Kanak people
Encyclopedia
Kanak are the indigenous
Melanesia
n inhabitants of New Caledonia
, an overseas territory of France in the southwest Pacific
. They constitute 44.1% of the total population of New Caledonia. Though Melanesian settlement is recorded on Grande Terre's Presqu'île de Foué
peninsula
as far back as the Lapita
culture, the origin of Kanak people is unclear. Ethnographic research has shown that Polynesia
n seafarers have intermarried with the Kanaks over the centuries. The Kanaks refer to the French as Caldoche
s.
New Caledonia was annexed to France in 1850, and became an overseas territory of France in 1956. A political movement, restarted by the Kanaks in 1984, after an initial failed revolt in 1867, has strongly pursued total independence status from the French rule. The movement is supported by the United Nations resolution
of December 1986. A 2014 referendum will decide whether or not the territory will achieve sovereign
status. When the 1988 Matignon agreements
were signed between the representatives of France and New Caledonia to decide on holding the referendum for independence, Jean-Marie Tjibaou
, the Kanak leader of the independence movement, had mooted a proposal to set up an Agency for the Development of Kanak Culture
(ADCK). After Tjibaou's assassination in 1989, the French President François Mitterrand
ordered that a cultural centre on the lines suggested by Tjibaou be set up in Nouméa
, the capital of New Caledonia; it was to be the last of Mitterrand's Grands Projets
. The Jean-Marie Tjibaou Cultural Centre
was formally established in May 1998.
Although ancient Lapita potteries date back to 1500 BC. and the people of the island have long been involved in the arts, since the establishment of the ADCK, Kanak arts and crafts have become more popular in New Caledonia. Wooden carvings in the shape of hawks, ancient gods, serpents and turtles are popular as is flèche faîtière
, a carving which resembles a small totem pole with symbolic shapes, Music, dance and singing are part of many a Kanak ceremonial function and dances are performed during the traditional Kanak gatherings with the objective of cementing relationships within the clan and with ancestors.
word which was at one time applied indiscriminately by Europe
an explorers, traders and missionaries in Oceania
to any non-European Pacific islander. Prior to European contact, there were no unified states in New Caledonia, and no single self-appellation used to refer to its inhabitants. Other words have been coined from Kanak in the past few generations: Kanaky is an ethno-political name for the island or the entire territory. Kanéka is a musical genre associated with the Kanak, stylistically a form of reggae
with added flutes, percussion and harmonies. Kaneka often has political lyrics and is sung in Drehu, Paici or other Melanesian languages
, or in French
. The word "kanak" is grammatically invariable. The German racial epithet Kanake
— which is now applied to all non-whites, even southern Europeans in some cases, and especially to Turkish
immigrants — also derives from the same source, and was originally applied to people from German colonial possessions in Oceania.
culture. However, the origin of Kanak people is unclear. Obsidian
transported from New Guinea
was found with the earliest New Caledonian Lapita pottery. In addition, some researchers have claimed there is evidence of New Caledonian human habitation dating from 3000 BC (predating Lapita culture by 1500 years), while others claim to have found pre-Lapita pottery. At the Fourth Lapita Conference, held in June 2000, in Canberra
, Australia, the question was posed: "Is Lapita Kanak, or is Lapita the oldest and first ancestor of a later culture that is labelled Kanak?" Still another problem in determining the origin and early history of Kanak people is that the archaeological interpretation is in conflict with the views of Kanak people which have become politicized subsequent to colonial rule.
landed in these islands in 1775 at a time when there were reportedly 70,000 Kanaks living in the archipelago. Cook gave the name "New Caledonia" to these islands, after Caledonia
, his Scottish highlands
.
Fifty years later, the protestants of London Missionary Society came to New Caledonia, which was followed by entry of the French Catholics to the island, in 1843. This resulted in a conflict between the two religious factions and eventually the French Catholics' control of the islands prevailed. The island nation was thereafter annexed by France, in 1850.
During the colonial period, in the 19th century, Kanaks were recruited or enslaved
, to perform unfree labour
in places such as Australia, California, Canada, Chile and Fiji (with the inter-Asian slave trade to India, Japan, South Africa, and what is now Malaysia. During the 3,000 years that Kanaks lived in the remote islands, they were unprepared for the arrival of European viruses and bacteria. The Kanaks were uprooted from the land and were forced into slave labour to work on French plantations, ranches and public works.
(beginning with 1864) and copper
from 1875 onwards. This caused serious resentment among the Kanaks who revolted in 1878 against the French colonial rule, which was suppressed by the French who were better armed. The Kanak leader was decapitated, and his head was put on display in the Museum of Natural History
.
, the Kanaks' independence movement again picked up momentum when the United Nations
placed Kanaky on its Decolonisation List of Non-Self-Governing Territories
in 1946. A major progression occurred when Kanaks and French settlers in the country obtained voting rights in 1951, shortly before it became an overseas territory of France in 1956. The Kanaks were then also allowed to move out of their reserve areas. This was followed by the establishment of the Territorial Assembly in 1957, but this was short lived;Charles de Gaulle
abolished it after he became the President of France, in 1958.
It was only in 1981 that the movement for Independence could again be restarted, following the murder of Pierre Declercq
, the secretary general of the Caledonian Union
(French
: Union calédonienne, UC) on 19 September 1981. A national forum entitled "Front de Liberation Nationale Kanak Socialiste (FLNKS)” was established in 1984. This forum refused to participate in elections to the Territorial Assembly and even declared its own Provincial Government, met with aggression by the French. FLNKS "organized a boycott of the territorial elections in New Caledonia, smashing ballot boxes and setting up roadblocks to prevent people from voting". The FLNKS persisted with their agitation and unilaterally announced on 7 January 1985 that a referendum on independence would be conducted in July 1985. After the murder of a Kanak leader named Eloi Machero in 1985, Kanak activists took 27 gendarmes hostage on the island of Ouvea, igniting French aggression. The Kanaks proposed a self-government in January 1986. An interim arrangement was announced by Mitterrand who moved to give greater autonomy in the colony. However, the French prime minister Chirac
stationed troops in the islands and the autonomy issue was shelved. The FLNKS, however, backed in their struggle by regional organizations such as the "Groupe du fer de lance mélanesien" (The Melanesian Spearhead Group), the Pacific Forum, and the Nonaligned Countries Movement
, were successful in getting the UN Resolution 41-41 A of 2 December 1986 passed which re-inscribed Kanaky on the Decolonisation List of Non-Self-Governing Territories. However, this resolution did not mitigate the Kanaks' problems as what ensued was more repression by the French, and killing of Kanak people in 1987, and an event in 1988 known as "the Ouvea Massacr
e" carried out by 300 French police, killing 19 Kanaks. Following this massacre, there was an international outcry which resulted in initiation of talks for settlement between the French Government, the Kanaks and the French settlers.
", was signed between the FLNKS President and the French Government on 5 May 1998, allowing for a degree of autonomy to New Caledonia over a transition period of up to 20 years. A referendum for independence from France is to be held between 2013 and 2018. Progressive changes that were expected of this agreement were in the local political control and structure; the Kanaks would have greater say over internal and regional affairs while France would retain sovereign rights including control over military and foreign affairs. In a speech made before the Fourth Commission of the United Nations on 10 October 2005, the FLNKS Vice President, Leopold Joredie, urged the UN "to establish a monitoring and follow-up system for the previous contracts signed between multinationals and municipalities, by drawing on the initiatives of Global Witness and asking the UN to put in place an ad hoc commission in order to protect the wealth of New Caledonia, following the example of what was done for Congo
."
ans (mostly French
) at 37%, Wallisian 8% and Polynesia
ns, Indonesia
ns and Vietnam
ese. In 1775, there were 70,000 Kanaks living on the islands which declined to 27,000 during early colonial rule as a result of their forcible living in the reserved areas. Kanaks were historically associated with tribes, including the Bwaarhat, Tiendanite, Goa, and Goosana, as well as clans, such as the Poowe.
There are significant populations of the descendants of Kanak people living in Australia, particularly in sugar cane growing areas in Queensland
, where they were brought as labourers to work in the cane fields. There are many social links and intermarriages between these people and local Australian Aboriginal
groups.
family, except for Fagauvea
, which is a Polynesian language
. New Caledonia languages are divided into several groups. The Northern language group is tonal and includes 12 languages: Caac, Cemuhi, Fwai, Jawe, Kumak, Nemi, Paici, Pije, Pwaamei, Pwapwa, Yalayu, and Yuaga. Approximately 60,000 residents of New Caledonia speak at least one of the Kanak languages. Most of these languages are only in spoken form and there is no one unified language among the Kanaks; however the largest group of Kanak’s speak Drehu (a mixture of Polynesian, French and English).
Coming from an oral tradition, the written word was nonexistent until the missionary arrival. Kanak knowledge was passed orally in the form of poems, legends, and stories. Children's oral history is provided by Kanak parents and other relatives who also use tickling and onomatopoeic noise to hold the child's attention. Of the Kanak authors, some of the notable ones are Tjibaou who wrote La Presence Kanak; Susanna Ounei-Small, a Kanak author from Ouvéa who wrote about the Matignon Accords; and Kaloombat Tein, author of Hwanfalik – Sayings from the Hienghene Valley which provides insight into Hienghène
legends and is written in the Hienghène dialect, with English language translation.
Tjibaou was involved in the establishment of the Ecoles populaires kanak, which was taught in a local Kanak language and educated children in spiritual and practical knowledge, while also including French and English language instruction. Since 2006, pre-school children have been given the opportunity to learn indigenous Kanak languages. While the Kanak languages have been taught in high schools across the Loyalty Islands and North Province, the language education has not been as common in the more European South Province. The establishment of the Kanak Language Academy
(KLA) was a provision of the Nouméa Accord.
According to the traditional beliefs of the Kanak people, the sea is sacred as it provides them with "fish for food", so they treat it with great reverence. The folk stories created by the Kanak people not only attest to this fact but are also strictly followed as unwritten laws. Some of the important aspects of the oral laws relate to environmental protection and conservation, such as the closure of fishing operations when the fish stocks are on the decline, and fishing rights in certain areas are strictly observed with respect to locals.
(CI) have been jointly involved in conserving the ancestral waters and natural resources. According to a rapid assessment survey conducted with help from the Kanaks, 42 coral reefs have been identified for protection near Nord's Mont Pani Province. Its rich biodiversity reserves also include sea cucumbers, molluscs, crustaceans, herrings, groupers, and snappers. Supporting Kanak traditions, the Coral Reef Initiative for the South Pacific
's (CRISP) partnership with CI provided recommendations and underwater species guides to the Kanak people. In 2004, a proposal was put forward to promote the entire coastal region as a World Heritage Site
. Further work on this initiative has been pursued by CI's Center for Applied Biodiversity Science, the Coral Reef Initiative for the South Pacific
(CRISP), and the French Government, in collaboration with WWF
to assess marine resources used by both Kanak tribes and people of European descent across three coastlines of the Nord Province.
Bougna
is a traditional Kanak casserole, considered a national food by many Kanaks. It is made of sliced root vegetables which might include taro
, manioc, yam
s and coconut
milk. Pork, chicken, or seafood may be used in the filling which is then wrapped in poingo banana
leaves before being cooked over hot stones in an earthen oven. Other local ingredients used in Kanak cuisine include Rousettus
(flying foxes) and local deer; marine staples such as lagoon and coral reef fish (including dawa
), as well as crabs and lobsters. Paita beans are locally grown haricots, while custard-apple
, lime
and saffron
are other local ingredients.
Lapita pottery
The ancient Lapita potteries date to 1500 BC. Essentially a women’s craft, the pottery is generally decorated with geometric patterns and stylised human faces, although there is variation between northern and southern New Caledonian pottery. The various handles and glazes have pinhole-incised designs made from tooth combs. The pottery was made from clay deposits found in the islands.
Paintings
Painting is a recent art form common among women artists. Famous artists include Yvette Bouquet from Koumac who has produced paintings with Pacific and Oceania themes, Paula Boi, whose paintings are of more abstract scenes, and Denise Tuvouane and Maryline Thydjepache who use mixed art forms. Bus stop shelters are common places where their paintings are illustrated.
Wood sculpture
Wood sculpture represents the spirit of Kanak culture of which the Flèche faîtière
, which resembles a small totem pole with symbolic shapes, is the most common. A mini Stonehenge
-looking religious memorial near the village in L'Île-des-Pins
has a display of religious carvings. Other wooden objects include war clubs carved from the strongest wood, made in the form of a phallic head (casse-tete), a lethal bird's beak club (bec d'oiseau), and spears made from niaouli trees used to burn enemy houses.
Wooden carvings in the shape of hawks, ancient gods, serpents and turtles are also popular. The Grand Huts, also known as grande case (chef's hut), are decorated with the filial of fleche faitiere
representing the ancestral spirits, symbolic of transition between the world of the dead and the world of the living. The wood carving is shaped like the spear-like carving that adorns the top of the grande case. It comprises three parts; the flat crowned face representing the ancestor with a long, the rounded pole run through by conch shells mounted on it that represents the ancestor’s voice, and a base with the pole fixed to it to symbolize the link between the clan and the chief. The central piece is also flanked by wooden pieces with sharp points (facing downwards) that are intended to prevent bad spirits enveloping the ancestor in the central part. As it represented the power of the chiefs over their subjects, it was adopted as flag of the Kanaks by the organization leading the independent movement in New Caledonia. The arrow or the spear normally has a needle at the end to insert threaded shells from bottom to top. After the death of a Kanak chief, the fleche faitière is removed and his family takes it to their home. Though it was allowed to be used again as a sign of respect it is normally kept at burial grounds of noted citizens or at the mounds of abandoned grand houses.
Stone carving
Stone carvings made of jade
or serpentinite
are in the form of ceremonial axe representing clan's strength and power. These were used to behead enemies during war and during ancestor celebrations known as Pilou. The bottom of the handle represents the particular clan and is embellished with stones and shells. The axe is polished smooth like a disc. Carvings made of soapstone
are also popular.
Bamboo carvings
A meter in length canes, dated between 1850 and 1920, are used to make an entry into a village or in dance ceremonies. The canes were fired to give black patina over the engraved parts; the engraving designs consist of geometrical real images from the pilou dance, agricultural motifs and village scenes of fishing or building a Grand Hut or case. These were also stuffed with magic herbs to ward off evil spirits.
Tapa
Tapa is a bark cloth made into small pieces, often from banyan trees used to wrap up Kanak ancient bead money.
Boats
Kanaks living on the islands made canoe
s out of hollowed–out trunks and large double–hulled outriggers with triangular sails, known as pirogues, traditionally used for fishing.
The Festival des Arts du Facifique, the Festival of Pacific Arts, is organized every four years. Dancers are trained in traditional dances in special workshops. Welcome dances performed by groups are very popular. Of the various dance forms, the pilou-pilou dance is a unique dance form of the Kanaks, which recounts many stories of the clans. The pilou-pilou dance form of the Kanaks, now almost extinct, was so named by the early French missionaries of New Caledonia and involved stomping with bamboo tubes and beating of bark-clappers accompanied by singing in duets with shrieks and whistles of hundreds of dancers. However, in view of very strong nature of this form of dance, with a trance-like status attained by the dancers, these have been banned; the last such dance reported was in 1951.
, (wadohnu in the Nengone language where it originated) made of dried piece of coconut palm leaf held between the teeth and an attached segment of soft nerve leaf; coconut-leaf whizzer, a piece of coconut leaf attached to a string and twirled that produces a noise like a humming bee; oboe, made of hollow grass stems or bamboo; end-blown flute, made of 50 cm long hollowed pawpaw
leaf stem; bamboo stamping tubes that are struck vertically against the ground and played at major events; percussion instruments (hitting sticks, palm sheaths); rattles that are worn on the legs made of coconut leaves, shells and certain fruits. Kanak groups such as Bethela first made the recordings on cassette around 1975 or 1976.
", was held in Nouméa in September 1975, supported by Jean-Marie Tjibaou.
Kanak arts festivals became popular with two international events held early in the 1990s that created the awareness of Kanak arts. The first exhibition of modern-day wood sculptors and painters was held at Ko i Neva, which was also published as contemporary Kanak arts. This was followed by a large exhibition of Kanak arts in Paris known as “De Jade et de Nacre - Patrimoine Artistique Kanak (Jade and Mother of Pearl - Kanak Artistic Heritage”.
The Centre Cultural Tjibaou also stages occasional art exhibitions. A popular quadrennial event is the Festival of Pacific Arts where the indigenous people of all Pacific nations and people gather to display the Pacific's cultural heritage.
Indigenous peoples of Oceania
The indigenous peoples of Oceania are those peoples identified as indigenous peoples, as per the modern global definition of the term.Many of the present-day Pacific Island nations in the Oceania region were originally populated by Polynesian, Melanesian and Micronesian peoples over the course of...
Melanesia
Melanesia
Melanesia is a subregion of Oceania extending from the western end of the Pacific Ocean to the Arafura Sea, and eastward to Fiji. The region comprises most of the islands immediately north and northeast of Australia...
n inhabitants of New Caledonia
New Caledonia
New Caledonia is a special collectivity of France located in the southwest Pacific Ocean, east of Australia and about from Metropolitan France. The archipelago, part of the Melanesia subregion, includes the main island of Grande Terre, the Loyalty Islands, the Belep archipelago, the Isle of...
, an overseas territory of France in the southwest Pacific
Pacific Ocean
The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth's oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south, bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, and the Americas in the east.At 165.2 million square kilometres in area, this largest division of the World...
. They constitute 44.1% of the total population of New Caledonia. Though Melanesian settlement is recorded on Grande Terre's Presqu'île de Foué
New Caledonia
New Caledonia is a special collectivity of France located in the southwest Pacific Ocean, east of Australia and about from Metropolitan France. The archipelago, part of the Melanesia subregion, includes the main island of Grande Terre, the Loyalty Islands, the Belep archipelago, the Isle of...
peninsula
Peninsula
A peninsula is a piece of land that is bordered by water on three sides but connected to mainland. In many Germanic and Celtic languages and also in Baltic, Slavic and Hungarian, peninsulas are called "half-islands"....
as far back as the Lapita
Lapita
Lapita is a term applied to an ancient Pacific Ocean archaeological culture which is believed by many archaeologists to be the common ancestor of several cultures in Polynesia, Micronesia, and some coastal areas of Melanesia...
culture, the origin of Kanak people is unclear. Ethnographic research has shown that Polynesia
Polynesia
Polynesia is a subregion of Oceania, made up of over 1,000 islands scattered over the central and southern Pacific Ocean. The indigenous people who inhabit the islands of Polynesia are termed Polynesians and they share many similar traits including language, culture and beliefs...
n seafarers have intermarried with the Kanaks over the centuries. The Kanaks refer to the French as Caldoche
Caldoche
Caldoche is the name given to European inhabitants of the French territory of New Caledonia, mostly native-born French settlers. The formal name to refer to this particular population is Calédoniens, short for the very formal Néo-Calédoniens, however this self-appellation technically includes all...
s.
New Caledonia was annexed to France in 1850, and became an overseas territory of France in 1956. A political movement, restarted by the Kanaks in 1984, after an initial failed revolt in 1867, has strongly pursued total independence status from the French rule. The movement is supported by the United Nations resolution
United Nations resolution
A United Nations resolution is a formal text adopted by a United Nations body. Although any UN body can issue resolutions, in practice most resolutions are issued by the Security Council or the General Assembly.-Legal status:...
of December 1986. A 2014 referendum will decide whether or not the territory will achieve sovereign
Sovereign state
A sovereign state, or simply, state, is a state with a defined territory on which it exercises internal and external sovereignty, a permanent population, a government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other sovereign states. It is also normally understood to be a state which is neither...
status. When the 1988 Matignon agreements
Matignon Agreements (1988)
Matignon Agreements refers to agreements signed in the Hotel Matignon by Jean-Marie Tjibaou and Jacques Lafleur on June 26, 1988, between loyalists, who wanted to keep New Caledonia as a part of the French Fifth Republic, and separatists, who did not...
were signed between the representatives of France and New Caledonia to decide on holding the referendum for independence, Jean-Marie Tjibaou
Jean-Marie Tjibaou
Jean-Marie Tjibaou was a leader of the Kanak independence movement and a politician in New Caledonia. The son of a tribal chief, Tjibaou was ordained a priest but abandoned his religious vocation for a life in political activism...
, the Kanak leader of the independence movement, had mooted a proposal to set up an Agency for the Development of Kanak Culture
Agency for the Development of Kanak Culture
The Agency for the Development of Kanak Culture is an administrative agency, established in 1989, to preserve and promote Kanak and Pacific Islands culture, art and heritage. It was formed on the first anniversary of the signature Matignon-Oudinot Ageement's to recognise and promote the values of...
(ADCK). After Tjibaou's assassination in 1989, the French President François Mitterrand
François Mitterrand
François Maurice Adrien Marie Mitterrand was the 21st President of the French Republic and ex officio Co-Prince of Andorra, serving from 1981 until 1995. He is the longest-serving President of France and, as leader of the Socialist Party, the only figure from the left so far elected President...
ordered that a cultural centre on the lines suggested by Tjibaou be set up in Nouméa
Nouméa
Nouméa is the capital city of the French territory of New Caledonia. It is situated on a peninsula in the south of New Caledonia's main island, Grande Terre, and is home to the majority of the island's European, Polynesian , Indonesian, and Vietnamese populations, as well as many Melanesians,...
, the capital of New Caledonia; it was to be the last of Mitterrand's Grands Projets
Grands Projets of François Mitterrand
The Grands Projets of François Mitterrand was an architectural program to provide modern monuments in Paris, the city of monuments, symbolizing France’s role in art, politics, and economy at the end of the 20th century...
. The Jean-Marie Tjibaou Cultural Centre
Jean-Marie Tjibaou Cultural Centre
The Jean-Marie Tjibaou Cultural Centre, on the narrow Tinu Peninsula, approximately northeast of the historic centre of Nouméa, the capital of New Caledonia, celebrates the vernacular Kanak culture, the indigenous culture of New Caledonia, amidst much political controversy over the independent...
was formally established in May 1998.
Although ancient Lapita potteries date back to 1500 BC. and the people of the island have long been involved in the arts, since the establishment of the ADCK, Kanak arts and crafts have become more popular in New Caledonia. Wooden carvings in the shape of hawks, ancient gods, serpents and turtles are popular as is flèche faîtière
Flèche faîtière
A flèche faîtière is a carved rooftop spear or spire or finial that adorns Kanak houses, particularly the Great Houses of the Kanak Chiefs, in New Caledonia. The ceremonial carving is the home of ancestral spirits and is characterized by three major components. The ancestor is symbolized by a...
, a carving which resembles a small totem pole with symbolic shapes, Music, dance and singing are part of many a Kanak ceremonial function and dances are performed during the traditional Kanak gatherings with the objective of cementing relationships within the clan and with ancestors.
Etymology
The word 'Kanak' is derived from kanaka maoli, a HawaiianHawaiian language
The Hawaiian language is a Polynesian language that takes its name from Hawaii, the largest island in the tropical North Pacific archipelago where it developed. Hawaiian, along with English, is an official language of the state of Hawaii...
word which was at one time applied indiscriminately by Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
an explorers, traders and missionaries in Oceania
Oceania
Oceania is a region centered on the islands of the tropical Pacific Ocean. Conceptions of what constitutes Oceania range from the coral atolls and volcanic islands of the South Pacific to the entire insular region between Asia and the Americas, including Australasia and the Malay Archipelago...
to any non-European Pacific islander. Prior to European contact, there were no unified states in New Caledonia, and no single self-appellation used to refer to its inhabitants. Other words have been coined from Kanak in the past few generations: Kanaky is an ethno-political name for the island or the entire territory. Kanéka is a musical genre associated with the Kanak, stylistically a form of reggae
Reggae
Reggae is a music genre first developed in Jamaica in the late 1960s. While sometimes used in a broader sense to refer to most types of Jamaican music, the term reggae more properly denotes a particular music style that originated following on the development of ska and rocksteady.Reggae is based...
with added flutes, percussion and harmonies. Kaneka often has political lyrics and is sung in Drehu, Paici or other Melanesian languages
Melanesian languages
The Melanesian languages are the indigenous languages of Melanesia. They include about 400 Austronesian languages and numerous families of Papuan languages....
, or in French
French language
French is a Romance language spoken as a first language in France, the Romandy region in Switzerland, Wallonia and Brussels in Belgium, Monaco, the regions of Quebec and Acadia in Canada, and by various communities elsewhere. Second-language speakers of French are distributed throughout many parts...
. The word "kanak" is grammatically invariable. The German racial epithet Kanake
Kanake
Kanake is a derogatory word used in German-speaking countries for immigrants and foreigners. Originally common as "Kanakermann" among 19th century mariners to refer to comrades from the South Pacific , and carrying a connotation of praise for their seafaring abilities, it was in the 1960s...
— which is now applied to all non-whites, even southern Europeans in some cases, and especially to Turkish
Turkish people
Turkish people, also known as the "Turks" , are an ethnic group primarily living in Turkey and in the former lands of the Ottoman Empire where Turkish minorities had been established in Bulgaria, Cyprus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Greece, Kosovo, Macedonia, and Romania...
immigrants — also derives from the same source, and was originally applied to people from German colonial possessions in Oceania.
Origin
Melanesian settlement on Grande Terre dates back at least as far as the LapitaLapita
Lapita is a term applied to an ancient Pacific Ocean archaeological culture which is believed by many archaeologists to be the common ancestor of several cultures in Polynesia, Micronesia, and some coastal areas of Melanesia...
culture. However, the origin of Kanak people is unclear. Obsidian
Obsidian
Obsidian is a naturally occurring volcanic glass formed as an extrusive igneous rock.It is produced when felsic lava extruded from a volcano cools rapidly with minimum crystal growth...
transported from New Guinea
New Guinea
New Guinea is the world's second largest island, after Greenland, covering a land area of 786,000 km2. Located in the southwest Pacific Ocean, it lies geographically to the east of the Malay Archipelago, with which it is sometimes included as part of a greater Indo-Australian Archipelago...
was found with the earliest New Caledonian Lapita pottery. In addition, some researchers have claimed there is evidence of New Caledonian human habitation dating from 3000 BC (predating Lapita culture by 1500 years), while others claim to have found pre-Lapita pottery. At the Fourth Lapita Conference, held in June 2000, in Canberra
Canberra
Canberra is the capital city of Australia. With a population of over 345,000, it is Australia's largest inland city and the eighth-largest city overall. The city is located at the northern end of the Australian Capital Territory , south-west of Sydney, and north-east of Melbourne...
, Australia, the question was posed: "Is Lapita Kanak, or is Lapita the oldest and first ancestor of a later culture that is labelled Kanak?" Still another problem in determining the origin and early history of Kanak people is that the archaeological interpretation is in conflict with the views of Kanak people which have become politicized subsequent to colonial rule.
Early colonial rule
The earliest history of Europeans arriving on these islands is when Captain Cook of the United KingdomUnited Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
landed in these islands in 1775 at a time when there were reportedly 70,000 Kanaks living in the archipelago. Cook gave the name "New Caledonia" to these islands, after Caledonia
Caledonia
Caledonia is the Latinised form and name given by the Romans to the land in today's Scotland north of their province of Britannia, beyond the frontier of their empire...
, his Scottish highlands
Scottish Highlands
The Highlands is an historic region of Scotland. The area is sometimes referred to as the "Scottish Highlands". It was culturally distinguishable from the Lowlands from the later Middle Ages into the modern period, when Lowland Scots replaced Scottish Gaelic throughout most of the Lowlands...
.
Fifty years later, the protestants of London Missionary Society came to New Caledonia, which was followed by entry of the French Catholics to the island, in 1843. This resulted in a conflict between the two religious factions and eventually the French Catholics' control of the islands prevailed. The island nation was thereafter annexed by France, in 1850.
During the colonial period, in the 19th century, Kanaks were recruited or enslaved
Blackbirding
Blackbirding is a term that refers to recruitment of people through trickery and kidnappings to work as labourers. From the 1860s blackbirding ships were engaged in seeking workers to mine the guano deposits on the Chincha Islands in Peru...
, to perform unfree labour
Unfree labour
Unfree labour includes all forms of slavery as well as all other related institutions .-Payment for unfree labour:If payment occurs, it may be in one or more of the following forms:...
in places such as Australia, California, Canada, Chile and Fiji (with the inter-Asian slave trade to India, Japan, South Africa, and what is now Malaysia. During the 3,000 years that Kanaks lived in the remote islands, they were unprepared for the arrival of European viruses and bacteria. The Kanaks were uprooted from the land and were forced into slave labour to work on French plantations, ranches and public works.
Revolt
When Kanaks were forced to move to reserve areas of the island, closer to the mountains, they occupied only 10 percent of the area of their legitimate country given that their population had declined so dramatically due to disease, and their living conditions became very hard. This situation arose consequent to induction of 20,000 convicts by the French government between 1864 and 1897, most of whom settled permanently in the country, and who were employed to extract nickelNickel
Nickel is a chemical element with the chemical symbol Ni and atomic number 28. It is a silvery-white lustrous metal with a slight golden tinge. Nickel belongs to the transition metals and is hard and ductile...
(beginning with 1864) and copper
Copper
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; an exposed surface has a reddish-orange tarnish...
from 1875 onwards. This caused serious resentment among the Kanaks who revolted in 1878 against the French colonial rule, which was suppressed by the French who were better armed. The Kanak leader was decapitated, and his head was put on display in the Museum of Natural History
Muséum national d'histoire naturelle
The Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle is the National Museum of Natural History in Paris, France.- History :The museum was formally founded on 10 June 1793, during the French Revolution...
.
After World War II
After World War IIWorld War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, the Kanaks' independence movement again picked up momentum when the United Nations
United Nations
The United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace...
placed Kanaky on its Decolonisation List of Non-Self-Governing Territories
Special Committee on Decolonization
The Special Committee on Decolonization was created in 1961 by the General Assembly of the United Nations with the purpose of monitoring implementation of the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples...
in 1946. A major progression occurred when Kanaks and French settlers in the country obtained voting rights in 1951, shortly before it became an overseas territory of France in 1956. The Kanaks were then also allowed to move out of their reserve areas. This was followed by the establishment of the Territorial Assembly in 1957, but this was short lived;Charles de Gaulle
Charles de Gaulle
Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle was a French general and statesman who led the Free French Forces during World War II. He later founded the French Fifth Republic in 1958 and served as its first President from 1959 to 1969....
abolished it after he became the President of France, in 1958.
It was only in 1981 that the movement for Independence could again be restarted, following the murder of Pierre Declercq
Pierre Declercq
Pierre Declercq was a French-born politician from New Caledonia, follower of independentism.As a teacher he arrived to New Caledonia in the 1960s. Formerly secretary of the Caledonian Union. President of the Reupublic received him and other members of CU on 19 September 1981. He was...
, the secretary general of the Caledonian Union
Caledonian Union
The Caledonian Union is a pro-independence political party in New Caledonia. In the latest legislative elections of May 10, 2009, the party won around 11.65 % of the popular vote, and 9 out of 54 seats in the Territorial Congress.-History:...
(French
French language
French is a Romance language spoken as a first language in France, the Romandy region in Switzerland, Wallonia and Brussels in Belgium, Monaco, the regions of Quebec and Acadia in Canada, and by various communities elsewhere. Second-language speakers of French are distributed throughout many parts...
: Union calédonienne, UC) on 19 September 1981. A national forum entitled "Front de Liberation Nationale Kanak Socialiste (FLNKS)” was established in 1984. This forum refused to participate in elections to the Territorial Assembly and even declared its own Provincial Government, met with aggression by the French. FLNKS "organized a boycott of the territorial elections in New Caledonia, smashing ballot boxes and setting up roadblocks to prevent people from voting". The FLNKS persisted with their agitation and unilaterally announced on 7 January 1985 that a referendum on independence would be conducted in July 1985. After the murder of a Kanak leader named Eloi Machero in 1985, Kanak activists took 27 gendarmes hostage on the island of Ouvea, igniting French aggression. The Kanaks proposed a self-government in January 1986. An interim arrangement was announced by Mitterrand who moved to give greater autonomy in the colony. However, the French prime minister Chirac
Jacques Chirac
Jacques René Chirac is a French politician who served as President of France from 1995 to 2007. He previously served as Prime Minister of France from 1974 to 1976 and from 1986 to 1988 , and as Mayor of Paris from 1977 to 1995.After completing his studies of the DEA's degree at the...
stationed troops in the islands and the autonomy issue was shelved. The FLNKS, however, backed in their struggle by regional organizations such as the "Groupe du fer de lance mélanesien" (The Melanesian Spearhead Group), the Pacific Forum, and the Nonaligned Countries Movement
Non-Aligned Movement
The Non-Aligned Movement is a group of states considering themselves not aligned formally with or against any major power bloc. As of 2011, the movement had 120 members and 17 observer countries...
, were successful in getting the UN Resolution 41-41 A of 2 December 1986 passed which re-inscribed Kanaky on the Decolonisation List of Non-Self-Governing Territories. However, this resolution did not mitigate the Kanaks' problems as what ensued was more repression by the French, and killing of Kanak people in 1987, and an event in 1988 known as "the Ouvea Massacr
Ouvéa cave hostage taking
The Ouvéa cave hostage taking was an event occurring from April 22, 1988 to May 5, 1988 in which members of the separatist group the National Union for Independence-Kanak and Socialist National Liberation Front took 27 including a French gendarme and a judge hostage in the island of Ouvéa, New...
e" carried out by 300 French police, killing 19 Kanaks. Following this massacre, there was an international outcry which resulted in initiation of talks for settlement between the French Government, the Kanaks and the French settlers.
Matignon Accord
An agreement called the Matignon Accord followed on 6 November 1988 between the French and the Kanaks, which had the majority support of 80% of the French people. According to the Matignon Accord (or Matignon Agreement) a referendum on independence was proposed to be held by 1998. However, two of the Kanak leaders who had signed the agreement, Jean-Marie Tjibaou and Yeiwene Yeiwene, were assassinated on 4 May 1989. The Kanaks were unhappy with the situation as they felt that France would never allow them to regain their free nation. Since the Kanaks were a minority population in their own country, inhabiting mainly lesser-developed rural areas, and the Caldoches were in the majority, controlling the urban and military area around Nouméa, the French government retained jurisdiction over foreign and military affairs, land ownership, treasury and immigration.Nouméa Accord
A subsequent agreement, the "Nouméa AccordNouméa Accord
The Nouméa Accord of 1998 promises to grant political power to New Caledonia and its original population, the Kanaks, until the territory decides whether to remain within the French Republic or become an independent state in a referendum to be held between 2014 and 2019...
", was signed between the FLNKS President and the French Government on 5 May 1998, allowing for a degree of autonomy to New Caledonia over a transition period of up to 20 years. A referendum for independence from France is to be held between 2013 and 2018. Progressive changes that were expected of this agreement were in the local political control and structure; the Kanaks would have greater say over internal and regional affairs while France would retain sovereign rights including control over military and foreign affairs. In a speech made before the Fourth Commission of the United Nations on 10 October 2005, the FLNKS Vice President, Leopold Joredie, urged the UN "to establish a monitoring and follow-up system for the previous contracts signed between multinationals and municipalities, by drawing on the initiatives of Global Witness and asking the UN to put in place an ad hoc commission in order to protect the wealth of New Caledonia, following the example of what was done for Congo
Democratic Republic of the Congo
The Democratic Republic of the Congo is a state located in Central Africa. It is the second largest country in Africa by area and the eleventh largest in the world...
."
Present status
The Caledonian Union, one of the political parties within the pro-independence FLNKS group had, in 2010, appealed for a national committee to evaluate progress and prepare New Caledonia for the change in leadership before the planned referendum in 2014. In this appeal, the UC also highlighted that, according to the Nouméa Accord, it was obligatory for the French government to train and build the capacity of Kanaks to be able to take over the government in 2014 and urged them to respond swiftly.Demographics and language
New Caledonia or Territoire des Nouvelle-Caledonie et Dependances, is situated approximately 1,200 kilometres (750 mi) off the north-east coast of Australia. Of its 500 islands, the five main ones are inhabited, and are spread across an area 30 miles wide and over 250 miles in length. As of 1996, the Melanesian Kanak people constituted 42.5% (79,808) of the population of 187,784 in New Caledonia, a minority in their own land. The other groups consist of EuropeEurope
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
ans (mostly French
French people
The French are a nation that share a common French culture and speak the French language as a mother tongue. Historically, the French population are descended from peoples of Celtic, Latin and Germanic origin, and are today a mixture of several ethnic groups...
) at 37%, Wallisian 8% and Polynesia
Polynesia
Polynesia is a subregion of Oceania, made up of over 1,000 islands scattered over the central and southern Pacific Ocean. The indigenous people who inhabit the islands of Polynesia are termed Polynesians and they share many similar traits including language, culture and beliefs...
ns, Indonesia
Indonesia
Indonesia , officially the Republic of Indonesia , is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is an archipelago comprising approximately 13,000 islands. It has 33 provinces with over 238 million people, and is the world's fourth most populous country. Indonesia is a republic, with an...
ns and Vietnam
Vietnam
Vietnam – sometimes spelled Viet Nam , officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam – is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by China to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea –...
ese. In 1775, there were 70,000 Kanaks living on the islands which declined to 27,000 during early colonial rule as a result of their forcible living in the reserved areas. Kanaks were historically associated with tribes, including the Bwaarhat, Tiendanite, Goa, and Goosana, as well as clans, such as the Poowe.
There are significant populations of the descendants of Kanak people living in Australia, particularly in sugar cane growing areas in Queensland
Queensland
Queensland is a state of Australia, occupying the north-eastern section of the mainland continent. It is bordered by the Northern Territory, South Australia and New South Wales to the west, south-west and south respectively. To the east, Queensland is bordered by the Coral Sea and Pacific Ocean...
, where they were brought as labourers to work in the cane fields. There are many social links and intermarriages between these people and local Australian Aboriginal
Australian Aborigines
Australian Aborigines , also called Aboriginal Australians, from the latin ab originem , are people who are indigenous to most of the Australian continentthat is, to mainland Australia and the island of Tasmania...
groups.
Language
While French is the official language, Kanak languages are extremely diverse. There are 28 distinct Kanak languages, as well as many dialects, out of the 1200 Melanasian languages spoken throughout the Pacific. They are mutually incomprehensible. All of the languages are a part of the Melanesian branch of the Austronesian languagesAustronesian languages
The Austronesian languages are a language family widely dispersed throughout the islands of Southeast Asia and the Pacific, with a few members spoken on continental Asia that are spoken by about 386 million people. It is on par with Indo-European, Niger-Congo, Afroasiatic and Uralic as one of the...
family, except for Fagauvea
Fagauvea
West Uvean is a Polynesian outlier language spoken on the island of Ouvéa, in the Loyalty island group of New Caledonia...
, which is a Polynesian language
Polynesian languages
The Polynesian languages are a language family spoken in the region known as Polynesia. They are classified as part of the Austronesian family, belonging to the Oceanic branch of that family. They fall into two branches: Tongic and Nuclear Polynesian. Polynesians share many cultural traits...
. New Caledonia languages are divided into several groups. The Northern language group is tonal and includes 12 languages: Caac, Cemuhi, Fwai, Jawe, Kumak, Nemi, Paici, Pije, Pwaamei, Pwapwa, Yalayu, and Yuaga. Approximately 60,000 residents of New Caledonia speak at least one of the Kanak languages. Most of these languages are only in spoken form and there is no one unified language among the Kanaks; however the largest group of Kanak’s speak Drehu (a mixture of Polynesian, French and English).
Coming from an oral tradition, the written word was nonexistent until the missionary arrival. Kanak knowledge was passed orally in the form of poems, legends, and stories. Children's oral history is provided by Kanak parents and other relatives who also use tickling and onomatopoeic noise to hold the child's attention. Of the Kanak authors, some of the notable ones are Tjibaou who wrote La Presence Kanak; Susanna Ounei-Small, a Kanak author from Ouvéa who wrote about the Matignon Accords; and Kaloombat Tein, author of Hwanfalik – Sayings from the Hienghene Valley which provides insight into Hienghène
Hienghène
Hienghène is a commune in the North Province of New Caledonia, an overseas territory of France in the Pacific Ocean....
legends and is written in the Hienghène dialect, with English language translation.
Tjibaou was involved in the establishment of the Ecoles populaires kanak, which was taught in a local Kanak language and educated children in spiritual and practical knowledge, while also including French and English language instruction. Since 2006, pre-school children have been given the opportunity to learn indigenous Kanak languages. While the Kanak languages have been taught in high schools across the Loyalty Islands and North Province, the language education has not been as common in the more European South Province. The establishment of the Kanak Language Academy
Kanak Language Academy
The Kanak Language Academy is a local, public educational establishment in New Caledonia. Founded in 2007, with roots reaching to the Nouméa Accords of 1998, the legislative assembly endorsed the setting up of the French territory’s first indigenous Kanak languages institute...
(KLA) was a provision of the Nouméa Accord.
Traditional beliefs and religion
The Kanaks were known to worship their ancestors. This worship was embodied in the sepulcher, sacred stones, and devotional hearths where they offered sacrifices. Religion is an important aspect of Kanak’s life. Kanaks attend the Catholic Church in Nouméa. and they form nearly 50 percent of the population of Catholics in New Caledonia, next only to the Europeans. Also, the majority of Protestants are Kanaks. However, there are a few who follow traditional beliefs.According to the traditional beliefs of the Kanak people, the sea is sacred as it provides them with "fish for food", so they treat it with great reverence. The folk stories created by the Kanak people not only attest to this fact but are also strictly followed as unwritten laws. Some of the important aspects of the oral laws relate to environmental protection and conservation, such as the closure of fishing operations when the fish stocks are on the decline, and fishing rights in certain areas are strictly observed with respect to locals.
Conservation
Following these beliefs and traditions, Kanak people and Conservation InternationalConservation International
Conservation International is a nonprofit organization headquartered in Arlington, Virginia, which seeks to ensure the health of humanity by protecting Earth's ecosystems and biodiversity. CI’s work focuses on six key initiatives that affect human well-being: climate, food security, freshwater...
(CI) have been jointly involved in conserving the ancestral waters and natural resources. According to a rapid assessment survey conducted with help from the Kanaks, 42 coral reefs have been identified for protection near Nord's Mont Pani Province. Its rich biodiversity reserves also include sea cucumbers, molluscs, crustaceans, herrings, groupers, and snappers. Supporting Kanak traditions, the Coral Reef Initiative for the South Pacific
Coral Reef Initiative for the South Pacific
Coral Reef Initiative for the South Pacific is a French inter-ministerial project founded in 2002. Its aims focus on developing a vision for the future for coral reef eco-systems and the communities that depend on them within the French overseas territories and Pacific Island developing countries...
's (CRISP) partnership with CI provided recommendations and underwater species guides to the Kanak people. In 2004, a proposal was put forward to promote the entire coastal region as a World Heritage Site
World Heritage Site
A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a place that is listed by the UNESCO as of special cultural or physical significance...
. Further work on this initiative has been pursued by CI's Center for Applied Biodiversity Science, the Coral Reef Initiative for the South Pacific
Coral Reef Initiative for the South Pacific
Coral Reef Initiative for the South Pacific is a French inter-ministerial project founded in 2002. Its aims focus on developing a vision for the future for coral reef eco-systems and the communities that depend on them within the French overseas territories and Pacific Island developing countries...
(CRISP), and the French Government, in collaboration with WWF
World Wide Fund for Nature
The World Wide Fund for Nature is an international non-governmental organization working on issues regarding the conservation, research and restoration of the environment, formerly named the World Wildlife Fund, which remains its official name in Canada and the United States...
to assess marine resources used by both Kanak tribes and people of European descent across three coastlines of the Nord Province.
Cuisine
Bougna
Bougna is a traditional feast dish of the Kanak people of New Caledonia. The word "bougna" comes from the Drehu word "puhnya" meaning "bundle", "pack"....
is a traditional Kanak casserole, considered a national food by many Kanaks. It is made of sliced root vegetables which might include taro
Taro
Taro is a common name for the corms and tubers of several plants in the family Araceae . Of these, Colocasia esculenta is the most widely cultivated, and is the subject of this article. More specifically, this article describes the 'dasheen' form of taro; another variety is called eddoe.Taro is...
, manioc, yam
Yam (vegetable)
Yam is the common name for some species in the genus Dioscorea . These are perennial herbaceous vines cultivated for the consumption of their starchy tubers in Africa, Asia, Latin America and Oceania...
s and coconut
Coconut
The coconut palm, Cocos nucifera, is a member of the family Arecaceae . It is the only accepted species in the genus Cocos. The term coconut can refer to the entire coconut palm, the seed, or the fruit, which is not a botanical nut. The spelling cocoanut is an old-fashioned form of the word...
milk. Pork, chicken, or seafood may be used in the filling which is then wrapped in poingo banana
Banana
Banana is the common name for herbaceous plants of the genus Musa and for the fruit they produce. Bananas come in a variety of sizes and colors when ripe, including yellow, purple, and red....
leaves before being cooked over hot stones in an earthen oven. Other local ingredients used in Kanak cuisine include Rousettus
Rousettus
Rousettus is a genus of Old World fruit bats or megabats. They are sometimes referred to as dog-faced fruit bats, or flying foxes. The genus is a member of the suborder Megachiroptera...
(flying foxes) and local deer; marine staples such as lagoon and coral reef fish (including dawa
Bluespine unicornfish
The bluespine unicornfish or short-nose unicornfish is a tang from the Indo-Pacific. It occasionally makes its way into the aquarium trade. It grows to a size of 70 cm in length. It is called kala in Hawaiian, and dawa in New Caledonia....
), as well as crabs and lobsters. Paita beans are locally grown haricots, while custard-apple
Custard-apple
The tree also grows in Egypt,but the fruit is quite greenish in color not brown or yellowish.The common name for the fruit in Egypt is "Kishta".The custard-apple, also called bullock's heart or bull's heart, is the fruit of the tree Annona reticulata...
, lime
Lime (fruit)
Lime is a term referring to a number of different citrus fruits, both species and hybrids, which are typically round, green to yellow in color, 3–6 cm in diameter, and containing sour and acidic pulp. Limes are a good source of vitamin C. Limes are often used to accent the flavors of foods and...
and saffron
Saffron
Saffron is a spice derived from the flower of Crocus sativus, commonly known as the saffron crocus. Crocus is a genus in the family Iridaceae. Each saffron crocus grows to and bears up to four flowers, each with three vivid crimson stigmas, which are each the distal end of a carpel...
are other local ingredients.
Fine arts
The Kanak arts of sculpture, dance, music and theatre have become more popular since the 1990s with the efforts of the Agency for Development of Kanak Culture ADCK. Art forms in Kanak culture comprise:Lapita pottery
The ancient Lapita potteries date to 1500 BC. Essentially a women’s craft, the pottery is generally decorated with geometric patterns and stylised human faces, although there is variation between northern and southern New Caledonian pottery. The various handles and glazes have pinhole-incised designs made from tooth combs. The pottery was made from clay deposits found in the islands.
Paintings
Painting is a recent art form common among women artists. Famous artists include Yvette Bouquet from Koumac who has produced paintings with Pacific and Oceania themes, Paula Boi, whose paintings are of more abstract scenes, and Denise Tuvouane and Maryline Thydjepache who use mixed art forms. Bus stop shelters are common places where their paintings are illustrated.
Wood sculpture
Wood sculpture represents the spirit of Kanak culture of which the Flèche faîtière
Flèche faîtière
A flèche faîtière is a carved rooftop spear or spire or finial that adorns Kanak houses, particularly the Great Houses of the Kanak Chiefs, in New Caledonia. The ceremonial carving is the home of ancestral spirits and is characterized by three major components. The ancestor is symbolized by a...
, which resembles a small totem pole with symbolic shapes, is the most common. A mini Stonehenge
Stonehenge
Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument located in the English county of Wiltshire, about west of Amesbury and north of Salisbury. One of the most famous sites in the world, Stonehenge is composed of a circular setting of large standing stones set within earthworks...
-looking religious memorial near the village in L'Île-des-Pins
L'Île-des-Pins
L'Île-des-Pins is a commune in the South Province of New Caledonia, an overseas territory of France in the Pacific Ocean. L'Île-des-Pins is made up of the Isle of Pines, the smaller Kôtomo Island, and several islets around these two, as well as the distant island of Walpole, which is located almost...
has a display of religious carvings. Other wooden objects include war clubs carved from the strongest wood, made in the form of a phallic head (casse-tete), a lethal bird's beak club (bec d'oiseau), and spears made from niaouli trees used to burn enemy houses.
Wooden carvings in the shape of hawks, ancient gods, serpents and turtles are also popular. The Grand Huts, also known as grande case (chef's hut), are decorated with the filial of fleche faitiere
Flèche faîtière
A flèche faîtière is a carved rooftop spear or spire or finial that adorns Kanak houses, particularly the Great Houses of the Kanak Chiefs, in New Caledonia. The ceremonial carving is the home of ancestral spirits and is characterized by three major components. The ancestor is symbolized by a...
representing the ancestral spirits, symbolic of transition between the world of the dead and the world of the living. The wood carving is shaped like the spear-like carving that adorns the top of the grande case. It comprises three parts; the flat crowned face representing the ancestor with a long, the rounded pole run through by conch shells mounted on it that represents the ancestor’s voice, and a base with the pole fixed to it to symbolize the link between the clan and the chief. The central piece is also flanked by wooden pieces with sharp points (facing downwards) that are intended to prevent bad spirits enveloping the ancestor in the central part. As it represented the power of the chiefs over their subjects, it was adopted as flag of the Kanaks by the organization leading the independent movement in New Caledonia. The arrow or the spear normally has a needle at the end to insert threaded shells from bottom to top. After the death of a Kanak chief, the fleche faitière is removed and his family takes it to their home. Though it was allowed to be used again as a sign of respect it is normally kept at burial grounds of noted citizens or at the mounds of abandoned grand houses.
Stone carving
Stone carvings made of jade
Jade
Jade is an ornamental stone.The term jade is applied to two different metamorphic rocks that are made up of different silicate minerals:...
or serpentinite
Serpentinite
Serpentinite is a rock composed of one or more serpentine group minerals. Minerals in this group are formed by serpentinization, a hydration and metamorphic transformation of ultramafic rock from the Earth's mantle...
are in the form of ceremonial axe representing clan's strength and power. These were used to behead enemies during war and during ancestor celebrations known as Pilou. The bottom of the handle represents the particular clan and is embellished with stones and shells. The axe is polished smooth like a disc. Carvings made of soapstone
Soapstone
Soapstone is a metamorphic rock, a talc-schist. It is largely composed of the mineral talc and is thus rich in magnesium. It is produced by dynamothermal metamorphism and metasomatism, which occurs in the areas where tectonic plates are subducted, changing rocks by heat and pressure, with influx...
are also popular.
Bamboo carvings
A meter in length canes, dated between 1850 and 1920, are used to make an entry into a village or in dance ceremonies. The canes were fired to give black patina over the engraved parts; the engraving designs consist of geometrical real images from the pilou dance, agricultural motifs and village scenes of fishing or building a Grand Hut or case. These were also stuffed with magic herbs to ward off evil spirits.
Tapa
Tapa is a bark cloth made into small pieces, often from banyan trees used to wrap up Kanak ancient bead money.
Boats
Kanaks living on the islands made canoe
Canoe
A canoe or Canadian canoe is a small narrow boat, typically human-powered, though it may also be powered by sails or small electric or gas motors. Canoes are usually pointed at both bow and stern and are normally open on top, but can be decked over A canoe (North American English) or Canadian...
s out of hollowed–out trunks and large double–hulled outriggers with triangular sails, known as pirogues, traditionally used for fishing.
Dances
Dances are performed during the traditional Kanak gatherings with the objective of cementing relationships within the clan and with ancestors. Dance is performed in the form of a message or a legend, often related to their daily activities or important events such as birth, marriage, circumcision, the death of a chief and so forth. Dancers paint themselves colourfully to please the ancestors watching over them. Wooden masks made of local materials such as bark, feathers and leaves adorn them representing a physical link with the invisible world.The Festival des Arts du Facifique, the Festival of Pacific Arts, is organized every four years. Dancers are trained in traditional dances in special workshops. Welcome dances performed by groups are very popular. Of the various dance forms, the pilou-pilou dance is a unique dance form of the Kanaks, which recounts many stories of the clans. The pilou-pilou dance form of the Kanaks, now almost extinct, was so named by the early French missionaries of New Caledonia and involved stomping with bamboo tubes and beating of bark-clappers accompanied by singing in duets with shrieks and whistles of hundreds of dancers. However, in view of very strong nature of this form of dance, with a trance-like status attained by the dancers, these have been banned; the last such dance reported was in 1951.
Music
Music, dance and singing are part of many a Kanak ceremonial function such as initiation, courting and mourning. Conch shells are blown by an appointed person to represent a clan chief’s arrival or the voice of an ancestor. Rhythm instruments used include Bwanjep, used during ceremonies by a group of men; Jew's harpJew's harp
The Jew's harp, jaw harp, mouth harp, Ozark harp, trump or juice harp, is thought to be one of the oldest musical instruments in the world; a musician apparently playing it can be seen in a Chinese drawing from the 4th century BC...
, (wadohnu in the Nengone language where it originated) made of dried piece of coconut palm leaf held between the teeth and an attached segment of soft nerve leaf; coconut-leaf whizzer, a piece of coconut leaf attached to a string and twirled that produces a noise like a humming bee; oboe, made of hollow grass stems or bamboo; end-blown flute, made of 50 cm long hollowed pawpaw
Pawpaw
Asimina is a genus of eight species of small trees or shrubs with large simple leaves and large fruit, native to eastern North America. The genus includes the widespread common pawpaw Asimina triloba, which bears the largest edible fruit indigenous to the continent. Pawpaws are native to 26 states...
leaf stem; bamboo stamping tubes that are struck vertically against the ground and played at major events; percussion instruments (hitting sticks, palm sheaths); rattles that are worn on the legs made of coconut leaves, shells and certain fruits. Kanak groups such as Bethela first made the recordings on cassette around 1975 or 1976.
Arts festivals
In 1971 the womens' association, Smiling Melanesian Village Women's Groups was formed and advocated the idea of a cultural festival to promote Kanak arts. As a result of this movement the first festival of Melanesian arts, "Melanesia 2000Melanesia 2000
Melanesia 2000 was the first festival of Melanesian arts, first held in Noumea, New Caledonia in September 1975, supported by Jean-Marie Tjibaou. It had its origins in the womens' association, Smiling Melanesian Village Women's Groups which was formed in 1971 and advocated the idea of a cultural...
", was held in Nouméa in September 1975, supported by Jean-Marie Tjibaou.
Kanak arts festivals became popular with two international events held early in the 1990s that created the awareness of Kanak arts. The first exhibition of modern-day wood sculptors and painters was held at Ko i Neva, which was also published as contemporary Kanak arts. This was followed by a large exhibition of Kanak arts in Paris known as “De Jade et de Nacre - Patrimoine Artistique Kanak (Jade and Mother of Pearl - Kanak Artistic Heritage”.
The Centre Cultural Tjibaou also stages occasional art exhibitions. A popular quadrennial event is the Festival of Pacific Arts where the indigenous people of all Pacific nations and people gather to display the Pacific's cultural heritage.