plan for national governance
based on the legal codes system and Buddhism. While cooperating with Soga family, Prince Shotoku, who was the regency of the Emperor Suiko, showed deep understanding in “foreign” Buddhism, and he was going to stabilize national politics
with Buddhism. The thought that is going to get national peace and security with the power of Buddhism is called “making a country safe” thought. In the Nara era, the times of the Emperor Shomu
in particular, Kokubun-ji temples and Kokubun-ni-ji temples were erected in the whole country, and Todai-ji Temple and the Daibutsu
was erected in Nara
. As Jianzhen
of the Tang dynasty
brought an ordination platform in Todai-ji Temple, the Buddhism policy by the state reached the highlight.
As the Nara Buddhism has a strong aspect of the “making a safe country” thought, the Heian Buddhism brought not only national peace
and security
but also the personal this-world profit. Because they perform the severe ascetic practices, incantation
s and prayer
s in the mountains frequently, these Buddhism is called mikkyo
. Kukai
learned Chinese esoteric Buddhism and he initiated Japanese Shingon Buddhism
. Saicho
learned Chinese Tendai
sect, and he assumed that the spirit of the Lotus Sutra
was the core of Buddhism.
In the late Heian era of a "sinful age", possibility of the relief in this world was denied, and a trend looking for a reincarnation to the Buddnists' paradise
after the death rose. With the fashion of the “belief that Buddhism will decline during the latter days of this world”, Pure Land
movements for relief to the Buddnists' paradise spread out. Kuya
did play line of the countries and preached faith to the Amitabha
.
faith, which affected by the Jodo sect of the late Heian era, relies on salvation through the benevolence of Amitabha
, and is going to be relieved by its power. Honen, who initiated the Jodo sect of Buddhism, abandoned other ascetic practices entirely. He preached his pupils to believe in Amitabha and to earnestly pray "namu-amida-butsu
", and so they would go to the paradise. His pupil, Shinran
who initiated Pure Land Buddhism
, thoroughly carried out Honen’s teaching and preached the absolute dependence. In addition, Shinran advocated that an object of the relief of the Amitabha was a criminal who was aware of a worldly and desirous criminal oneself. Ippen
, who initiated the Jishu sect, began "the chanting religious dance".
As contrast with dependent Jōdō
faith, Zen
Buddhism attempts to be spiritually self-awakened by Zen meditation
. Eisai
learned Rinzai sect in China. He gave pupils a difficult problem and he made them solving the problem, and so his pupils would be enlightened by themselves. Rinzai Zen was supported widely by the upper samurai class in the Kamakura era. Dogen
learned Sōtō
sect in China. Oppose to Eisai, he preached enlightenment by earnest sitting meditation (zazen
). Soto Zen was supported by the local samurais.
Nichiren Buddhism
is an aggressive sect initiated by Nichiren
. He preached that only the Lotus Sutra
was the orthodox teaching. He advocated “attainment of Buddhahood during life” and “Rissho Ankoku” were realized by praying its title "nam-myo-horengekyo".
, the early modern thought of Japan was mainly Confucianism
or Neo-Confucianism
, which was designated for official study of the Tokugawa shogunate. In addition, rational
Confucianism stimulated Kokugaku
, Rangaku
and the non-official popular thought after the middle Edo era.
was the authorised study. Various schools of neo-Confucianism
were popular.
The Zhu Xi
school of neo-Confucianism respected family
-like feudal social position order. Hayashi Razan
assumed the Zhu Xi school of neo-Confucianism to be the theoretical basics of the Tokugawa shogunate. Through the principle of civilian
government
, Yushima Seido
dedicating to Confucius
was established. By the Kansei Reforms
, the Zhu Xi school of neo-Confucianism were still more strengthened and authorized by the Tokugawa shogunate. In addition, the thought of a school of the Zhu Xi school of neo-Confucianism gave big influence to the political movement advocating reverence for the Emperor
and the expulsion of foreigners
of the late Tokugawa era.
In contrast with the Zhu Xi school of neo-Confucianism, the Wang Yangming
school of neo-Confucianism respecting practical ethics
consistently monitored and oppressed by the Tokugawa shogunate because of criticisms for the socio-political conditions under the Tokugawa shogunate.
The third schools of neo-Confucianism took consideration into the real intentions of original texts by Confucius
and Mencius
. Yamaga Soko
established Bushido
based on Confucian ethic, and assumed the samurai
to be the highest class. Ito Jinsai
paid attention to "ren
” of Confucius and he respected "ren" as the love
for another person and "truth" as pure consideration. In addition, deriving from his substantial studies of ancient Chinese classics, Ogyu Sorai
insisted that original Confucian spirit is to rule the world
and to save a citizen.
, the study of ancient Japanese thought and culture, became popular against foreign ideas such as Buddhism
or Confucianism
. By Sakoku
policy of the Tokugawa shogunate, Edo intellectuals could not have any positive contact with Western civilization, and so Rangaku
, Dutch learning, was the only window to the West
.
In the middle days of Edo era, Kokugaku
became popular while being influenced by positivist Confucianism
with nationalism
as a background. Kokugaku positively studied ancient Japanese thought and culture, including "Kojiki
", "Nihon Shoki
" and "Manyoshu
", and they aimed at excavating original moral culture
of Japan which was different from Confucianism and Buddhism
. Kamo no Mabuchi
wrestled with the study of "Manyoshu" and called "masurao-buri" for masculine
and tolerant style, and he evaluated the collection as pure and simple. Through his study of "Kojiki", Motoori Norinaga
argued that the essence of the Japanese literature
came from "mono no aware
" which was natural feelings to occur when you contacted with an object. He respected Japanese "Yamato spirit" instead of Chinese (Confucianism / Buddhism) "Kara spirit". According to him, Kokugaku should pursue Japanese old way of "Shinto
". Through his study of Kokugaku, Hirata Atsutane
advocated nationalistic State Shinto
, the obedience to the Emperor
and abolition of Confucianism and Buddhism. It was a driving force to the end of the Tokugawa shogunate and the Meiji Restoration
.
In Sakoku
period of the Edo era, there was no direct contact with the West, but, Rangaku
became popular by encouraging importation of Western books translated in Chinese from China during the Kyoho Reforms
. Maeno Ryotaku and Sugita Genpaku
translated Dutch "Tafel Anatomie
" into Japanese. Dutch learning unfolded to other Western studies such as British, French and American studies by the late Tokugawa era. The manner of "Japanese spirit
, Western civilisation" was completed by Sakuma Shozan
’s straightforward expression, "Eastern ethics
and Western technology
". Because Takano Choei
and Watanabe Kazan
of the person of Dutch learning criticized Sakoku strictly, they were oppressed by the Tokugawa shogunate.
s, merchant
s and scholars who played an active part. Their thoughts were criticisms for the dominant feudal order.
Ishida Baigan synthesized Confucianism
, Buddhism
and Shinto
, and established practical philosophy for the masses. He recommended working hard at commerce
as the effect by honesty and thrift. Ando Shoeki
called nature's world the ideal society where all human beings engaged in farming and they lived self-sufficiently without artificiality. He criticized a lawful society where there were feudal class
discrimination and the difference between the rich and poor. Ninomiya Sontoku
insisted that people must repay the virtue
s, which supported their existence, with own virtue.
and Buddhism
, English Enlightenment
and French human rights
were prevalent after the Meiji Restoration
rapidly affected by Western thought. From the time of Sino-
and Russo-Japanese War
s, Japanese capitalism
highly developed. Christianity
and socialism
developed and they tied to various social movements. In addition, nationalistic thought and study were formed while being opposed to foreign study.
, English and French civil society
was introduced, in particular, utilitarianism
and social Darwinism
from England, and popular sovereignty
of Jean-Jacques Rousseau
from France.
The thinkers of the early Meiji period advocated British Enlightenment derived from Western civil society. They attempted to criticise Japanese traditional authority
and feudalism
. However, they were finally in harmony with the government and accepted the modernization
from the above without the radicalness. In 1873, Mori Arinori
formed Meirokusha
. The people who gathered in this cultural association had much in common with points such as regarding practical learning as important, catching human characteristics practically and assuming the form of government that accepted the conditions of a country an ideal. Mori Arinori promoted national education
as Minister of Education. Nishi Amane
affirmed a human behaviour based on interest. Kato Hiroyuki
threw away natural rights
under influence of social Darwinism
, and instead advocated the survival of the fittest.
Fukuzawa Yukichi
who introduced British utilitarianism
to Japan advocated the natural rights
assumed that the human rights
were given from the heaven. He considered the development of the civilization
to be the development of the human spirit, and it was assumed that one’s independence
led to independence of one country. Fukuzawa thought that there was the government
in "sake of the convenience", and its appearance should be suitable to the culture. He said that there is no single ideal form of government. In addition, he insisted that Japan should have gone into the continent externally against the Great Powers.
While members of Meirokusha
finally advocated harmonization of the government and people, democratic thinkers absorbed radical people’s rights
from France and they supported national resistance and revolution verbally against the Meiji oligarchy
after the Satsuma Rebellion
. In 1874, Itagaki Taisuke
introduced the establishment of the elected legislature
. It spread nationwide as the Freedom and People's Rights Movement
. Ueki Emori
helped Itagaki and he drew up a radical draft. Strongly influenced from Rousseau
, Nakae Chomin
argued for people’s sovereignty
and individual freedom. However, concerning with Japanese situation, he pointed out the importance of parliamentary monarchy. According to him, the Imperial Constitution
should be gradually revised by the Diet
.
From the late period of Meiji to the Taisho era, a democratic trend spread as a background of bourgeois political consciousness
. Its current led to political movements for safeguarding the Constitution
and for the popular election. Yoshino Sakuzo
argued for party cabinet politics and popular election. He did not deeply pursue who was the sovereign
but he insisted political goal aim for people’s happiness and political decision aim for people’s intention. Minobe Tatsukichi
interpreted a sovereign as not an emperor
but the state
. According to him, an emperor just only excises his power
as the highest organ under the Meiji Constitution
. Although his theory was widely acknowledged at first, he was politically suppressed by the military and the rightists afterwards.
In 1911, Hiratsuka Raicho formed Seitosha. She asked for awakening of women’s own and development of feminist movement
. While Yosano Akiko
denied gender
difference, Raicho emphasised motherhood raising a child and she acknowledged the official aids for women to demonstrate their feminine ability. In 1920, Raicho formed a new association for women with Ichikawa Fusae and Oku Mumeo. Soon after their activities were successful in woman’s participating at political address, the association were broken up by an internal split. Later, Ichikawa formed a new one and continued a movement for female suffrage.
s and socialists who struggled with social contradictions derived from Japanese modernity
. Christian social movements were active after the Sino-
and Russo-Japanese War
s which brought capitalism
and its contradiction to Japanese society. Many Japanese socialists were influenced by Christian humanism
, and in that point they were deeply associated with Christianity
.
Christianity, banned by the Tokugawa shogunate
, influenced many Meiji intellectuals. Uchimura Kanzo
developed “two Js” to unite traditional Bushido
and Christian spirit. He believed that his calling was to serve “Japan” and “Jesus”. He argued for the nonchurch movement
. He challenged the Imperial Rescript on Education
and spoke against the Russo-Japanese war
. Nitobe Inazo was a Quaker and attempted to unite Japanese culture and Christianity. He introduced Japanese culture abroad and he became secretary-general of the League of Nations
. Joseph Hardy Neesima
studied theology
abroad in the United States. He established Doshisha University
at Kyoto and he was engaged in Christian character building
.
About the time of Sino- and Russo-Japanese wars, Japan succeeded in capitalization through the industrial revolution
as soon as socialism
spread against capitalism
. However, the social movements were suppressed by the security police
law of 1900, and finally in the High Treason Incident
of 1910 socialists were pressed by the military and the fascist government … Kawakami Hajime
wrote articles about poverty
in a newspaper. He emphasized personal remodelling to solve poverty at first, however, later he became Marxist and he argued for social remodelling by social compulsion. Kotoku Shusui
originally attempted to realize socialism through the Diet
, however, he became a unionist
and he argued for a direct action by a general strike
. He was executed as the mastermind of the high treason incident of 1910. Osugi Sakae
argued for individual freedom using the principles of anarchism
and unionism
. He was seen as a threat by the government and was assassinated by military police
in the disorder following the 1923 Great Kanto earthquake
.
, Christianity
and socialism
have influenced Japanese thought since the Meiji Restoration
.
The emphasis on Japanese political culture
and national tradition
rose as a reaction against westernization
. This trend has had an ideological side of legitimizing imperialism
and militarism
/fascism
.
Tokutomi Soho
published a magazine in which he argued for liberal democracy
and populism
against Japanese westernization
. However, he was disillusioned with the bourgeois who should play a political part in … Kuga Katsunan
regarded Japanese political culture
and national tradition
very highly. He aimed for restoration and enhancement of national emotion; however, he was not a narrow-minded nationalist. He criticized the military and argued for a parliamentary system
of government and expansion of suffrage
.
After the Meiji Restoration
, Japanese government protected Shinto
and treated it well not as a special religion but as State Shinto
. The government closely related Shinto with the holy emperor
, and they used Shinto as a tool for their state governance
. State Shinto was clearly distinguished from private sects of Shinto religion
. It was a model of ideological state governance to form State Shinto and to promulgate the Imperial Rescript on Education
. Meiji statism
attempted to restore national sovereignty and pursued imperialism
and colonialism
through Sino-
and Russo-Japanese War
s. However, its militaristic trend developed to ultra-nationalism. Kita Ikki
advocated the exclusion of the zaibatsu
, senior statesmen and political parties
and the establishment of government for direct connection with the emperor and the people.
Yanagita Kunio was at the forefront of study of Japanese folklore
. He named general public who are not political leaders and intellectual
s as “jomin”. Other folklorists are Minakata Kumagusu
, Yanagi Muneyoshi
and Orikuchi Shinobu.
In pre-war Japan, German philosophy
was eagerly studied and introduced. However, from the late Meiji
to Taishō period
, Kyoto School
attempted to harmonize Western thought with Eastern thought such as Zen Buddhism. Nishida Kitaro
established an original thought by fusion of Zen and Western thought. His thought is called as Nishida philosophy. He insisted on pure experience
in which there is no opposition between subjectivity and objectivity. His ontology
derived from absolute nothingness. Watsuji Tetsuro criticized Western selfish individualism
. His ethics
says human beings are not isolated existence
but related existence. He insisted that individual and social beings should be aware of their own individuality and social membership. He is also well-known as his Climate and Culture in which he studied the relationship between natural environment and local lifestyle.
Shinto
or Shintoism, also kami-no-michi, is the indigenous spirituality of Japan and the Japanese people. It is a set of practices, to be carried out diligently, to establish a connection between present day Japan and its ancient past. Shinto practices were first recorded and codified in the written...
and the continental religions, such as Buddhism
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
and Confucianism
Confucianism
Confucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius . Confucianism originated as an "ethical-sociopolitical teaching" during the Spring and Autumn Period, but later developed metaphysical and cosmological elements in the Han...
. Formerly heavily influenced by both Chinese philosophy
Chinese philosophy
Chinese philosophy is philosophy written in the Chinese tradition of thought. The majority of traditional Chinese philosophy originates in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States era, during a period known as the "Hundred Schools of Thought", which was characterized by significant intellectual and...
and Indian philosophy
Indian philosophy
India has a rich and diverse philosophical tradition dating back to ancient times. According to Radhakrishnan, the earlier Upanisads constitute "...the earliest philosophical compositions of the world."...
, as with Mitogaku
Mitogaku
Mitogaku refers to a school of Japanese historical and Shinto studies that arose in the Mito domain, in modern-day Ibaraki prefecture.The school had its genesis in 1657 when Tokugawa Mitsukuni , second head of the Mito domain, commissioned the compilation of the Dai Nihon-shi...
and Zen
Zen
Zen is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism founded by the Buddhist monk Bodhidharma. The word Zen is from the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese word Chán , which in turn is derived from the Sanskrit word dhyāna, which can be approximately translated as "meditation" or "meditative state."Zen...
, much modern Japanese philosophy is now also influenced by Western philosophy
Western philosophy
Western philosophy is the philosophical thought and work of the Western or Occidental world, as distinct from Eastern or Oriental philosophies and the varieties of indigenous philosophies....
.
Ancient and medieval thought
Before feudalismFeudalism
Feudalism was a set of legal and military customs in medieval Europe that flourished between the 9th and 15th centuries, which, broadly defined, was a system for ordering society around relationships derived from the holding of land in exchange for service or labour.Although derived from the...
was firmly established in Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
, Buddhism
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
occupied the mainstream of Japanese thought. The Buddhism culture introduced politically by Prince Shotoku
Prince Shotoku
, also known as or , was a semi-legendary regent and a politician of the Asuka period in Japan who served under Empress Suiko. He was a son of Emperor Yōmei and his younger half-sister Princess Anahobe no Hashihito. His parents were relatives of the ruling Soga clan, and was involved in the defeat...
is completed as the “making a country safe” thought in the Nara era. When the Heian era begins, in substitution for the “making a country safe thought”, mikkyo
Mikkyo
Mikkyō is a Japanese term that refers to the esoteric Vajrayāna practices of the Shingon Buddhist school and the related practices that make up part of the Tendai school. There are also various Shingon- and Tendai-influenced practices of Shugendō...
becomes popular. However, in the late noble era when pessimism was popular due to the “belief that Buddhism will decline during the latter days of this world”, the Pure Land
Pure land
A pure land, in Mahayana Buddhism, is the celestial realm or pure abode of a Buddha or Bodhisattva. The various traditions that focus on Pure Lands have been given the nomenclature Pure Land Buddhism. Pure lands are also evident in the literature and traditions of Taoism and Bön.The notion of 'pure...
movements spread out in the strong admiration to the future life in desperation over the life in this world. When the Kamakura era at which a samurai
Samurai
is the term for the military nobility of pre-industrial Japan. According to translator William Scott Wilson: "In Chinese, the character 侍 was originally a verb meaning to wait upon or accompany a person in the upper ranks of society, and this is also true of the original term in Japanese, saburau...
grasps the government begins, the “new” Buddhism for the newly-risen class
Social class
Social classes are economic or cultural arrangements of groups in society. Class is an essential object of analysis for sociologists, political scientists, economists, anthropologists and social historians. In the social sciences, social class is often discussed in terms of 'social stratification'...
(samurai) appears.
The arrival of Buddhism and its early influence in Japan
In ancient Japan, the arrival of BuddhismBuddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
closely relates the national construction and the national centralization of power
Political power
Political power is a type of power held by a group in a society which allows administration of some or all of public resources, including labour, and wealth. There are many ways to obtain possession of such power. At the nation-state level political legitimacy for political power is held by the...
. Prince Shotoku
Prince Shotoku
, also known as or , was a semi-legendary regent and a politician of the Asuka period in Japan who served under Empress Suiko. He was a son of Emperor Yōmei and his younger half-sister Princess Anahobe no Hashihito. His parents were relatives of the ruling Soga clan, and was involved in the defeat...
and the Soga family, who overcame a war
War
War is a state of organized, armed, and often prolonged conflict carried on between states, nations, or other parties typified by extreme aggression, social disruption, and usually high mortality. War should be understood as an actual, intentional and widespread armed conflict between political...
against Mononobe family who had handled the Japanese ancient religion
Religion
Religion is a collection of cultural systems, belief systems, and worldviews that establishes symbols that relate humanity to spirituality and, sometimes, to moral values. Many religions have narratives, symbols, traditions and sacred histories that are intended to give meaning to life or to...
, elaborated a plan for national governance
Governance
Governance is the act of governing. It relates to decisions that define expectations, grant power, or verify performance. It consists of either a separate process or part of management or leadership processes...
based on the legal codes system and Buddhism. While cooperating with Soga family, Prince Shotoku, who was the regency of the Emperor Suiko, showed deep understanding in “foreign” Buddhism, and he was going to stabilize national politics
Politics
Politics is a process by which groups of people make collective decisions. The term is generally applied to the art or science of running governmental or state affairs, including behavior within civil governments, but also applies to institutions, fields, and special interest groups such as the...
with Buddhism. The thought that is going to get national peace and security with the power of Buddhism is called “making a country safe” thought. In the Nara era, the times of the Emperor Shomu
Emperor Shomu
was the 45th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.Shōmu's reign spanned the years 724 through 723.-Traditional narrative:...
in particular, Kokubun-ji temples and Kokubun-ni-ji temples were erected in the whole country, and Todai-ji Temple and the Daibutsu
Daibutsu
or 'giant Buddha' is the Japanese term, often used informally, for large statues of Buddha. The oldest is that at Asuka-dera and the best-known those of Tōdai-ji in Nara and Kōtoku-in in Kamakura , both National Treasures.- Examples :...
was erected in Nara
Nara, Nara
is the capital city of Nara Prefecture in the Kansai region of Japan. The city occupies the northern part of Nara Prefecture, directly bordering Kyoto Prefecture...
. As Jianzhen
Jianzhen
Jianzhen was a Chinese monk who helped to propagate Buddhism in Japan. In the eleven years from 743 to 754, Jianzhen attempted to visit Japan some six times.-Life:...
of the Tang dynasty
Tang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...
brought an ordination platform in Todai-ji Temple, the Buddhism policy by the state reached the highlight.
As the Nara Buddhism has a strong aspect of the “making a safe country” thought, the Heian Buddhism brought not only national peace
Peace
Peace is a state of harmony characterized by the lack of violent conflict. Commonly understood as the absence of hostility, peace also suggests the existence of healthy or newly healed interpersonal or international relationships, prosperity in matters of social or economic welfare, the...
and security
Security
Security is the degree of protection against danger, damage, loss, and crime. Security as a form of protection are structures and processes that provide or improve security as a condition. The Institute for Security and Open Methodologies in the OSSTMM 3 defines security as "a form of protection...
but also the personal this-world profit. Because they perform the severe ascetic practices, incantation
Incantation
An incantation or enchantment is a charm or spell created using words. An incantation may take place during a ritual, either a hymn or prayer, and may invoke or praise a deity. In magic, occultism, witchcraft it may be used with the intention of casting a spell on an object or a person...
s and prayer
Prayer
Prayer is a form of religious practice that seeks to activate a volitional rapport to a deity through deliberate practice. Prayer may be either individual or communal and take place in public or in private. It may involve the use of words or song. When language is used, prayer may take the form of...
s in the mountains frequently, these Buddhism is called mikkyo
Mikkyo
Mikkyō is a Japanese term that refers to the esoteric Vajrayāna practices of the Shingon Buddhist school and the related practices that make up part of the Tendai school. There are also various Shingon- and Tendai-influenced practices of Shugendō...
. Kukai
Kukai
Kūkai , also known posthumously as , 774–835, was a Japanese monk, civil servant, scholar, poet, and artist, founder of the Shingon or "True Word" school of Buddhism. Shingon followers usually refer to him by the honorific titles of and ....
learned Chinese esoteric Buddhism and he initiated Japanese Shingon Buddhism
Shingon Buddhism
is one of the mainstream major schools of Japanese Buddhism and one of the few surviving Esoteric Buddhist lineages that started in the 3rd to 4th century CE that originally spread from India to China through traveling monks such as Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra...
. Saicho
Saicho
was a Japanese Buddhist monk credited with founding the Tendai school in Japan, based around the Chinese Tiantai tradition he was exposed to during his trip to China beginning in 804. He founded the temple and headquarters of Tendai at Enryaku-ji on Mt. Hiei near Kyoto. He is also said to have...
learned Chinese Tendai
Tendai
is a Japanese school of Mahayana Buddhism, a descendant of the Chinese Tiantai or Lotus Sutra school.Chappell frames the relevance of Tendai for a universal Buddhism:- History :...
sect, and he assumed that the spirit of the Lotus Sutra
Lotus Sutra
The Lotus Sūtra is one of the most popular and influential Mahāyāna sūtras, and the basis on which the Tiantai and Nichiren sects of Buddhism were established.-Title:...
was the core of Buddhism.
In the late Heian era of a "sinful age", possibility of the relief in this world was denied, and a trend looking for a reincarnation to the Buddnists' paradise
Paradise
Paradise is a place in which existence is positive, harmonious and timeless. It is conceptually a counter-image of the miseries of human civilization, and in paradise there is only peace, prosperity, and happiness. Paradise is a place of contentment, but it is not necessarily a land of luxury and...
after the death rose. With the fashion of the “belief that Buddhism will decline during the latter days of this world”, Pure Land
Pure land
A pure land, in Mahayana Buddhism, is the celestial realm or pure abode of a Buddha or Bodhisattva. The various traditions that focus on Pure Lands have been given the nomenclature Pure Land Buddhism. Pure lands are also evident in the literature and traditions of Taoism and Bön.The notion of 'pure...
movements for relief to the Buddnists' paradise spread out. Kuya
Kūya
Kūya was an itinerant Japanese priest who, along with Genshin and Jakushin, was an early promoter of the practice of the nembutsu amongst the common people in order to attain salvation and entry into the Pure land of Amida...
did play line of the countries and preached faith to the Amitabha
Amitabha
Amitābha is a celestial buddha described in the scriptures of the Mahāyāna school of Buddhism...
.
Kamakura Buddhism
The JōdōJodo
, meaning "the way of the jō", or is a Japanese martial art using short staffs called jō. The art is similar to bōjutsu, and is strongly focused upon defense against the Japanese sword. The jō is a short staff, usually about 3 to 5 feet long...
faith, which affected by the Jodo sect of the late Heian era, relies on salvation through the benevolence of Amitabha
Amitabha
Amitābha is a celestial buddha described in the scriptures of the Mahāyāna school of Buddhism...
, and is going to be relieved by its power. Honen, who initiated the Jodo sect of Buddhism, abandoned other ascetic practices entirely. He preached his pupils to believe in Amitabha and to earnestly pray "namu-amida-butsu
Nianfo
Nianfo , is a term commonly seen in the Pure Land school of Mahāyāna Buddhism...
", and so they would go to the paradise. His pupil, Shinran
Shinran
was a Japanese Buddhist monk, who was born in Hino at the turbulent close of the Heian Period and lived during the Kamakura Period...
who initiated Pure Land Buddhism
Pure Land Buddhism
Pure Land Buddhism , also referred to as Amidism in English, is a broad branch of Mahāyāna Buddhism and currently one of the most popular traditions of Buddhism in East Asia. Pure Land is a branch of Buddhism focused on Amitābha Buddha...
, thoroughly carried out Honen’s teaching and preached the absolute dependence. In addition, Shinran advocated that an object of the relief of the Amitabha was a criminal who was aware of a worldly and desirous criminal oneself. Ippen
Ippen
Ippen Shonin , also known as Zuien, was a Japanese Buddhist itinerant preacher who founded the Ji branch of Pure Land Buddhism....
, who initiated the Jishu sect, began "the chanting religious dance".
As contrast with dependent Jōdō
Jodo
, meaning "the way of the jō", or is a Japanese martial art using short staffs called jō. The art is similar to bōjutsu, and is strongly focused upon defense against the Japanese sword. The jō is a short staff, usually about 3 to 5 feet long...
faith, Zen
Zen
Zen is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism founded by the Buddhist monk Bodhidharma. The word Zen is from the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese word Chán , which in turn is derived from the Sanskrit word dhyāna, which can be approximately translated as "meditation" or "meditative state."Zen...
Buddhism attempts to be spiritually self-awakened by Zen meditation
Zazen
In Zen Buddhism, zazen is a meditative discipline practitioners perform to calm the body and the mind, and be able to concentrate enough to experience insight into the nature of existence and thereby gain enlightenment .- Significance :Zazen is considered the heart of Zen Buddhist practice...
. Eisai
Eisai
Myōan Eisai was a Japanese Buddhist priest, credited with bringing the Rinzai school of Zen Buddhism and green tea from China to Japan. He is often known simply as Eisai Zenji , literally "Zen master Eisai"....
learned Rinzai sect in China. He gave pupils a difficult problem and he made them solving the problem, and so his pupils would be enlightened by themselves. Rinzai Zen was supported widely by the upper samurai class in the Kamakura era. Dogen
Dogen
Dōgen Zenji was a Japanese Zen Buddhist teacher born in Kyōto, and the founder of the Sōtō school of Zen in Japan after travelling to China and training under the Chinese Caodong lineage there...
learned Sōtō
Soto
Sōtō Zen , or is, with Rinzai and Ōbaku, one of the three most populous sects of Zen in Japanese Buddhism.The Sōtō sect was first established as the Caodong sect during the Tang Dynasty in China by Dongshan Liangjie in the 9th century, which Dōgen Zenji then brought to Japan in the 13th century...
sect in China. Oppose to Eisai, he preached enlightenment by earnest sitting meditation (zazen
Zazen
In Zen Buddhism, zazen is a meditative discipline practitioners perform to calm the body and the mind, and be able to concentrate enough to experience insight into the nature of existence and thereby gain enlightenment .- Significance :Zazen is considered the heart of Zen Buddhist practice...
). Soto Zen was supported by the local samurais.
Nichiren Buddhism
Nichiren Buddhism
Nichiren Buddhism is a branch of Mahāyāna Buddhism based on the teachings of the 13th century Japanese monk Nichiren...
is an aggressive sect initiated by Nichiren
Nichiren
Nichiren was a Buddhist monk who lived during the Kamakura period in Japan. Nichiren taught devotion to the Lotus Sutra, entitled Myōhō-Renge-Kyō in Japanese, as the exclusive means to attain enlightenment and the chanting of Nam-Myōhō-Renge-Kyō as the essential practice of the teaching...
. He preached that only the Lotus Sutra
Lotus Sutra
The Lotus Sūtra is one of the most popular and influential Mahāyāna sūtras, and the basis on which the Tiantai and Nichiren sects of Buddhism were established.-Title:...
was the orthodox teaching. He advocated “attainment of Buddhahood during life” and “Rissho Ankoku” were realized by praying its title "nam-myo-horengekyo".
Early modern thought
Whereas the ancient and medieval thought of Japan was tied closely to BuddhismBuddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
, the early modern thought of Japan was mainly Confucianism
Confucianism
Confucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius . Confucianism originated as an "ethical-sociopolitical teaching" during the Spring and Autumn Period, but later developed metaphysical and cosmological elements in the Han...
or Neo-Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism is an ethical and metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, that was primarily developed during the Song Dynasty and Ming Dynasty, but which can be traced back to Han Yu and Li Ao in the Tang Dynasty....
, which was designated for official study of the Tokugawa shogunate. In addition, rational
Rationality
In philosophy, rationality is the exercise of reason. It is the manner in which people derive conclusions when considering things deliberately. It also refers to the conformity of one's beliefs with one's reasons for belief, or with one's actions with one's reasons for action...
Confucianism stimulated Kokugaku
Kokugaku
Kokugaku was a National revival, or, school of Japanese philology and philosophy originating during the Tokugawa period...
, Rangaku
Rangaku
Rangaku is a body of knowledge developed by Japan through its contacts with the Dutch enclave of Dejima, which allowed Japan to keep abreast of Western technology and medicine in the period when the country was closed to foreigners, 1641–1853, because of the Tokugawa shogunate’s policy of national...
and the non-official popular thought after the middle Edo era.
Confucianism
In the Edo era, ConfucianismConfucianism
Confucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius . Confucianism originated as an "ethical-sociopolitical teaching" during the Spring and Autumn Period, but later developed metaphysical and cosmological elements in the Han...
was the authorised study. Various schools of neo-Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism
Neo-Confucianism is an ethical and metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, that was primarily developed during the Song Dynasty and Ming Dynasty, but which can be traced back to Han Yu and Li Ao in the Tang Dynasty....
were popular.
The Zhu Xi
Zhu Xi
Zhū Xī or Chu Hsi was a Song Dynasty Confucian scholar who became the leading figure of the School of Principle and the most influential rationalist Neo-Confucian in China...
school of neo-Confucianism respected family
Family
In human context, a family is a group of people affiliated by consanguinity, affinity, or co-residence. In most societies it is the principal institution for the socialization of children...
-like feudal social position order. Hayashi Razan
Hayashi Razan
, also known as Hayashi Dōshun, was a Japanese Neo-Confucian philosopher, serving as a tutor and an advisor to the first four shoguns of the Tokugawa bakufu. He is also attributed with first listing the Three Views of Japan. Razan was the founder of the Hayashi clan of Confucian scholars.Razan was...
assumed the Zhu Xi school of neo-Confucianism to be the theoretical basics of the Tokugawa shogunate. Through the principle of civilian
Civilian
A civilian under international humanitarian law is a person who is not a member of his or her country's armed forces or other militia. Civilians are distinct from combatants. They are afforded a degree of legal protection from the effects of war and military occupation...
government
Government
Government refers to the legislators, administrators, and arbitrators in the administrative bureaucracy who control a state at a given time, and to the system of government by which they are organized...
, Yushima Seido
Yushima Seido
, located in the Yushima neighbourhood of Bunkyō, Tokyo, Japan, was constructed as a Confucian temple in the Genroku era of the Edo period .-Tokugawa bureaucrat training center:...
dedicating to Confucius
Confucius
Confucius , literally "Master Kong", was a Chinese thinker and social philosopher of the Spring and Autumn Period....
was established. By the Kansei Reforms
Kansei Reforms
The were a series of reactionary policy changes and edicts which were intended to cure a range of perceived problems which had developed in mid-18th century Tokugawa Japan....
, the Zhu Xi school of neo-Confucianism were still more strengthened and authorized by the Tokugawa shogunate. In addition, the thought of a school of the Zhu Xi school of neo-Confucianism gave big influence to the political movement advocating reverence for the Emperor
Emperor
An emperor is a monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife or a woman who rules in her own right...
and the expulsion of foreigners
Alien (law)
In law, an alien is a person in a country who is not a citizen of that country.-Categorization:Types of "alien" persons are:*An alien who is legally permitted to remain in a country which is foreign to him or her. On specified terms, this kind of alien may be called a legal alien of that country...
of the late Tokugawa era.
In contrast with the Zhu Xi school of neo-Confucianism, the Wang Yangming
Wang Yangming
Wang Yangming was a Ming Chinese idealist Neo-Confucian philosopher, official, educationist, calligraphist and general. After Zhu Xi, he is commonly regarded as the most important Neo-Confucian thinker, with interpretations of Confucianism that denied the rationalist dualism of the orthodox...
school of neo-Confucianism respecting practical ethics
Ethics
Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy that addresses questions about morality—that is, concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime, etc.Major branches of ethics include:...
consistently monitored and oppressed by the Tokugawa shogunate because of criticisms for the socio-political conditions under the Tokugawa shogunate.
The third schools of neo-Confucianism took consideration into the real intentions of original texts by Confucius
Confucius
Confucius , literally "Master Kong", was a Chinese thinker and social philosopher of the Spring and Autumn Period....
and Mencius
Mencius
Mencius was a Chinese philosopher who was arguably the most famous Confucian after Confucius himself.-Life:Mencius, also known by his birth name Meng Ke or Ko, was born in the State of Zou, now forming the territory of the county-level city of Zoucheng , Shandong province, only thirty kilometres ...
. Yamaga Soko
Yamaga Soko
was a Japanese philosopher and strategist during the Tokugawa shogunate. He was a Confucian, and applied Confucius's idea of the "superior man" to the samurai class of Japan...
established Bushido
Bushido
, meaning "Way of the Warrior-Knight", is a Japanese word which is used to describe a uniquely Japanese code of conduct and a way of the samurai life, loosely analogous to the concept of chivalry. It originates from the samurai moral code and stresses frugality, loyalty, martial arts mastery, and...
based on Confucian ethic, and assumed the samurai
Samurai
is the term for the military nobility of pre-industrial Japan. According to translator William Scott Wilson: "In Chinese, the character 侍 was originally a verb meaning to wait upon or accompany a person in the upper ranks of society, and this is also true of the original term in Japanese, saburau...
to be the highest class. Ito Jinsai
Ito Jinsai
, who also went by the pen name Keisai, was a Japanese Confucian philosopher and educator. He is considered to be one of the most influential Confucian scholars of seventeenth century Japan, and the Tokugawa period generally, his teachings flourishing especially in Kyoto and the Kansai area...
paid attention to "ren
Ren (Confucianism)
Ren is a Confucian notion denoting, as rough approximation, the good feeling a virtuous human experiences when behaving rightly, especially toward others...
” of Confucius and he respected "ren" as the love
Love
Love is an emotion of strong affection and personal attachment. In philosophical context, love is a virtue representing all of human kindness, compassion, and affection. Love is central to many religions, as in the Christian phrase, "God is love" or Agape in the Canonical gospels...
for another person and "truth" as pure consideration. In addition, deriving from his substantial studies of ancient Chinese classics, Ogyu Sorai
Ogyu Sorai
, pen name Butsu Sorai, was a Japanese Confucian philosopher. He has been described as the most influential such scholar during the Tokugawa period. His primary area of study was in applying the teachings of Confucianism to government and social order...
insisted that original Confucian spirit is to rule the world
World
World is a common name for the whole of human civilization, specifically human experience, history, or the human condition in general, worldwide, i.e. anywhere on Earth....
and to save a citizen.
Kokugaku and Rangaku
In the middle of the Edo era, KokugakuKokugaku
Kokugaku was a National revival, or, school of Japanese philology and philosophy originating during the Tokugawa period...
, the study of ancient Japanese thought and culture, became popular against foreign ideas such as Buddhism
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
or Confucianism
Confucianism
Confucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius . Confucianism originated as an "ethical-sociopolitical teaching" during the Spring and Autumn Period, but later developed metaphysical and cosmological elements in the Han...
. By Sakoku
Sakoku
was the foreign relations policy of Japan under which no foreigner could enter nor could any Japanese leave the country on penalty of death. The policy was enacted by the Tokugawa shogunate under Tokugawa Iemitsu through a number of edicts and policies from 1633–39 and remained in effect until...
policy of the Tokugawa shogunate, Edo intellectuals could not have any positive contact with Western civilization, and so Rangaku
Rangaku
Rangaku is a body of knowledge developed by Japan through its contacts with the Dutch enclave of Dejima, which allowed Japan to keep abreast of Western technology and medicine in the period when the country was closed to foreigners, 1641–1853, because of the Tokugawa shogunate’s policy of national...
, Dutch learning, was the only window to the West
West
West is a noun, adjective, or adverb indicating direction or geography.West is one of the four cardinal directions or compass points. It is the opposite of east and is perpendicular to north and south.By convention, the left side of a map is west....
.
In the middle days of Edo era, Kokugaku
Kokugaku
Kokugaku was a National revival, or, school of Japanese philology and philosophy originating during the Tokugawa period...
became popular while being influenced by positivist Confucianism
Confucianism
Confucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius . Confucianism originated as an "ethical-sociopolitical teaching" during the Spring and Autumn Period, but later developed metaphysical and cosmological elements in the Han...
with nationalism
Nationalism
Nationalism is a political ideology that involves a strong identification of a group of individuals with a political entity defined in national terms, i.e. a nation. In the 'modernist' image of the nation, it is nationalism that creates national identity. There are various definitions for what...
as a background. Kokugaku positively studied ancient Japanese thought and culture, including "Kojiki
Kojiki
is the oldest extant chronicle in Japan, dating from the early 8th century and composed by Ō no Yasumaro at the request of Empress Gemmei. The Kojiki is a collection of myths concerning the origin of the four home islands of Japan, and the Kami...
", "Nihon Shoki
Nihon Shoki
The , sometimes translated as The Chronicles of Japan, is the second oldest book of classical Japanese history. It is more elaborate and detailed than the Kojiki, the oldest, and has proven to be an important tool for historians and archaeologists as it includes the most complete extant historical...
" and "Manyoshu
Manyoshu
is the oldest existing collection of Japanese poetry, compiled some time after 759 AD during the Nara period. The anthology is one of the most revered of Japan's poetic compilations. The compiler, or the last in a series of compilers, is believed to be Ōtomo no Yakamochi...
", and they aimed at excavating original moral culture
Culture
Culture is a term that has many different inter-related meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions...
of Japan which was different from Confucianism and Buddhism
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
. Kamo no Mabuchi
Kamo no Mabuchi
was a Japanese poet and philologist of the Edo period.Mabuchi conducted research into the spirit of ancient Japan through his studies of the Man'yōshū and other works of ancient literature...
wrestled with the study of "Manyoshu" and called "masurao-buri" for masculine
Masculine
Masculine or masculinity, normally refer to qualities positively associated with men.Masculine may also refer to:*Masculine , a grammatical gender*Masculine cadence, a final chord occurring on a strong beat in music...
and tolerant style, and he evaluated the collection as pure and simple. Through his study of "Kojiki", Motoori Norinaga
Motoori Norinaga
was a Japanese scholar of Kokugaku active during the Edo period. He is probably the best known and most prominent of all scholars in this tradition.-Life:...
argued that the essence of the Japanese literature
Japanese literature
Early works of Japanese literature were heavily influenced by cultural contact with China and Chinese literature, often written in Classical Chinese. Indian literature also had an influence through the diffusion of Buddhism in Japan...
came from "mono no aware
Mono no aware
, literally "the pathos of things", also translated as "an empathy toward things", or "a sensitivity to ephemera", is a Japanese term used to describe the awareness of , or the transience of things, and a gentle sadness at their passing.-Origins:...
" which was natural feelings to occur when you contacted with an object. He respected Japanese "Yamato spirit" instead of Chinese (Confucianism / Buddhism) "Kara spirit". According to him, Kokugaku should pursue Japanese old way of "Shinto
Shinto
or Shintoism, also kami-no-michi, is the indigenous spirituality of Japan and the Japanese people. It is a set of practices, to be carried out diligently, to establish a connection between present day Japan and its ancient past. Shinto practices were first recorded and codified in the written...
". Through his study of Kokugaku, Hirata Atsutane
Hirata Atsutane
was a Japanese scholar, conventionally ranked as one of the four great men of kokugaku studies, and one of the most significant theologians of the Shintō religion. His literary name was Ibukinoya.-Life and thought:...
advocated nationalistic State Shinto
State Shinto
has been called the state religion of the Empire of Japan, although it did not exist as a single institution and no "Shintō" was ever declared a state religion...
, the obedience to the Emperor
Emperor
An emperor is a monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife or a woman who rules in her own right...
and abolition of Confucianism and Buddhism. It was a driving force to the end of the Tokugawa shogunate and the Meiji Restoration
Meiji Restoration
The , also known as the Meiji Ishin, Revolution, Reform or Renewal, was a chain of events that restored imperial rule to Japan in 1868...
.
In Sakoku
Sakoku
was the foreign relations policy of Japan under which no foreigner could enter nor could any Japanese leave the country on penalty of death. The policy was enacted by the Tokugawa shogunate under Tokugawa Iemitsu through a number of edicts and policies from 1633–39 and remained in effect until...
period of the Edo era, there was no direct contact with the West, but, Rangaku
Rangaku
Rangaku is a body of knowledge developed by Japan through its contacts with the Dutch enclave of Dejima, which allowed Japan to keep abreast of Western technology and medicine in the period when the country was closed to foreigners, 1641–1853, because of the Tokugawa shogunate’s policy of national...
became popular by encouraging importation of Western books translated in Chinese from China during the Kyoho Reforms
Kyoho Reforms
The were an array of economic policies introduced by the Tokugawa Shogunate in 1736 Japan. These reforms were instigated by the eighth Tokugawa shogun of Japan, Tokugawa Yoshimune, encompassing the first twenty years of his shogunate....
. Maeno Ryotaku and Sugita Genpaku
Sugita Genpaku
was a Japanese scholar who was known for his translation of Kaitai Shinsho .Besides Kaitai Shinsho, he also authored Rangaku Kotohajime ....
translated Dutch "Tafel Anatomie
Kaitai Shinsho
is a medical text translated into Japanese during the Edo period. It is based on the Dutch-language translation Ontleedkundige Tafelen, often known in Japan as , of Kulmus’ German Anatomische Tabellen. As a full-blown translation from a Western language, it was the first of its kind in Japan...
" into Japanese. Dutch learning unfolded to other Western studies such as British, French and American studies by the late Tokugawa era. The manner of "Japanese spirit
Spirit
The English word spirit has many differing meanings and connotations, most of them relating to a non-corporeal substance contrasted with the material body.The spirit of a living thing usually refers to or explains its consciousness.The notions of a person's "spirit" and "soul" often also overlap,...
, Western civilisation" was completed by Sakuma Shozan
Sakuma Shozan
sometimes called Sakuma Zōzan, was a Japanese politician and scholar of the Edo era. He was the son of a samurai, and a native of Shinshu in today's Nagano-ken.From the age of 23, he went to Edo and for 10 years studied Chinese sciences ....
’s straightforward expression, "Eastern ethics
Ethics
Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy that addresses questions about morality—that is, concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime, etc.Major branches of ethics include:...
and Western technology
Technology
Technology is the making, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems or methods of organization in order to solve a problem or perform a specific function. It can also refer to the collection of such tools, machinery, and procedures. The word technology comes ;...
". Because Takano Choei
Takano Choei
was a prominent scholar of Rangaku of the late Edo period.Chōei was born as Gotō Kyōsai, the third son of Gotō Sōsuke who was a middle ranking samurai in Mizusawa Domain of Mutsu Province which is in present-day Iwate Prefecture...
and Watanabe Kazan
Watanabe Kazan
was a Japanese painter, scholar and statesman member of the samurai class.- Early life :He was born Watanabe Sadayasu in Edo to a poor samurai family, and his artistic talent was developed from an early age. His family served the lord of the Tahara Domain, located in present day Aichi prefecture....
of the person of Dutch learning criticized Sakoku strictly, they were oppressed by the Tokugawa shogunate.
Popular thought
In the Edo era, private schools were opened by samuraiSamurai
is the term for the military nobility of pre-industrial Japan. According to translator William Scott Wilson: "In Chinese, the character 侍 was originally a verb meaning to wait upon or accompany a person in the upper ranks of society, and this is also true of the original term in Japanese, saburau...
s, merchant
Merchant
A merchant is a businessperson who trades in commodities that were produced by others, in order to earn a profit.Merchants can be one of two types:# A wholesale merchant operates in the chain between producer and retail merchant...
s and scholars who played an active part. Their thoughts were criticisms for the dominant feudal order.
Ishida Baigan synthesized Confucianism
Confucianism
Confucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius . Confucianism originated as an "ethical-sociopolitical teaching" during the Spring and Autumn Period, but later developed metaphysical and cosmological elements in the Han...
, Buddhism
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
and Shinto
Shinto
or Shintoism, also kami-no-michi, is the indigenous spirituality of Japan and the Japanese people. It is a set of practices, to be carried out diligently, to establish a connection between present day Japan and its ancient past. Shinto practices were first recorded and codified in the written...
, and established practical philosophy for the masses. He recommended working hard at commerce
Commerce
While business refers to the value-creating activities of an organization for profit, commerce means the whole system of an economy that constitutes an environment for business. The system includes legal, economic, political, social, cultural, and technological systems that are in operation in any...
as the effect by honesty and thrift. Ando Shoeki
Ando Shoeki
was a Japanese philosopher of the 18th century. He rejected much of the Buddhist and Confucian thinking prevailing in Edo period Japan. He also opposed feudalism in the political system.-Notes:...
called nature's world the ideal society where all human beings engaged in farming and they lived self-sufficiently without artificiality. He criticized a lawful society where there were feudal class
Social class
Social classes are economic or cultural arrangements of groups in society. Class is an essential object of analysis for sociologists, political scientists, economists, anthropologists and social historians. In the social sciences, social class is often discussed in terms of 'social stratification'...
discrimination and the difference between the rich and poor. Ninomiya Sontoku
Ninomiya Sontoku
, born Ninomiya Kinjirō , was a prominent 19th century Japanese agricultural leader, philosopher, moralist and economist.-Life:Ninomiya Sontoku was born to a poor peasant family with a name of Kinjiro in Kayama Ashigarakami-gun Sagami province. His father died when he was 14 and his mother died...
insisted that people must repay the virtue
Virtue
Virtue is moral excellence. A virtue is a positive trait or quality subjectively deemed to be morally excellent and thus is valued as a foundation of principle and good moral being....
s, which supported their existence, with own virtue.
Late Modern thought
While the early modern Japanese thought developed in ConfucianismConfucianism
Confucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius . Confucianism originated as an "ethical-sociopolitical teaching" during the Spring and Autumn Period, but later developed metaphysical and cosmological elements in the Han...
and Buddhism
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
, English Enlightenment
Age of Enlightenment
The Age of Enlightenment was an elite cultural movement of intellectuals in 18th century Europe that sought to mobilize the power of reason in order to reform society and advance knowledge. It promoted intellectual interchange and opposed intolerance and abuses in church and state...
and French human rights
Human rights
Human rights are "commonly understood as inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being." Human rights are thus conceived as universal and egalitarian . These rights may exist as natural rights or as legal rights, in both national...
were prevalent after the Meiji Restoration
Meiji Restoration
The , also known as the Meiji Ishin, Revolution, Reform or Renewal, was a chain of events that restored imperial rule to Japan in 1868...
rapidly affected by Western thought. From the time of Sino-
First Sino-Japanese War
The First Sino-Japanese War was fought between Qing Dynasty China and Meiji Japan, primarily over control of Korea...
and Russo-Japanese War
Russo-Japanese War
The Russo-Japanese War was "the first great war of the 20th century." It grew out of rival imperial ambitions of the Russian Empire and Japanese Empire over Manchuria and Korea...
s, Japanese capitalism
Capitalism
Capitalism is an economic system that became dominant in the Western world following the demise of feudalism. There is no consensus on the precise definition nor on how the term should be used as a historical category...
highly developed. Christianity
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
and socialism
Socialism
Socialism is an economic system characterized by social ownership of the means of production and cooperative management of the economy; or a political philosophy advocating such a system. "Social ownership" may refer to any one of, or a combination of, the following: cooperative enterprises,...
developed and they tied to various social movements. In addition, nationalistic thought and study were formed while being opposed to foreign study.
The enlightenment and the people’s rights
In the Meiji RestorationMeiji Restoration
The , also known as the Meiji Ishin, Revolution, Reform or Renewal, was a chain of events that restored imperial rule to Japan in 1868...
, English and French civil society
Civil society
Civil society is composed of the totality of many voluntary social relationships, civic and social organizations, and institutions that form the basis of a functioning society, as distinct from the force-backed structures of a state , the commercial institutions of the market, and private criminal...
was introduced, in particular, utilitarianism
Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is an ethical theory holding that the proper course of action is the one that maximizes the overall "happiness", by whatever means necessary. It is thus a form of consequentialism, meaning that the moral worth of an action is determined only by its resulting outcome, and that one can...
and social Darwinism
Social Darwinism
Social Darwinism is a term commonly used for theories of society that emerged in England and the United States in the 1870s, seeking to apply the principles of Darwinian evolution to sociology and politics...
from England, and popular sovereignty
Popular sovereignty
Popular sovereignty or the sovereignty of the people is the political principle that the legitimacy of the state is created and sustained by the will or consent of its people, who are the source of all political power. It is closely associated with Republicanism and the social contract...
of Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer of 18th-century Romanticism. His political philosophy influenced the French Revolution as well as the overall development of modern political, sociological and educational thought.His novel Émile: or, On Education is a treatise...
from France.
The thinkers of the early Meiji period advocated British Enlightenment derived from Western civil society. They attempted to criticise Japanese traditional authority
Authority
The word Authority is derived mainly from the Latin word auctoritas, meaning invention, advice, opinion, influence, or command. In English, the word 'authority' can be used to mean power given by the state or by academic knowledge of an area .-Authority in Philosophy:In...
and feudalism
Feudalism
Feudalism was a set of legal and military customs in medieval Europe that flourished between the 9th and 15th centuries, which, broadly defined, was a system for ordering society around relationships derived from the holding of land in exchange for service or labour.Although derived from the...
. However, they were finally in harmony with the government and accepted the modernization
Modernization
In the social sciences, modernization or modernisation refers to a model of an evolutionary transition from a 'pre-modern' or 'traditional' to a 'modern' society. The teleology of modernization is described in social evolutionism theories, existing as a template that has been generally followed by...
from the above without the radicalness. In 1873, Mori Arinori
Mori Arinori
Viscount was a Meiji period Japanese statesman, diplomat and founder of Japan's modern educational system.-Early life:Mori was born in the Satsuma domain from a samurai family, and educated in the Kaisenjo School for Western Learning run by the Satsuma domain...
formed Meirokusha
Meirokusha
The ' was an intellectual society in Meiji period Japan that published social-criticism journal Meiroku Zasshi .Proposed by statesman Mori Arinori in 1873 and officially formed on 1 February 1874, the Meirokusha was intended to “promote civilization and enlightenment”, and to introduce western...
. The people who gathered in this cultural association had much in common with points such as regarding practical learning as important, catching human characteristics practically and assuming the form of government that accepted the conditions of a country an ideal. Mori Arinori promoted national education
Education
Education in its broadest, general sense is the means through which the aims and habits of a group of people lives on from one generation to the next. Generally, it occurs through any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts...
as Minister of Education. Nishi Amane
Nishi Amane
was a philosopher in Meiji period Japan who helped introduce Western philosophy into mainstream Japanese education.-Early life:Nishi was born in Tsuwano Domain of Iwami Province as the son of a samurai physician who practiced Chinese medicine...
affirmed a human behaviour based on interest. Kato Hiroyuki
Kato Hiroyuki
Baron was an academic and politician of the Meiji period Japan.-Biography:Katō was born to a samurai family in Izushi domain, Tajima Province , and studied military science under Sakuma Shōzan and rangaku under Oki Nakamasu in Edo...
threw away natural rights
Natural rights
Natural and legal rights are two types of rights theoretically distinct according to philosophers and political scientists. Natural rights are rights not contingent upon the laws, customs, or beliefs of any particular culture or government, and therefore universal and inalienable...
under influence of social Darwinism
Social Darwinism
Social Darwinism is a term commonly used for theories of society that emerged in England and the United States in the 1870s, seeking to apply the principles of Darwinian evolution to sociology and politics...
, and instead advocated the survival of the fittest.
Fukuzawa Yukichi
Fukuzawa Yukichi
was a Japanese author, writer, teacher, translator, entrepreneur and political theorist who founded Keio University. His ideas about government and social institutions made a lasting impression on a rapidly changing Japan during the Meiji Era...
who introduced British utilitarianism
Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism is an ethical theory holding that the proper course of action is the one that maximizes the overall "happiness", by whatever means necessary. It is thus a form of consequentialism, meaning that the moral worth of an action is determined only by its resulting outcome, and that one can...
to Japan advocated the natural rights
Natural rights
Natural and legal rights are two types of rights theoretically distinct according to philosophers and political scientists. Natural rights are rights not contingent upon the laws, customs, or beliefs of any particular culture or government, and therefore universal and inalienable...
assumed that the human rights
Human rights
Human rights are "commonly understood as inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being." Human rights are thus conceived as universal and egalitarian . These rights may exist as natural rights or as legal rights, in both national...
were given from the heaven. He considered the development of the civilization
Civilization
Civilization is a sometimes controversial term that has been used in several related ways. Primarily, the term has been used to refer to the material and instrumental side of human cultures that are complex in terms of technology, science, and division of labor. Such civilizations are generally...
to be the development of the human spirit, and it was assumed that one’s independence
Independence
Independence is a condition of a nation, country, or state in which its residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over its territory....
led to independence of one country. Fukuzawa thought that there was the government
Government
Government refers to the legislators, administrators, and arbitrators in the administrative bureaucracy who control a state at a given time, and to the system of government by which they are organized...
in "sake of the convenience", and its appearance should be suitable to the culture. He said that there is no single ideal form of government. In addition, he insisted that Japan should have gone into the continent externally against the Great Powers.
While members of Meirokusha
Meirokusha
The ' was an intellectual society in Meiji period Japan that published social-criticism journal Meiroku Zasshi .Proposed by statesman Mori Arinori in 1873 and officially formed on 1 February 1874, the Meirokusha was intended to “promote civilization and enlightenment”, and to introduce western...
finally advocated harmonization of the government and people, democratic thinkers absorbed radical people’s rights
Rights
Rights are legal, social, or ethical principles of freedom or entitlement; that is, rights are the fundamental normative rules about what is allowed of people or owed to people, according to some legal system, social convention, or ethical theory...
from France and they supported national resistance and revolution verbally against the Meiji oligarchy
Meiji oligarchy
The Meiji oligarchy was the name used to describe the new ruling class of Meiji period Japan. In Japanese, the Meiji oligarchy is called the ....
after the Satsuma Rebellion
Satsuma Rebellion
The was a revolt of Satsuma ex-samurai against the Meiji government from January 29 to September 24, 1877, 9 years into the Meiji Era. It was the last, and the most serious, of a series of armed uprisings against the new government.-Background:...
. In 1874, Itagaki Taisuke
Itagaki Taisuke
Count was a Japanese politician and leader of the , which evolved into Japan's first political party.- Early life :Itagaki Taisuke was born into a middle-ranking samurai family in Tosa Domain, , After studies in Kōchi and in Edo, he was appointed as sobayonin to Tosa daimyo Yamauchi Toyoshige,...
introduced the establishment of the elected legislature
Legislature
A legislature is a kind of deliberative assembly with the power to pass, amend, and repeal laws. The law created by a legislature is called legislation or statutory law. In addition to enacting laws, legislatures usually have exclusive authority to raise or lower taxes and adopt the budget and...
. It spread nationwide as the Freedom and People's Rights Movement
Freedom and People's Rights Movement
The was a Japanese political and social movement for democracy in 1880s....
. Ueki Emori
Ueki Emori
was a Japanese revolutionary democrat active in the Freedom and People's Rights Movement.Ueki was the son of a middle ranking samurai from Tosa. Inspired by Itagaki Taisuke, he became involved in the Jiyūtō. In 1875 he was thrown in jail under the Newspaper Act for writing an article critical of...
helped Itagaki and he drew up a radical draft. Strongly influenced from Rousseau
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer of 18th-century Romanticism. His political philosophy influenced the French Revolution as well as the overall development of modern political, sociological and educational thought.His novel Émile: or, On Education is a treatise...
, Nakae Chomin
Nakae Chomin
was the pen-name of a journalist, political theorist and statesman in Meiji period Japan. His real name was . His major contribution was the popularization of the egalitarian doctrines of the French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau in Japan...
argued for people’s sovereignty
Sovereignty
Sovereignty is the quality of having supreme, independent authority over a geographic area, such as a territory. It can be found in a power to rule and make law that rests on a political fact for which no purely legal explanation can be provided...
and individual freedom. However, concerning with Japanese situation, he pointed out the importance of parliamentary monarchy. According to him, the Imperial Constitution
Meiji Constitution
The ', known informally as the ', was the organic law of the Japanese empire, in force from November 29, 1890 until May 2, 1947.-Outline:...
should be gradually revised by the Diet
Diet of Japan
The is Japan's bicameral legislature. It is composed of a lower house, called the House of Representatives, and an upper house, called the House of Councillors. Both houses of the Diet are directly elected under a parallel voting system. In addition to passing laws, the Diet is formally...
.
From the late period of Meiji to the Taisho era, a democratic trend spread as a background of bourgeois political consciousness
Political consciousness
Following the work of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Karl Marx outlined the workings of a political consciousness.-The politics of consciousness:...
. Its current led to political movements for safeguarding the Constitution
Constitution
A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed. These rules together make up, i.e. constitute, what the entity is...
and for the popular election. Yoshino Sakuzo
Yoshino Sakuzo
was a Japanese academic, historian, author and professor of political science.This Japanese author active as a political thinker in the Taishō period. He is best known for his formulation of the theory of "Minponshugi," or politics of the people....
argued for party cabinet politics and popular election. He did not deeply pursue who was the sovereign
Sovereign
A sovereign is the supreme lawmaking authority within its jurisdiction.Sovereign may also refer to:*Monarch, the sovereign of a monarchy*Sovereign Bank, banking institution in the United States*Sovereign...
but he insisted political goal aim for people’s happiness and political decision aim for people’s intention. Minobe Tatsukichi
Minobe Tatsukichi
was a Japanese statesman and scholar of constitutional law. His interpretation of the role of the monarchy in the pre-war Empire of Japan was a source of considerable controversy in the increasingly radicalized political environment of Japan in the 1930....
interpreted a sovereign as not an emperor
Emperor
An emperor is a monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife or a woman who rules in her own right...
but the state
State (polity)
A state is an organized political community, living under a government. States may be sovereign and may enjoy a monopoly on the legal initiation of force and are not dependent on, or subject to any other power or state. Many states are federated states which participate in a federal union...
. According to him, an emperor just only excises his power
Political power
Political power is a type of power held by a group in a society which allows administration of some or all of public resources, including labour, and wealth. There are many ways to obtain possession of such power. At the nation-state level political legitimacy for political power is held by the...
as the highest organ under the Meiji Constitution
Meiji Constitution
The ', known informally as the ', was the organic law of the Japanese empire, in force from November 29, 1890 until May 2, 1947.-Outline:...
. Although his theory was widely acknowledged at first, he was politically suppressed by the military and the rightists afterwards.
In 1911, Hiratsuka Raicho formed Seitosha. She asked for awakening of women’s own and development of feminist movement
Feminist movement
The feminist movement refers to a series of campaigns for reforms on issues such as reproductive rights, domestic violence, maternity leave, equal pay, women's suffrage, sexual harassment and sexual violence...
. While Yosano Akiko
Yosano Akiko
was the pen-name of a Japanese author, poet, pioneering feminist, pacifist, and social reformer, active in the late Meiji period as well as the Taishō and early Showa periods of Japan. Her name at birth was Otori Shô. She is one of the most famous, and most controversial, post-classical woman poets...
denied gender
Gender
Gender is a range of characteristics used to distinguish between males and females, particularly in the cases of men and women and the masculine and feminine attributes assigned to them. Depending on the context, the discriminating characteristics vary from sex to social role to gender identity...
difference, Raicho emphasised motherhood raising a child and she acknowledged the official aids for women to demonstrate their feminine ability. In 1920, Raicho formed a new association for women with Ichikawa Fusae and Oku Mumeo. Soon after their activities were successful in woman’s participating at political address, the association were broken up by an internal split. Later, Ichikawa formed a new one and continued a movement for female suffrage.
Christianity and socialism
It was ChristianChristian
A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as recorded in the Canonical gospels and the letters of the New Testament...
s and socialists who struggled with social contradictions derived from Japanese modernity
Modernity
Modernity typically refers to a post-traditional, post-medieval historical period, one marked by the move from feudalism toward capitalism, industrialization, secularization, rationalization, the nation-state and its constituent institutions and forms of surveillance...
. Christian social movements were active after the Sino-
First Sino-Japanese War
The First Sino-Japanese War was fought between Qing Dynasty China and Meiji Japan, primarily over control of Korea...
and Russo-Japanese War
Russo-Japanese War
The Russo-Japanese War was "the first great war of the 20th century." It grew out of rival imperial ambitions of the Russian Empire and Japanese Empire over Manchuria and Korea...
s which brought capitalism
Capitalism
Capitalism is an economic system that became dominant in the Western world following the demise of feudalism. There is no consensus on the precise definition nor on how the term should be used as a historical category...
and its contradiction to Japanese society. Many Japanese socialists were influenced by Christian humanism
Christian humanism
Christian humanism is the position that universal human dignity and individual freedom are essential and principal components of, or are at least compatible with, Christian doctrine and practice. It is a philosophical union of Christian and humanist principles.- Origins :Christian humanism may have...
, and in that point they were deeply associated with Christianity
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
.
Christianity, banned by the Tokugawa shogunate
Tokugawa shogunate
The Tokugawa shogunate, also known as the and the , was a feudal regime of Japan established by Tokugawa Ieyasu and ruled by the shoguns of the Tokugawa family. This period is known as the Edo period and gets its name from the capital city, Edo, which is now called Tokyo, after the name was...
, influenced many Meiji intellectuals. Uchimura Kanzo
Uchimura Kanzo
was a Japanese author, Christian evangelist, and the founder of the Nonchurch Movement of Christianity in the Meiji and Taishō period Japan.-Early life:...
developed “two Js” to unite traditional Bushido
Bushido
, meaning "Way of the Warrior-Knight", is a Japanese word which is used to describe a uniquely Japanese code of conduct and a way of the samurai life, loosely analogous to the concept of chivalry. It originates from the samurai moral code and stresses frugality, loyalty, martial arts mastery, and...
and Christian spirit. He believed that his calling was to serve “Japan” and “Jesus”. He argued for the nonchurch movement
Nonchurch Movement
The Nonchurch movement is an indigenous Japanese Christian movement which was founded by Uchimura Kanzo in 1901. The complete works of Uchimura consist of some 50 volumes: 17 primarily biblical studies, 25 volumes of theological works and 8 volumes of diaries and correspondence. Many of his...
. He challenged the Imperial Rescript on Education
Imperial Rescript on Education
The ' was signed by Emperor Meiji of Japan on 30 October 1890 to articulate government policy on the guiding principles of education on the Empire of Japan...
and spoke against the Russo-Japanese war
Russo-Japanese War
The Russo-Japanese War was "the first great war of the 20th century." It grew out of rival imperial ambitions of the Russian Empire and Japanese Empire over Manchuria and Korea...
. Nitobe Inazo was a Quaker and attempted to unite Japanese culture and Christianity. He introduced Japanese culture abroad and he became secretary-general of the League of Nations
League of Nations
The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organization founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first permanent international organization whose principal mission was to maintain world peace...
. Joseph Hardy Neesima
Joseph Hardy Neesima
was a Japanese educator of the Meiji era, the founder of Doshisha University and Doshisha Women's College of Liberal Arts.Neesima was born in Edo , the son of a retainer of the Itakura clan of Annaka...
studied theology
Theology
Theology is the systematic and rational study of religion and its influences and of the nature of religious truths, or the learned profession acquired by completing specialized training in religious studies, usually at a university or school of divinity or seminary.-Definition:Augustine of Hippo...
abroad in the United States. He established Doshisha University
Doshisha University
, or is a prestigious private university in Kyoto, Japan. The university has approximately 27,000 students on three campuses, in faculties of theology, letters, law, commerce, economics, policy, and engineering...
at Kyoto and he was engaged in Christian character building
Moral character
Moral character or character is an evaluation of a particular individual's durable moral qualities. The concept of character can imply a variety of attributes including the existence or lack of virtues such as integrity, courage, fortitude, honesty, and loyalty, or of good behaviors or habits...
.
About the time of Sino- and Russo-Japanese wars, Japan succeeded in capitalization through the industrial revolution
Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution was a period from the 18th to the 19th century where major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation, and technology had a profound effect on the social, economic and cultural conditions of the times...
as soon as socialism
Socialism
Socialism is an economic system characterized by social ownership of the means of production and cooperative management of the economy; or a political philosophy advocating such a system. "Social ownership" may refer to any one of, or a combination of, the following: cooperative enterprises,...
spread against capitalism
Capitalism
Capitalism is an economic system that became dominant in the Western world following the demise of feudalism. There is no consensus on the precise definition nor on how the term should be used as a historical category...
. However, the social movements were suppressed by the security police
Security police
In some countries, including the United States, security police are those persons, employed by or for a governmental agency, who provide police and security services to those agencies' properties....
law of 1900, and finally in the High Treason Incident
High Treason Incident
The , also known as the , was a socialist-anarchist plot to assassinate the Japanese Emperor Meiji in 1910, leading to a mass arrest of leftists, and the execution of 12 alleged conspirators in 1911....
of 1910 socialists were pressed by the military and the fascist government … Kawakami Hajime
Kawakami Hajime
was a Japanese Marxist economist of the Taishō and early Shōwa periods.Born in Yamaguchi, he graduated from Tokyo Imperial University. After writing for Yomiuri shimbun, he earned an economics professorship at Kyoto Imperial University. Increasingly inclined toward Marxism, he participated in the...
wrote articles about poverty
Poverty
Poverty is the lack of a certain amount of material possessions or money. Absolute poverty or destitution is inability to afford basic human needs, which commonly includes clean and fresh water, nutrition, health care, education, clothing and shelter. About 1.7 billion people are estimated to live...
in a newspaper. He emphasized personal remodelling to solve poverty at first, however, later he became Marxist and he argued for social remodelling by social compulsion. Kotoku Shusui
Kotoku Shusui
, better known by the nom de plume , was a Japanese socialist and anarchist who played a leading role in introducing anarchism to Japan in the early 20th century, particularly by translating the works of contemporary European and Russian anarchists, such as Peter Kropotkin, into Japanese...
originally attempted to realize socialism through the Diet
Diet of Japan
The is Japan's bicameral legislature. It is composed of a lower house, called the House of Representatives, and an upper house, called the House of Councillors. Both houses of the Diet are directly elected under a parallel voting system. In addition to passing laws, the Diet is formally...
, however, he became a unionist
Unionist
-United Kingdom:In the United Kingdom, British unionists are those people and political organisations who wish their area to remain or become part of the United Kingdom...
and he argued for a direct action by a general strike
General strike
A general strike is a strike action by a critical mass of the labour force in a city, region, or country. While a general strike can be for political goals, economic goals, or both, it tends to gain its momentum from the ideological or class sympathies of the participants...
. He was executed as the mastermind of the high treason incident of 1910. Osugi Sakae
Osugi Sakae
was a radical Japanese anarchist. He published numerous anarchist periodicals, helped translate various western anarchist essays into Japanese for the first time, and created Japan's first Esperanto school in 1906...
argued for individual freedom using the principles of anarchism
Anarchism
Anarchism is generally defined as the political philosophy which holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful, or alternatively as opposing authority in the conduct of human relations...
and unionism
Unionism
-Trades:*Community Unionism, describes the various ways in which trade unions can work with communities and community organizations*Craft unionism, an approach to union organizing in the United States and elsewhere that seeks to unify workers in a particular industry along the lines of the...
. He was seen as a threat by the government and was assassinated by military police
Military police
Military police are police organisations connected with, or part of, the military of a state. The word can have different meanings in different countries, and may refer to:...
in the disorder following the 1923 Great Kanto earthquake
1923 Great Kanto earthquake
The struck the Kantō plain on the Japanese main island of Honshū at 11:58:44 am JST on September 1, 1923. Varied accounts hold that the duration of the earthquake was between 4 and 10 minutes...
.
The development of Japanism
The Age of EnlightenmentAge of Enlightenment
The Age of Enlightenment was an elite cultural movement of intellectuals in 18th century Europe that sought to mobilize the power of reason in order to reform society and advance knowledge. It promoted intellectual interchange and opposed intolerance and abuses in church and state...
, Christianity
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
and socialism
Socialism
Socialism is an economic system characterized by social ownership of the means of production and cooperative management of the economy; or a political philosophy advocating such a system. "Social ownership" may refer to any one of, or a combination of, the following: cooperative enterprises,...
have influenced Japanese thought since the Meiji Restoration
Meiji Restoration
The , also known as the Meiji Ishin, Revolution, Reform or Renewal, was a chain of events that restored imperial rule to Japan in 1868...
.
The emphasis on Japanese political culture
Culture
Culture is a term that has many different inter-related meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions...
and national tradition
Tradition
A tradition is a ritual, belief or object passed down within a society, still maintained in the present, with origins in the past. Common examples include holidays or impractical but socially meaningful clothes , but the idea has also been applied to social norms such as greetings...
rose as a reaction against westernization
Westernization
Westernization or Westernisation , also occidentalization or occidentalisation , is a process whereby societies come under or adopt Western culture in such matters as industry, technology, law, politics, economics, lifestyle, diet, language, alphabet,...
. This trend has had an ideological side of legitimizing imperialism
Imperialism
Imperialism, as defined by Dictionary of Human Geography, is "the creation and/or maintenance of an unequal economic, cultural, and territorial relationships, usually between states and often in the form of an empire, based on domination and subordination." The imperialism of the last 500 years,...
and militarism
Militarism
Militarism is defined as: the belief or desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests....
/fascism
Fascism
Fascism is a radical authoritarian nationalist political ideology. Fascists seek to rejuvenate their nation based on commitment to the national community as an organic entity, in which individuals are bound together in national identity by suprapersonal connections of ancestry, culture, and blood...
.
Tokutomi Soho
Tokutomi Soho
was the pen-name of a journalist and historian active from late Meiji period through mid-Shōwa period Japan. His real name was Tokutomi Iichirō. He was the older brother of noted author Tokutomi Roka.-Biography:...
published a magazine in which he argued for liberal democracy
Liberal democracy
Liberal democracy, also known as constitutional democracy, is a common form of representative democracy. According to the principles of liberal democracy, elections should be free and fair, and the political process should be competitive...
and populism
Populism
Populism can be defined as an ideology, political philosophy, or type of discourse. Generally, a common theme compares "the people" against "the elite", and urges social and political system changes. It can also be defined as a rhetorical style employed by members of various political or social...
against Japanese westernization
Westernization
Westernization or Westernisation , also occidentalization or occidentalisation , is a process whereby societies come under or adopt Western culture in such matters as industry, technology, law, politics, economics, lifestyle, diet, language, alphabet,...
. However, he was disillusioned with the bourgeois who should play a political part in … Kuga Katsunan
Kuga Katsunan
-External links:*...
regarded Japanese political culture
Political culture
Political culture is the traditional orientation of the citizens of a nation toward politics, affecting their perceptions of political legitimacy.Conceptions...
and national tradition
Tradition
A tradition is a ritual, belief or object passed down within a society, still maintained in the present, with origins in the past. Common examples include holidays or impractical but socially meaningful clothes , but the idea has also been applied to social norms such as greetings...
very highly. He aimed for restoration and enhancement of national emotion; however, he was not a narrow-minded nationalist. He criticized the military and argued for a parliamentary system
Parliamentary system
A parliamentary system is a system of government in which the ministers of the executive branch get their democratic legitimacy from the legislature and are accountable to that body, such that the executive and legislative branches are intertwined....
of government and expansion of suffrage
Suffrage
Suffrage, political franchise, or simply the franchise, distinct from mere voting rights, is the civil right to vote gained through the democratic process...
.
After the Meiji Restoration
Meiji Restoration
The , also known as the Meiji Ishin, Revolution, Reform or Renewal, was a chain of events that restored imperial rule to Japan in 1868...
, Japanese government protected Shinto
Shinto
or Shintoism, also kami-no-michi, is the indigenous spirituality of Japan and the Japanese people. It is a set of practices, to be carried out diligently, to establish a connection between present day Japan and its ancient past. Shinto practices were first recorded and codified in the written...
and treated it well not as a special religion but as State Shinto
State Shinto
has been called the state religion of the Empire of Japan, although it did not exist as a single institution and no "Shintō" was ever declared a state religion...
. The government closely related Shinto with the holy emperor
Emperor
An emperor is a monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife or a woman who rules in her own right...
, and they used Shinto as a tool for their state governance
Governance
Governance is the act of governing. It relates to decisions that define expectations, grant power, or verify performance. It consists of either a separate process or part of management or leadership processes...
. State Shinto was clearly distinguished from private sects of Shinto religion
Religion
Religion is a collection of cultural systems, belief systems, and worldviews that establishes symbols that relate humanity to spirituality and, sometimes, to moral values. Many religions have narratives, symbols, traditions and sacred histories that are intended to give meaning to life or to...
. It was a model of ideological state governance to form State Shinto and to promulgate the Imperial Rescript on Education
Imperial Rescript on Education
The ' was signed by Emperor Meiji of Japan on 30 October 1890 to articulate government policy on the guiding principles of education on the Empire of Japan...
. Meiji statism
Statism
Statism is a term usually describing a political philosophy, whether of the right or the left, that emphasises the role of the state in politics or supports the use of the state to achieve economic, military or social goals...
attempted to restore national sovereignty and pursued imperialism
Imperialism
Imperialism, as defined by Dictionary of Human Geography, is "the creation and/or maintenance of an unequal economic, cultural, and territorial relationships, usually between states and often in the form of an empire, based on domination and subordination." The imperialism of the last 500 years,...
and colonialism
Colonialism
Colonialism is the establishment, maintenance, acquisition and expansion of colonies in one territory by people from another territory. It is a process whereby the metropole claims sovereignty over the colony and the social structure, government, and economics of the colony are changed by...
through Sino-
First Sino-Japanese War
The First Sino-Japanese War was fought between Qing Dynasty China and Meiji Japan, primarily over control of Korea...
and Russo-Japanese War
Russo-Japanese War
The Russo-Japanese War was "the first great war of the 20th century." It grew out of rival imperial ambitions of the Russian Empire and Japanese Empire over Manchuria and Korea...
s. However, its militaristic trend developed to ultra-nationalism. Kita Ikki
Kita Ikki
was a Japanese author, intellectual and political philosopher who was active in early-Shōwa period Japan.-Background:Born on Sado Island, Niigata Prefecture, Ikki Kita’s real name was Kita Terujirō...
advocated the exclusion of the zaibatsu
Zaibatsu
is a Japanese term referring to industrial and financial business conglomerates in the Empire of Japan, whose influence and size allowed for control over significant parts of the Japanese economy from the Meiji period until the end of World War II.-Terminology:...
, senior statesmen and political parties
Political Parties
Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy is a book by sociologist Robert Michels, published in 1911 , and first introducing the concept of iron law of oligarchy...
and the establishment of government for direct connection with the emperor and the people.
Yanagita Kunio was at the forefront of study of Japanese folklore
Folklore
Folklore consists of legends, music, oral history, proverbs, jokes, popular beliefs, fairy tales and customs that are the traditions of a culture, subculture, or group. It is also the set of practices through which those expressive genres are shared. The study of folklore is sometimes called...
. He named general public who are not political leaders and intellectual
Intellectual
An intellectual is a person who uses intelligence and critical or analytical reasoning in either a professional or a personal capacity.- Terminology and endeavours :"Intellectual" can denote four types of persons:...
s as “jomin”. Other folklorists are Minakata Kumagusu
Minakata Kumagusu
was a Japanese author and naturalist.-Biography:Minakata was born in Wakayama, Wakayama Prefecture, Japan. In 1883, he moved to Tokyo, where he entered the preparatory school Kyōryū Gakkō. The headmaster of Kyōritsu, Takahashi Korekiyo, encouraged Minakata in his botanical studies as well as got...
, Yanagi Muneyoshi
Yanagi Soetsu
, also known as Yanagi Muneyoshi, was a Japanese philosopher and founder of the mingei movement in Japan in the late 1920s and 1930s.-Life:In 1916, Yanagi made his first trip to Korea out of curiosity about Korean crafts...
and Orikuchi Shinobu.
In pre-war Japan, German philosophy
German philosophy
German philosophy, here taken to mean either philosophy in the German language or philosophy by Germans, has been extremely diverse, and central to both the analytic and continental traditions in philosophy for centuries, from Leibniz through Kant, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Marx, Nietzsche, Heidegger...
was eagerly studied and introduced. However, from the late Meiji
Meiji period
The , also known as the Meiji era, is a Japanese era which extended from September 1868 through July 1912. This period represents the first half of the Empire of Japan.- Meiji Restoration and the emperor :...
to Taishō period
Taisho period
The , or Taishō era, is a period in the history of Japan dating from July 30, 1912 to December 25, 1926, coinciding with the reign of the Taishō Emperor. The health of the new emperor was weak, which prompted the shift in political power from the old oligarchic group of elder statesmen to the Diet...
, Kyoto School
Kyoto School
The Kyoto School is the name given to the Japanese "philosophical movement centered at Kyoto University that assimilated western philosophy and religious ideas and used them to reformulate religious and moral insights unique to the East Asian cultural tradition." However, it is also used to...
attempted to harmonize Western thought with Eastern thought such as Zen Buddhism. Nishida Kitaro
Nishida Kitaro
was a prominent Japanese philosopher, founder of what has been called the Kyoto School of philosophy. He graduated from The University of Tokyo during the Meiji period in 1894 with a degree in philosophy. He was named professor of the Fourth High School in Ishikawa Prefecture in 1899 and later...
established an original thought by fusion of Zen and Western thought. His thought is called as Nishida philosophy. He insisted on pure experience
Experience
Experience as a general concept comprises knowledge of or skill in or observation of some thing or some event gained through involvement in or exposure to that thing or event....
in which there is no opposition between subjectivity and objectivity. His ontology
Ontology
Ontology is the philosophical study of the nature of being, existence or reality as such, as well as the basic categories of being and their relations...
derived from absolute nothingness. Watsuji Tetsuro criticized Western selfish individualism
Individualism
Individualism is the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that stresses "the moral worth of the individual". Individualists promote the exercise of one's goals and desires and so value independence and self-reliance while opposing most external interference upon one's own...
. His ethics
Ethics
Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy that addresses questions about morality—that is, concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime, etc.Major branches of ethics include:...
says human beings are not isolated existence
Existence
In common usage, existence is the world we are aware of through our senses, and that persists independently without them. In academic philosophy the word has a more specialized meaning, being contrasted with essence, which specifies different forms of existence as well as different identity...
but related existence. He insisted that individual and social beings should be aware of their own individuality and social membership. He is also well-known as his Climate and Culture in which he studied the relationship between natural environment and local lifestyle.
See also
- BudōBudois a Japanese term describing martial arts. In English, it is used almost exclusively in reference to Japanese martial arts.-Etymology:Budō is a compound of the root bu , meaning war or martial; and dō , meaning path or way. Specifically, dō is derived from the Buddhist Sanskrit mārga...
- Giri (Japanese)
- GraceGrace-Film:* Grace , a 2009 horror film* States of Grace, a 2005 drama film- Games :* The Game of graces, a 19th century game for young girls* Tales of Graces, a 2009 Tales of game by Namco Tales Studio- Literature :...
– “itsukushimi” - Haibutsu kishakuHaibutsu kishakuis a term that indicates a current of thought continuous in Japan's history which advocates the expulsion of Buddhism from Japan...
- Hakko ichiuHakko ichiuwas a Japanese political slogan that became popular from the Second Sino-Japanese War to World War II, and was popularized in a speech by Prime Minister of Japan Fumimaro Konoe on January 8, 1940.-Outline:...
- HermitHermitA hermit is a person who lives, to some degree, in seclusion from society.In Christianity, the term was originally applied to a Christian who lives the eremitic life out of a religious conviction, namely the Desert Theology of the Old Testament .In the...
– e.g., Yoshida KenkoYoshida Kenkowas a Japanese author and Buddhist monk. His most famous work is "Tsurezuregusa" , one of the most studied works of medieval Japanese literature. Kenko wrote during the Muromachi and Kamakura periods.-Life and work:...
, Kamono Chomei - KamiKamiis the Japanese word for the spirits, natural forces, or essence in the Shinto faith. Although the word is sometimes translated as "god" or "deity", some Shinto scholars argue that such a translation can cause a misunderstanding of the term...
- KokutaiKokutaiKokutai is a politically loaded word in the Japanese language, translatable as "sovereign", "national identity; national essence; national character" or "national polity; body politic; national entity; basis for the Emperor's sovereignty; Japanese constitution". "Sovereign" is perhaps the most...
- Ma (negative space)Ma (negative space)Ma is a Japanese word which can be roughly translated as "gap", "space", "pause" or "the space between two structural parts." The spatial concept is experienced progressively through intervals of spatial designation. In Japanese, ma, the word for space, suggests interval...
- Maruyama MasaoMaruyama Masaowas a leading Japanese political scientist and political theorist. His expertise lay in the history of Japanese political thought, to which he made major contributions.- Personal history :...
– “Bamboo whisk” culture and “octopus pot” culture - NihonjinronNihonjinronThe term literally means theories/discussions about the Japanese. The term refers to a genre of texts that focuses on issues of Japanese national and cultural identity. The literature is vast, ranging over such varied fields as sociology, psychology, history, linguistics, philosophy, and even...
- Shame societyShame societyIn cultural anthropology, a shame society is the concept that, in a given society, the primary device for gaining control over children and maintaining social order is the inculcation of shame and the complementary threat of ostracism...
- Wabi-sabiWabi-sabirepresents a comprehensive Japanese world view or aesthetic centered on the acceptance of transience. The aesthetic is sometimes described as one of beauty that is "imperfect, impermanent, and incomplete"...
- Yamato-damashiiYamato-damashiiis a historically and culturally loaded word in the Japanese language. The phrase was apparently coined in the Heian period to describe the indigenous Japanese 'spirit' or cultural values as opposed to the cultural values imported into the country through contact with Tang dynasty China. Later, a...
- Taoism in JapanTaoism in JapanTaoism is believed to be the inspiration for spiritual concepts in Japanese culture. Taoism is similar to Shinto in that it also started as an indigenous religion in China, although it is more hermetic than shamanistic...