Kumul Rebellion
Encyclopedia
The Kumul Rebellion was a rebellion of Kumul
ik Uyghurs who conspired with the Chinese Muslim General Ma Zhongying
to overthrow Jin Shuren
, governor of Xinjiang. The Kuomintang
wanted Jin removed because of his ties to the Soviet Union, so it approved of the operation while pretending to acknowledge Jin as governor. The rebellion then catapulted into large scale fighting as Khotan
lik Uyghur
rebels in southern Xinjiang started a separate rebellion for independence in collusion with Kirghiz rebels. Various groups rebelled, and were not united, some fought against each other. The main part of the war was a Jihad
waged by Ma Zhongying against the Xinjiang government, the Jihad was supported by Chiang Kaishek, the Premier of China, who secretly agreed to let Ma seize Xinjiang.
(Yang Tseng-sin), in 1928. Jin was notoriously intolerant of Turkic peoples, and openly antagonized them. Such acts of discrimination included restrictions on travel, increased taxation, seizure of property without due process, and frequent executions for suspected espionage or disloyalty. Jin had Chinese Muslims in his provincial army like Ma Shaowu
In 1930, Jin annexed the Kumul Khanate
, a small semi-autonomous state lying within the borders of Xinjiang. The newly-subjected Kumulliks' land was expropriated by the government and given to Chinese
settlers. As a result, rebellion broke out on February 20, 1931, and many Chinese
were massacred by the local population. The uprising threatened to spread throughout the entire province.
Yulbars Khan
, advisor at the Kumul court appealed for help to Ma Zhongying, a Muslim warlord in the Gansu province.
Ma's troops marched to Kumul and laid siege to the government forces in the garrison there. Although he was victorious elsewhere in the area, Ma was unable to capture the city. After being wounded that October, in a battle where Jin's force included 250 White Russian
troops whom he had recruited from the Ili
valley (where they had settled after the Bolshevik
victory in the Russian Civil War
), Ma withdrew his forces back to Gansu (where he was nursed by Mildred Cable and the sisters Francesca and Eva French, whom he kept captive until he had recovered). This would temporarily leave the Xinjiang Muslims to fight Jin alone.
Ma Zhongying had a secret agreement with the Kuomintang, to the effect that if he won Xinjiang, he would be recognized by the Kuomintang.
, Urumqi
, Karashahr, Kucha
, Aksu
, Kashgar
, Yarkand
, Khotan
. The Kuomintang found out about this the following year in 1932, and decided to openly back Ma Zhongying in his war against Jin Shuren.
Ma was officially appointed as Commanding Officer of the 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army)
by the Kuomintang government in Nanjing. Asked to intervene against Jin on behalf of the Turkic population, Ma readily agreed.
, and his brothers Abdullah Bughra
and Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra
. These rebels wanted total independence, and hated both Han chinese
and Chinese Muslims
, their leader, Sabit Damulla Abdulbaki
, called for the expulsion of Chinese Muslims (Tungans) in a proclamation:
This rebellion became entangled with the Kumul rebellion, when a Chinese Muslim and Uyghur army under Ma Zhancang
and Timur Beg
marched on Kashgar
, against the Chinese Muslim Daotai Ma Shaowu
and his garrison of Han chinese
soldiers. Ma Shaowu began to panic and started raising Kirghiz levies under Osman Ali under the city. The Kirghiz were not amused on how their rebellion was crushed the previous year by Ma Shaowu, and now he wanted them to defend the city. They defected en masse to the enemy. However, Ma Zhancang also entered into secret negotiations with Ma Shaowu, he and his troops defected to the Han chinese garrison in the city.
During the Battle of Kashgar (1933)
the city changed hands multiple times as the confused factions battled each other. The Kirghiz began to murder any Han chinese and Chinese Muslim they could get their hands on, and fighting broke out on the streets. Timur Beg became sympathetic to the pro independence rebels of Muhammad Amin Bughra
and Sabit Damulla Abdulbaki
, while Ma Zhancang proclaimed his alleigance to the Chinese Kuomintang government, and notified everyone that all former Chinese officials would keep their posts.
Ma Zhancang arranged for Timur Beg to be killed and beheaded on August 9, 1933, displaying his head outside of Id Kah Mosque
.
banners in his army, and Kuomintang
Blue Sky with a White Sun
armbands. He himself wore a Kuomintang armband, and a 36th division uniform to show that he was legitimate representative of the Chinese government.
Kumul was easily taken, as well as other towns en route to the provincial capital. Sheng Shicai's forces retreated to Urumchi. Ground was alternatively gained and lost by both sides. During this time, Ma's forces acquired notoriety for their cruelty to both the Turkic and Chinese inhabitants, destroying the economy and engaging in wholesale looting and burning of villages. Once seen as a liberator by the Turkic population, who had suffered greatly under Jin Shuren, many Turkic inhabitants of the region now ardently hoped for Ma's expulsion by Sheng Shicai, and an end to the seesaw military campaigns by both sides.
Ma also forcibly conscripted Uyghurs into his army, turning them into footsoldiers while only Chinese Muslims were allowed to be officers. This led to outrage among the Uyghurs at Kumul.
Meanwhile, the Han chinese
commander of Ili
, Zhang Peiyuan
, entered into secret negotiations with Ma Zhongying, and the two joined their armies together against Jin Shuren and the Russians.
Huang Mu-sung, native of Kumul and a "Pacification Commissioner" from the Kuomintang government, soon arrived in Urumchi on an ostensible peace mission. Sheng Shicai suspected him of conspiring with some of his opponents to overthrow him. Sheng turned out the be correct, since the Kuomintang secretly ordered Ma Zhongying and Zhang Peiyuan to attack Sheng's regime in Urumchi. As a result, he executed three leaders of the provincial government, accusing them of plotting his overthrow with Huang. At the same time, Sheng Shicai also forced Huang to wire Nanjing with a recommendation that he be recognized as the official Tupan of Xinjiang.
Chiang Kai-shek
sent Luo Wen'gan to Xinjiang, Luo met with Ma Zhongying and Zhang Peiyuan and urged them to destroy Sheng.
Ma Zhongying and Zhang Peiyuan then began a joint attack on Sheng's Manchurian and White Russian force during the Second Battle of Urumqi (1933–34)
. Zhang seized the road between Tacheng and the capital. Sheng Shicai commanded Manchurian and White Russian troops commanded by Colonel Pappengut.
Ma and Zhang's Han Chinese and Chinese Muslim forces almost defeated Sheng, when Sheng requested help from the Soviet Union. This led to the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang
and Ma Zhongying
's retreat after the Battle of Tutung
.
Kamal Kaya Efendi
, a former Ottoman Turkish military officer who was Ma Zhongying's chief of staff, was captured by Soviet agents in Kumul
in 1934, but instead of being executed, he was made Commissar for Road Construction in Xinjiang, possibly because he was a Soviet agent himself.
In January 1934, Soviet troops crossed the border and attacked rebel positions in the Ili area in the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang
. Zhang Peiyuan's forces were defeated, and he committed suicide. Despite valiant resistance, Ma Zhongying's troops were forced to retreate from Soviet military machine's aerial bombing, and were pushed back from Urumchi during the Battle of Tutung
. Soviet assistance resulted in a rare White Russian and Soviet temporary military alliance against Ma. Ma wiped out a Soviet armored car column at the Battle of Dawan Cheng
.
Ma's retreating forces began advancing down to Southern Xinjiang, to destroy the First East Turkestan Republic. He sent out an advance guard under Ma Fuyuan to attack the Khotanlik Uyghurs and Kirghiz at Kashgar.
At this point, Chiang Kai-shek was ready to sent Huang Shaohong and his expeditionary force of 15,000 troops to assist Ma Zhongying against Sheng, but when Chiang heard about the Soviet Invasion, he decided to witihdraw to avoid an international incident if his troops directly engaged the Soviets.
On February 20, 1933, the Committee for National Revolution
set up a provisional Khotan government with Sabit as prime minister and Muhammad Amin Bughra as head of the armed forces. It favored the establishment of an Islamic theocracy.
Afghan King Mohammad Zahir Shah provided weapons and support to the East Turkestan Republic.
Sheng Shicai and the Soviet Union accused Ma Zhongying, a Muslim and ardently anti-Soviet, of being used by the Japanese to set up a puppet regime in Xinjiang, as they had done with Manchukuo
. Sheng claimed that he captured two Japanese officers on Ma's staff. However, not a single claim of Sheng's could be proven, and he did not provide any evidence for his allegations that Ma was colluding with the Japanese. Ma Zhongying publicly declared his allegiance to the Kuomintang at Nanjing. Ma himself was given permission by the Kuomintang to invade Xinjiang.
The western traveler Peter Fleming speculated that the Soviet Union was not in Xinjiang to keep out the Japanese, but to create their own sphere on influence.
The Chinese Muslim forces retreating from the north linked up with Ma Zhancang
's forces in Kashgar
allied themselves with the Kuomintang in Nanjing
, and attacked the TIRET, forcing Niyaz, Sabit Damolla, and the rest of the government to flee on February 6, 1934 to Yengi Hissar
south of the city. The Hui army crushed the Uighur and Kirghiz armies of the East Turkstan Republic at the Battle of Kashgar (1934)
, Battle of Yarkand
, and Battle of Yangi Hissar
.
The Turkish government under Mustafa Kemal Ataturk
was furious at this, and lodged a complaint at the Japanese embassy. Mustafa Kemal Ataturk was not interested in Pan turanism, and Ataturk was the one who kicked out the Ottoman royal family out of Turkey.
TASS claimed the Uyghur Sabit Damulla invited “Turkish emigrants in India and Japan, with their anti-Kemalist organizations, to organize his military forces.”
and Kirghiz Turkic fighters broke their agreement not to attack a column of retreating Han Chinese
and Chinese Muslim
soldiers from Yarkand
New City. The Turkic Muslim fighters massacred 800 Chinese Muslim and chinese civilians.
troops were expelled from the Aksu oases of Xinjiang by Uighurs led by Isma'il Beg
when they rose up in revolt.
troops under general Ma Zhancang
attacked and inflicted a defeat upon uighur and Kirghiz armies at Sekes Tesh. About 200 uighur and Kirghiz were killed.
, attempted to take the New City of Kashgar from Chinese Muslim troops under General Ma Zhancang
. They were defeated.
Tawfiq Bey, a Syrian Arab traveler, who held the title Sayyid ( descendent of prophet Muhammed) and arrived at Kashgar on August 26, 1933, was shot in the stomach by the Chinese Muslim troops in September. Previously Ma Zhancang arranged to have the Uighur leader Timur Beg
killed and beheaded on August 9, 1933, displaying his head outside of Id Kah Mosque
.
Han chinese
troops commanded by Brigadier Yang were absorbed into Ma Zhancang
's army. A number of Han chinese officers were spotted wearing the green uniforms of Ma Zhancang's unit of the 36th division, presumably they had converted to Islam.
During the Battle the Kirghiz prevented the Uyghur from looting the city, because they wanted to loot it themselves. They started murdering any Chinese and Chinese Muslim they could get their hands on, as well as any Turkic people who were wives or mistresses of Chinese. They then looted their property.
troops under Colonel Pappengut and the Northeast Salvation Army under Sheng Shicai
. They were driven back after fierce fighting.
During the Battle, the Han chinese
General of Ili, Zhang Peiyuan
, refused to help Jin Shuren repulse the attack, a sign that relations between the two were straining.
occurred in July 1933 after Khoja Niyas Hajji, a Uighur
leader, defected with his forces to Governor Sheng Shicai
. He was appointed by Sheng Shicai through agreement to be in charge for the whole Southern Xinjiang
( Tarim Basin
) and also Turpan Basin and being satisfied with this agreement marched away from Urumchi
to the South across Dawan Ch'eng
of Tengritagh Mountains
and occupied Toksun in Turpan Basin, but was badly defeated by the Chinese Muslim
forces of General Ma Shih-ming, who forced him to retreat to Karashar
in Eastern Kashgaria, where he held his headquarters during July, August and September 1933, defending mountain passes and roads, that led from Turpan Basin to Kashgaria, in the fruitless attempt to stop advancement of Tungan Armies to the South.
conducted secret negotiations with the Han chinese General Zhang Peiyuan
, for a joint attack against Sheng Shicai
's provincial Manchurian and White Russian troops in Urumqi. They joined their armies together and began the attack. Zhang seized the road between Tacheng and the capital. The Kuomintang
secretly encouraged Zhang and Ma through Huang Mu-sung to attack Sheng's forces, because of his Soviet connections and to regain the province. Their forces almost defeated Sheng, but then Sheng cabled the Soviet Union for help, which led to the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang
.
army to storm Kashgar
on February 6, 1934, and attacked the Uighur
and Kirghiz rebels of the First East Turkestan Republic
. He freed another 36th division general, Ma Zhancang, who was trapped with his Chinese Muslim
and Han chinese troops in Kashgar New City by the Uighurs and Kirghizs since May 22, 1933. In January, 1934, Ma Zhancang's Chinese Muslim troops repulsed six Uighur attacks, launched by Khoja Niyaz
, who arrived at the city on January 13, 1934, inflicting massive casualties on the Uighur forces. From 2,000 to 8,000 uighur civilians in Kashgar Old City were massacred by Tungans in February, 1934, in revenge for the Kizil massacre
, after retreating of Uighur forces from the city to Yengi Hisar
. The chinese Muslim and 36th division Chief General Ma Zhongying
, who arrived at Kashgar on April 7, 1934, gave a speech at Idgah mosque in April, reminding the Uighurs to be loyal to the Republic of China
government at Nanjing
. Several British citizens at the British consulate were killed by the 36th division. Ma Zhongying effectively destroyed the First East Turkestan Republic
(TIRET).
, wiping out the entire Uighur force, and killing the Emir Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra
. The siege on Yangi Hissar citadel continued about a week, during which 500 uyghur defenders, armed only with rifles, inflicted heavy casualties, up to several hundreds, to Tungan forces, who contrary were armed with cannons and machine guns, besides of rifles. Quickly being ran out of ammunition uyghur defenders applied tree trunks, large stones and oil fire bombs for defending of citadel. On April 16, 1934, Tungans managed to breach through the walls of citadel by successful mining and put to death all remaining defenders by sword. It was reported by Ahmad Kamal in his book "Land Without Laughter" on page 130-131, that Nur Ahmad Jan's head was cut off by the Chinese Muslim troops and sent to the local parade ground to be used as a ball in the soccer (football) game.
, and exterminated them all. The emir Abdullah Bughra was killed and beheaded, his head put on display at Idgah mosque.
crushed a revolt by the Uighurs in the Charkliq
oasis in 1935. More than 100 uighurs were executed, and the family of the Uighur leader was taken as hostage.
The Swiss writer Ella K. Maillart reported falsely that the Kizil massacre
was an attack of Chinese Muslims and Uyghurs on a group of Kirghiz and Han chinese. More recent sources prove that it was an attack of Kirghiz and Uyghurs on a group of Han chinese and Chinese Muslims.
She also falsely reported that during the battle of Kashgar that the chinese Muslim and Turkis (Uyghurs) first took the city from the Han chinese and Kirghiz and then fought among themselves. In reality, the Kirghiz defected from Ma Shaowu
and formed their own army, and the Chinese Muslim force under Ma Zhancang
joined Ma Shaowu.
Kumul
Kumul or Hami is an oasis in Hami Prefecture, Xinjiang ; it is also the name of a modern city and the surrounding district...
ik Uyghurs who conspired with the Chinese Muslim General Ma Zhongying
Ma Zhongying
Ma Zhongying, also Ma Chung-ying was a Tungan Chinese Muslim warlord during the Warlord era of China. Ma Zhongying's birth name was Ma Buying . Zhongying was a warlord of Gansu province in China during the 1930s. He allied himself with the Kuomintang, which gave his soldiers an official...
to overthrow Jin Shuren
Jin Shuren
Jin Shuren , governor of Xinjiang, succeeded Yang Zengxin after Yang was assassinated in 1928. Jin ruled Xinjiang for about half a decade, and his reign was characterized by corruption and suppression. Under his rule, both ethnic and religion conflicts were greatly deepened, resulting in numerous...
, governor of Xinjiang. The Kuomintang
Kuomintang
The Kuomintang of China , sometimes romanized as Guomindang via the Pinyin transcription system or GMD for short, and translated as the Chinese Nationalist Party is a founding and ruling political party of the Republic of China . Its guiding ideology is the Three Principles of the People, espoused...
wanted Jin removed because of his ties to the Soviet Union, so it approved of the operation while pretending to acknowledge Jin as governor. The rebellion then catapulted into large scale fighting as Khotan
Khotan
Hotan , or Hetian , also spelled Khotan, is the seat of the Hotan Prefecture in Xinjiang, China. It was previously known in Chinese as 于窴/於窴 and to 19th-century European explorers as Ilchi....
lik Uyghur
Uyghur people
The Uyghur are a Turkic ethnic group living in Eastern and Central Asia. Today, Uyghurs live primarily in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in the People's Republic of China...
rebels in southern Xinjiang started a separate rebellion for independence in collusion with Kirghiz rebels. Various groups rebelled, and were not united, some fought against each other. The main part of the war was a Jihad
Jihad
Jihad , an Islamic term, is a religious duty of Muslims. In Arabic, the word jihād translates as a noun meaning "struggle". Jihad appears 41 times in the Quran and frequently in the idiomatic expression "striving in the way of God ". A person engaged in jihad is called a mujahid; the plural is...
waged by Ma Zhongying against the Xinjiang government, the Jihad was supported by Chiang Kaishek, the Premier of China, who secretly agreed to let Ma seize Xinjiang.
Background
Jin Shuren (Chin Shu-jen) came to power shortly after the assassination of Xinjiang (Sinkiang) governor, Yang ZengxinYang Zengxin
Yang Zengxin , born in Mengzi, Honghe, Yunnan in 1859, was the ruler of Xinjiang after the Xinhai Revolution in 1911 until his assassination in 1928.-Life:...
(Yang Tseng-sin), in 1928. Jin was notoriously intolerant of Turkic peoples, and openly antagonized them. Such acts of discrimination included restrictions on travel, increased taxation, seizure of property without due process, and frequent executions for suspected espionage or disloyalty. Jin had Chinese Muslims in his provincial army like Ma Shaowu
Ma Shaowu
Ma Shaowu was a Hui born in Yunnan, in Qing dynasty China. He was a member of the Xinjiang clique during the Republic of China.- Family history :...
In 1930, Jin annexed the Kumul Khanate
Kumul Khanate
The Kumul Khanate was a semi-autonomous feudal khanate within the Qing dynasty and then the Republic of China until it was abolished by Xinjiang governor Jin Shuren in 1930.- History :...
, a small semi-autonomous state lying within the borders of Xinjiang. The newly-subjected Kumulliks' land was expropriated by the government and given to Chinese
Chinese people
The term Chinese people may refer to any of the following:*People with Han Chinese ethnicity ....
settlers. As a result, rebellion broke out on February 20, 1931, and many Chinese
Han Chinese
Han Chinese are an ethnic group native to China and are the largest single ethnic group in the world.Han Chinese constitute about 92% of the population of the People's Republic of China , 98% of the population of the Republic of China , 78% of the population of Singapore, and about 20% of the...
were massacred by the local population. The uprising threatened to spread throughout the entire province.
Yulbars Khan
Yulbars Khan
Yulbars Khan , courtesy name Jingfu , was a Uighur born in Yangi Hissar in 1888. He entered the service in the Kumul Khanate of Muhammad Khan of Kumul and later his son Maksud Shah. He served as an advisor at the court, until when Maksud died in March 1930, governor Jin Shuren abolished the khanate...
, advisor at the Kumul court appealed for help to Ma Zhongying, a Muslim warlord in the Gansu province.
Ma's troops marched to Kumul and laid siege to the government forces in the garrison there. Although he was victorious elsewhere in the area, Ma was unable to capture the city. After being wounded that October, in a battle where Jin's force included 250 White Russian
White Emigre
A white émigré was a Russian who emigrated from Russia in the wake of the Russian Revolution and Russian Civil War, and who was in opposition to the contemporary Russian political climate....
troops whom he had recruited from the Ili
Ili River
thumb|right|300px|Map of the Lake Balkhash drainage basin showing the Ili River and its tributariesThe Ili River is a river in northwestern China and southeastern Kazakhstan .It is long, of which is in Kazakhstan...
valley (where they had settled after the Bolshevik
Bolshevik
The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists , derived from bol'shinstvo, "majority") were a faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party which split apart from the Menshevik faction at the Second Party Congress in 1903....
victory in the Russian Civil War
Russian Civil War
The Russian Civil War was a multi-party war that occurred within the former Russian Empire after the Russian provisional government collapsed to the Soviets, under the domination of the Bolshevik party. Soviet forces first assumed power in Petrograd The Russian Civil War (1917–1923) was a...
), Ma withdrew his forces back to Gansu (where he was nursed by Mildred Cable and the sisters Francesca and Eva French, whom he kept captive until he had recovered). This would temporarily leave the Xinjiang Muslims to fight Jin alone.
Ma Zhongying had a secret agreement with the Kuomintang, to the effect that if he won Xinjiang, he would be recognized by the Kuomintang.
Soviet aid to Xinjiang Provincial Government
Jin bought two biplanes from the Soviet union in September 1931 at 40,000 Mexican silver dollars each. They were equipped with machine guns and bombs, flown by Russian pilots. Jin Shuren signed a secret treaty with the Soviet Union in October 1931, that quickly led to suppression of Kumul Rebellion and deblockading of Kumul by provincial troops on November 30, 1931. Jin Shuren received large gold credit from Soviet Government for acquiring arms and weapons from the Soviet army and opening Soviet trade agencies in eight provincial towns: Ghulja, Chuguchak, AltaiAltai Republic
Altai Republic is a federal subject of Russia . Its capital is the town of Gorno-Altaysk. The area of the republic is . Population: -Geography:...
, Urumqi
Ürümqi
Ürümqi , formerly Tihwa , is the capital of Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China, in the northwest of the country....
, Karashahr, Kucha
Kucha
Kuchaor Kuche Uyghur , Chinese Simplified: 库车; Traditional: 庫車; pinyin Kùchē; also romanized as Qiuzi, Qiuci, Chiu-tzu, Kiu-che, Kuei-tzu from the traditional Chinese forms 屈支 屈茨; 龜玆; 龟兹, 丘玆, also Po ; Sanskrit: Kueina, Standard Tibetan: Kutsahiyui was an ancient Buddhist kingdom...
, Aksu
Aksu
Aksu , is a city in the Chinese autonomous region of Xinjiang and the capital of Aksu Prefecture...
, Kashgar
Kashgar
Kashgar or Kashi is an oasis city with approximately 350,000 residents in the western part of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. Kashgar is the administrative centre of Kashgar Prefecture which has an area of 162,000 km² and a population of approximately...
, Yarkand
Yarkand
Yarkant County , is a county in Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, China, located on the southern rim of the Taklamakan desert in the Tarim Basin. It is one of 11 counties administered under Kashgar Prefecture...
, Khotan
Khotan
Hotan , or Hetian , also spelled Khotan, is the seat of the Hotan Prefecture in Xinjiang, China. It was previously known in Chinese as 于窴/於窴 and to 19th-century European explorers as Ilchi....
. The Kuomintang found out about this the following year in 1932, and decided to openly back Ma Zhongying in his war against Jin Shuren.
Ma was officially appointed as Commanding Officer of the 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army)
36th Division (National Revolutionary Army)
The 36th Division was a cavalry division in the National Revolutionary Army. It was created in 1932 by the Kuomintang for General Ma Zhongying, who was also its first commander. It was made almost entirely out of Hui Muslim troops, all of its officers were Hui, with a few thousand Uighurs forced...
by the Kuomintang government in Nanjing. Asked to intervene against Jin on behalf of the Turkic population, Ma readily agreed.
Separate Uyghur uprising
A separate Uyghur uprising at Khotan in southern Xinjiang occurred. These Uyghurs were not like the Kumul Uyghurs, who only wanted the Kumul Khanate restored and Jin Shuren to be overthrown. They were led by Muhammad Amin BughraMuhammad Amin Bughra
Muhammad Amin Bughra also Muḥammad Amīn Bughra , Муххамад Эмин Бугро, was a Turkic Muslim leader, who planned to set up an independent state, the First East Turkestan Republic....
, and his brothers Abdullah Bughra
Abdullah Bughra
Abdullah Bughra , was a Uighur Emir of the First East Turkestan Republic. He was the younger brother of Muhammad Amin Bughra and older brother of Emir Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra. He commanded Uighur and Kirghiz forces during the Battle of Kashgar against the Chinese Muslimm 36th Division...
and Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra
Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra
Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra , was an Uighur Emir of the First East Turkestan Republic. He was the younger brother of Muhammad Amin Bughra and Abdullah Bughra. He commanded Uighur and Kirghiz forces during the Battle of Kashgar against the Chinese Muslim 36th Division...
. These rebels wanted total independence, and hated both Han chinese
Han Chinese
Han Chinese are an ethnic group native to China and are the largest single ethnic group in the world.Han Chinese constitute about 92% of the population of the People's Republic of China , 98% of the population of the Republic of China , 78% of the population of Singapore, and about 20% of the...
and Chinese Muslims
Hui people
The Hui people are an ethnic group in China, defined as Chinese speaking people descended from foreign Muslims. They are typically distinguished by their practice of Islam, however some also practice other religions, and many are direct descendants of Silk Road travelers.In modern People's...
, their leader, Sabit Damulla Abdulbaki
Sabit Damulla Abdulbaki
-Life:Sabit Damulla Abdulbaqi was born in 1883, in county of Atush in theKashgar vilayet, in Qeshqer -Life:Sabit (Sawut) Damulla Abdulbaqi was born in 1883, in county of Atush in theKashgar vilayet, in Qeshqer -Life:Sabit (Sawut) Damulla Abdulbaqi was born in 1883, in county of Atush in theKashgar...
, called for the expulsion of Chinese Muslims (Tungans) in a proclamation:
The Tungans, more than Han, are the enemy of our people. Today our people are already free from the oppression of the Han, but still continue live under Tungan subjugation. We must still fear the Han, but cannot not fear the Tungans also. The reason, we must be careful to guard against the Tungans, we must intensively oppose them, cannot afford to be polite, since the Tungans have compelled us to follow this way. Yellow Han people have not the slightest thing to do with Eastern Turkestan. Black Tungans also do not have this connection. Eastern Turkestan belongs to the people of Eastern Turkestan. There is no need for foreigners to come be our fathers and mothers...From now on we do not need to use foreigner's language or their names, their customs, habits, attitudes, written languages and etc. We must also overthrow and drive foreigners from our boundaries forever. The colours yellow and black are foul...They have dirtied our Land for too long. So now it's absolutely necessary to clean out this filth. Take down the yellow and black barbarians! Live long Eastern Turkestan!
This rebellion became entangled with the Kumul rebellion, when a Chinese Muslim and Uyghur army under Ma Zhancang
Ma Zhancang
Ma Zhancang was a Chinese muslim general of the 36th Division , who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. At the Battle of Kashgar , he repulsed an attack of Uighurs led by the Syrian Arab Tawfiq Bay, wounding Tawfiq...
and Timur Beg
Timur Beg
Timur Beg , or Timur Sijan was a Uighur rebel military leader in Xinjiang in 1933. He was involved in the 1933 Battle of Kashgar and participated before in Turpan Rebellion . He associated with the Turkic nationalist Young Kashgar Party and appointed himself as 'Timur Shah'. He and other Uighurs...
marched on Kashgar
Kashgar
Kashgar or Kashi is an oasis city with approximately 350,000 residents in the western part of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. Kashgar is the administrative centre of Kashgar Prefecture which has an area of 162,000 km² and a population of approximately...
, against the Chinese Muslim Daotai Ma Shaowu
Ma Shaowu
Ma Shaowu was a Hui born in Yunnan, in Qing dynasty China. He was a member of the Xinjiang clique during the Republic of China.- Family history :...
and his garrison of Han chinese
Han Chinese
Han Chinese are an ethnic group native to China and are the largest single ethnic group in the world.Han Chinese constitute about 92% of the population of the People's Republic of China , 98% of the population of the Republic of China , 78% of the population of Singapore, and about 20% of the...
soldiers. Ma Shaowu began to panic and started raising Kirghiz levies under Osman Ali under the city. The Kirghiz were not amused on how their rebellion was crushed the previous year by Ma Shaowu, and now he wanted them to defend the city. They defected en masse to the enemy. However, Ma Zhancang also entered into secret negotiations with Ma Shaowu, he and his troops defected to the Han chinese garrison in the city.
During the Battle of Kashgar (1933)
Battle of Kashgar (1933)
In the 1933 Battle of Kashgar, General Ma Zhancang signed a secret agreement with the daotai of Kashgar, Ma Shaowu, and his Chinese Muslim troops joined the Han Chinese garrison inside the yamen in Kashgar and helped them repulse Uighur and Kirghiz attacks led by Abdullah Bughra. Timur Beg's Turkic...
the city changed hands multiple times as the confused factions battled each other. The Kirghiz began to murder any Han chinese and Chinese Muslim they could get their hands on, and fighting broke out on the streets. Timur Beg became sympathetic to the pro independence rebels of Muhammad Amin Bughra
Muhammad Amin Bughra
Muhammad Amin Bughra also Muḥammad Amīn Bughra , Муххамад Эмин Бугро, was a Turkic Muslim leader, who planned to set up an independent state, the First East Turkestan Republic....
and Sabit Damulla Abdulbaki
Sabit Damulla Abdulbaki
-Life:Sabit Damulla Abdulbaqi was born in 1883, in county of Atush in theKashgar vilayet, in Qeshqer -Life:Sabit (Sawut) Damulla Abdulbaqi was born in 1883, in county of Atush in theKashgar vilayet, in Qeshqer -Life:Sabit (Sawut) Damulla Abdulbaqi was born in 1883, in county of Atush in theKashgar...
, while Ma Zhancang proclaimed his alleigance to the Chinese Kuomintang government, and notified everyone that all former Chinese officials would keep their posts.
Ma Zhancang arranged for Timur Beg to be killed and beheaded on August 9, 1933, displaying his head outside of Id Kah Mosque
Id Kah Mosque
The Id Kah mosque is a mosque located in Kashgar, Xinjiang, in the western People's Republic of China. It is the largest mosque in China. Every Friday, it houses nearly 10,000 worshippers and may accommodate up to 20,000....
.
Ma Zhongying returns
Ma used Kuomintang Blue Sky with a White SunBlue Sky with a White Sun
The Blue Sky with a White Sun serves as the design for the party flag and emblem of the Kuomintang , the canton of the flag of the Republic of China, the national emblem of the Republic of China , and as the naval jack of the ROC Navy....
banners in his army, and Kuomintang
Kuomintang
The Kuomintang of China , sometimes romanized as Guomindang via the Pinyin transcription system or GMD for short, and translated as the Chinese Nationalist Party is a founding and ruling political party of the Republic of China . Its guiding ideology is the Three Principles of the People, espoused...
Blue Sky with a White Sun
Blue Sky with a White Sun
The Blue Sky with a White Sun serves as the design for the party flag and emblem of the Kuomintang , the canton of the flag of the Republic of China, the national emblem of the Republic of China , and as the naval jack of the ROC Navy....
armbands. He himself wore a Kuomintang armband, and a 36th division uniform to show that he was legitimate representative of the Chinese government.
Kumul was easily taken, as well as other towns en route to the provincial capital. Sheng Shicai's forces retreated to Urumchi. Ground was alternatively gained and lost by both sides. During this time, Ma's forces acquired notoriety for their cruelty to both the Turkic and Chinese inhabitants, destroying the economy and engaging in wholesale looting and burning of villages. Once seen as a liberator by the Turkic population, who had suffered greatly under Jin Shuren, many Turkic inhabitants of the region now ardently hoped for Ma's expulsion by Sheng Shicai, and an end to the seesaw military campaigns by both sides.
Ma also forcibly conscripted Uyghurs into his army, turning them into footsoldiers while only Chinese Muslims were allowed to be officers. This led to outrage among the Uyghurs at Kumul.
Meanwhile, the Han chinese
Han Chinese
Han Chinese are an ethnic group native to China and are the largest single ethnic group in the world.Han Chinese constitute about 92% of the population of the People's Republic of China , 98% of the population of the Republic of China , 78% of the population of Singapore, and about 20% of the...
commander of Ili
Ili
-Acronyms:* ILI: I Laugh Inside* Integrating Lifestyle Innovations, a home automation company specialising in the design and supply of systems in New Zealand to the world.* Irish Life International, part of Irish Life and Permanent...
, Zhang Peiyuan
Zhang Peiyuan
Zhang Peiyuan was a Han chinese general, commander of the Ili garrison. He fought against Uighur and Tungans during the Kumul revolt, but then secretly negotiated with the Tungan general, Ma Zhongying to form an alliance against Sheng Shicai and the Soviet Union. Zhang's army had about 3,000...
, entered into secret negotiations with Ma Zhongying, and the two joined their armies together against Jin Shuren and the Russians.
Huang Mu-sung, native of Kumul and a "Pacification Commissioner" from the Kuomintang government, soon arrived in Urumchi on an ostensible peace mission. Sheng Shicai suspected him of conspiring with some of his opponents to overthrow him. Sheng turned out the be correct, since the Kuomintang secretly ordered Ma Zhongying and Zhang Peiyuan to attack Sheng's regime in Urumchi. As a result, he executed three leaders of the provincial government, accusing them of plotting his overthrow with Huang. At the same time, Sheng Shicai also forced Huang to wire Nanjing with a recommendation that he be recognized as the official Tupan of Xinjiang.
Chiang Kai-shek
Chiang Kai-shek
Chiang Kai-shek was a political and military leader of 20th century China. He is known as Jiǎng Jièshí or Jiǎng Zhōngzhèng in Mandarin....
sent Luo Wen'gan to Xinjiang, Luo met with Ma Zhongying and Zhang Peiyuan and urged them to destroy Sheng.
Ma Zhongying and Zhang Peiyuan then began a joint attack on Sheng's Manchurian and White Russian force during the Second Battle of Urumqi (1933–34)
Second Battle of Urumqi (1933–34)
The Second Battle of Urumqi was a conflict that took place in the winter of 1933–1934 at Urumqi, between the provincial forces of Sheng Shicai, and the alliance of the Chinese Muslim general Ma Zhongying and Han Chinese general Zhang Peiyuan. Zhang seized the road between Tacheng and the capital....
. Zhang seized the road between Tacheng and the capital. Sheng Shicai commanded Manchurian and White Russian troops commanded by Colonel Pappengut.
Ma and Zhang's Han Chinese and Chinese Muslim forces almost defeated Sheng, when Sheng requested help from the Soviet Union. This led to the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang
Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang
The Soviet invasion of Xinjiang was a military campaign in the Chinese northwestern region of Xinjiang in 1934. White Russian forces assisted the Soviet Red Army.- Background :...
and Ma Zhongying
Ma Zhongying
Ma Zhongying, also Ma Chung-ying was a Tungan Chinese Muslim warlord during the Warlord era of China. Ma Zhongying's birth name was Ma Buying . Zhongying was a warlord of Gansu province in China during the 1930s. He allied himself with the Kuomintang, which gave his soldiers an official...
's retreat after the Battle of Tutung
Battle of Tutung
The Battle of Tutung occurred when Ma Zhongying's Chinese Muslim 36th Division was attacked by the Soviet Russian Red Army on the banks of the frozen Tutung river. The battle took place over multiple days, where the Soviet bombers used mustard gas...
.
Kamal Kaya Efendi
Kamal Kaya Efendi
Kamal Kaya Efendi also known as Kemal Kaya Effendi Kamal Kaya Efendi also known as Kemal Kaya Effendi Kamal Kaya Efendi also known as Kemal Kaya Effendi (Ottoman Turkish: كمال کایا أفندي was an Ottoman Turk who may have been a Soviet agent. He studied in Germany and Paris, and fought under Von Epp...
, a former Ottoman Turkish military officer who was Ma Zhongying's chief of staff, was captured by Soviet agents in Kumul
Kumul
Kumul or Hami is an oasis in Hami Prefecture, Xinjiang ; it is also the name of a modern city and the surrounding district...
in 1934, but instead of being executed, he was made Commissar for Road Construction in Xinjiang, possibly because he was a Soviet agent himself.
In January 1934, Soviet troops crossed the border and attacked rebel positions in the Ili area in the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang
Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang
The Soviet invasion of Xinjiang was a military campaign in the Chinese northwestern region of Xinjiang in 1934. White Russian forces assisted the Soviet Red Army.- Background :...
. Zhang Peiyuan's forces were defeated, and he committed suicide. Despite valiant resistance, Ma Zhongying's troops were forced to retreate from Soviet military machine's aerial bombing, and were pushed back from Urumchi during the Battle of Tutung
Battle of Tutung
The Battle of Tutung occurred when Ma Zhongying's Chinese Muslim 36th Division was attacked by the Soviet Russian Red Army on the banks of the frozen Tutung river. The battle took place over multiple days, where the Soviet bombers used mustard gas...
. Soviet assistance resulted in a rare White Russian and Soviet temporary military alliance against Ma. Ma wiped out a Soviet armored car column at the Battle of Dawan Cheng
Battle of Dawan Cheng
The Battle of Dawan Cheng occurred when Ma Zhongying's Chinese Muslim 36th Division encountered a Soviet Russian Red Army armoured car column. The 36th division was withdrawing, chased by of White Russian, Mongol, and colloborationist Chinese forces...
.
Ma's retreating forces began advancing down to Southern Xinjiang, to destroy the First East Turkestan Republic. He sent out an advance guard under Ma Fuyuan to attack the Khotanlik Uyghurs and Kirghiz at Kashgar.
At this point, Chiang Kai-shek was ready to sent Huang Shaohong and his expeditionary force of 15,000 troops to assist Ma Zhongying against Sheng, but when Chiang heard about the Soviet Invasion, he decided to witihdraw to avoid an international incident if his troops directly engaged the Soviets.
Destruction of the First East Turkestan Republic
The Khotanlik Uyghurs and Kirghiz had conspired to form an independent regime.On February 20, 1933, the Committee for National Revolution
Committee for National Revolution
Committee for National Revolution was a Turkic Nationalist Uighur party which existed in 1932-1934. It helped found the First East Turkestan Republic. It was anti Chinese, anti Chinese muslim, anti Communist, and anti Christian...
set up a provisional Khotan government with Sabit as prime minister and Muhammad Amin Bughra as head of the armed forces. It favored the establishment of an Islamic theocracy.
Afghan King Mohammad Zahir Shah provided weapons and support to the East Turkestan Republic.
Sheng Shicai and the Soviet Union accused Ma Zhongying, a Muslim and ardently anti-Soviet, of being used by the Japanese to set up a puppet regime in Xinjiang, as they had done with Manchukuo
Manchukuo
Manchukuo or Manshū-koku was a puppet state in Manchuria and eastern Inner Mongolia, governed under a form of constitutional monarchy. The region was the historical homeland of the Manchus, who founded the Qing Empire in China...
. Sheng claimed that he captured two Japanese officers on Ma's staff. However, not a single claim of Sheng's could be proven, and he did not provide any evidence for his allegations that Ma was colluding with the Japanese. Ma Zhongying publicly declared his allegiance to the Kuomintang at Nanjing. Ma himself was given permission by the Kuomintang to invade Xinjiang.
The western traveler Peter Fleming speculated that the Soviet Union was not in Xinjiang to keep out the Japanese, but to create their own sphere on influence.
The Chinese Muslim forces retreating from the north linked up with Ma Zhancang
Ma Zhancang
Ma Zhancang was a Chinese muslim general of the 36th Division , who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. At the Battle of Kashgar , he repulsed an attack of Uighurs led by the Syrian Arab Tawfiq Bay, wounding Tawfiq...
's forces in Kashgar
Kashgar
Kashgar or Kashi is an oasis city with approximately 350,000 residents in the western part of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. Kashgar is the administrative centre of Kashgar Prefecture which has an area of 162,000 km² and a population of approximately...
allied themselves with the Kuomintang in Nanjing
Nanjing
' is the capital of Jiangsu province in China and has a prominent place in Chinese history and culture, having been the capital of China on several occasions...
, and attacked the TIRET, forcing Niyaz, Sabit Damolla, and the rest of the government to flee on February 6, 1934 to Yengi Hissar
Yengisar County
Yengisar County is a county in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in northwestern China. It is under the administration of the Kashgar Prefecture. It contains an area of 3,373 km2. As of the 2002 census, it had a population of 230,000....
south of the city. The Hui army crushed the Uighur and Kirghiz armies of the East Turkstan Republic at the Battle of Kashgar (1934)
Battle of Kashgar (1934)
The Battle of Kashgar was a military confrontation that took place in 1934 during the Xinjiang Wars. Turkic Muslim Uighur and Kirghiz fighters under Emir Abdullah Bughra and the other Turkic separatists began four separate attacks over a six-day period on Hui and Han Chinese soldiers led by General...
, Battle of Yarkand
Battle of Yarkand
The Battle of Yarkhand was a military confrontation that took place in April 1934. Ma Zhancang's Chinese Muslim army defeated the Uighur and Afghan volunteers sent by king Mohammed Zahir Shah, and exterminated them all. The emir Abdullah Bughra was killed and beheaded, his head put on display at...
, and Battle of Yangi Hissar
Battle of Yangi Hissar
The Battle of Yangi Hissar was a military confrontation that took place in the Xinjiang Wars. In April 1934, Ma Zhancang led the 36th division to attack Uighur forces at Yangi Hissar, wiping out the entire Uighur force of 500, and killing the Emir Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra.It was reported by Ahmad Kamal...
.
Japanese attempt to set up a puppet state
The Japanese invited a former Ottoman prince, and several anti Kemalist Young Turk exiles from Turkey to assist them in setting up a puppet State in Xinjiang with the Ottoman Prince as Sultan. All of the Turkish exiles were enemies of the Turkish leader Mustafa Kemal Ataturk.The Turkish government under Mustafa Kemal Ataturk
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was an Ottoman and Turkish army officer, revolutionary statesman, writer, and the first President of Turkey. He is credited with being the founder of the Republic of Turkey....
was furious at this, and lodged a complaint at the Japanese embassy. Mustafa Kemal Ataturk was not interested in Pan turanism, and Ataturk was the one who kicked out the Ottoman royal family out of Turkey.
TASS claimed the Uyghur Sabit Damulla invited “Turkish emigrants in India and Japan, with their anti-Kemalist organizations, to organize his military forces.”
Kizil massacre
UighurUyghur people
The Uyghur are a Turkic ethnic group living in Eastern and Central Asia. Today, Uyghurs live primarily in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in the People's Republic of China...
and Kirghiz Turkic fighters broke their agreement not to attack a column of retreating Han Chinese
Han Chinese
Han Chinese are an ethnic group native to China and are the largest single ethnic group in the world.Han Chinese constitute about 92% of the population of the People's Republic of China , 98% of the population of the Republic of China , 78% of the population of Singapore, and about 20% of the...
and Chinese Muslim
Hui people
The Hui people are an ethnic group in China, defined as Chinese speaking people descended from foreign Muslims. They are typically distinguished by their practice of Islam, however some also practice other religions, and many are direct descendants of Silk Road travelers.In modern People's...
soldiers from Yarkand
Yarkand
Yarkant County , is a county in Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, China, located on the southern rim of the Taklamakan desert in the Tarim Basin. It is one of 11 counties administered under Kashgar Prefecture...
New City. The Turkic Muslim fighters massacred 800 Chinese Muslim and chinese civilians.
Battle of Aksu
A minor battle in which Chinese MuslimHui people
The Hui people are an ethnic group in China, defined as Chinese speaking people descended from foreign Muslims. They are typically distinguished by their practice of Islam, however some also practice other religions, and many are direct descendants of Silk Road travelers.In modern People's...
troops were expelled from the Aksu oases of Xinjiang by Uighurs led by Isma'il Beg
Isma'il Beg
Isma'il Beg , was a uighur who dislodged Ma Zhancang's Chinese Muslim troops from Aksu on May 31, 1933. He was then appointed Tao-yin of Aksu. He was a supporter of the Khotan Emirs Abdullah Bughra and his brothers.-References:...
when they rose up in revolt.
Battle of Sekes Tash
A minor battle when Chinese MuslimHui people
The Hui people are an ethnic group in China, defined as Chinese speaking people descended from foreign Muslims. They are typically distinguished by their practice of Islam, however some also practice other religions, and many are direct descendants of Silk Road travelers.In modern People's...
troops under general Ma Zhancang
Ma Zhancang
Ma Zhancang was a Chinese muslim general of the 36th Division , who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. At the Battle of Kashgar , he repulsed an attack of Uighurs led by the Syrian Arab Tawfiq Bay, wounding Tawfiq...
attacked and inflicted a defeat upon uighur and Kirghiz armies at Sekes Tesh. About 200 uighur and Kirghiz were killed.
Battle of Kashgar
Uighur and Kirghiz forces, led by the Bughra brothers and Tawfiq BayTawfiq Bay
Tawfiq Bay, or Sayyid Ahmad Tawfiq Bay Sharif Efendi , was a Syrian Arab traveler who had been in the service of King Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia, eventually traveling to Xinjiang, Republic of China, in 1932. He was deported by the Chinese Muslim Daotai Ma Shaowu. On August 26 he arrived at Kashgar...
, attempted to take the New City of Kashgar from Chinese Muslim troops under General Ma Zhancang
Ma Zhancang
Ma Zhancang was a Chinese muslim general of the 36th Division , who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. At the Battle of Kashgar , he repulsed an attack of Uighurs led by the Syrian Arab Tawfiq Bay, wounding Tawfiq...
. They were defeated.
Tawfiq Bey, a Syrian Arab traveler, who held the title Sayyid ( descendent of prophet Muhammed) and arrived at Kashgar on August 26, 1933, was shot in the stomach by the Chinese Muslim troops in September. Previously Ma Zhancang arranged to have the Uighur leader Timur Beg
Timur Beg
Timur Beg , or Timur Sijan was a Uighur rebel military leader in Xinjiang in 1933. He was involved in the 1933 Battle of Kashgar and participated before in Turpan Rebellion . He associated with the Turkic nationalist Young Kashgar Party and appointed himself as 'Timur Shah'. He and other Uighurs...
killed and beheaded on August 9, 1933, displaying his head outside of Id Kah Mosque
Id Kah Mosque
The Id Kah mosque is a mosque located in Kashgar, Xinjiang, in the western People's Republic of China. It is the largest mosque in China. Every Friday, it houses nearly 10,000 worshippers and may accommodate up to 20,000....
.
Han chinese
Han Chinese
Han Chinese are an ethnic group native to China and are the largest single ethnic group in the world.Han Chinese constitute about 92% of the population of the People's Republic of China , 98% of the population of the Republic of China , 78% of the population of Singapore, and about 20% of the...
troops commanded by Brigadier Yang were absorbed into Ma Zhancang
Ma Zhancang
Ma Zhancang was a Chinese muslim general of the 36th Division , who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. At the Battle of Kashgar , he repulsed an attack of Uighurs led by the Syrian Arab Tawfiq Bay, wounding Tawfiq...
's army. A number of Han chinese officers were spotted wearing the green uniforms of Ma Zhancang's unit of the 36th division, presumably they had converted to Islam.
During the Battle the Kirghiz prevented the Uyghur from looting the city, because they wanted to loot it themselves. They started murdering any Chinese and Chinese Muslim they could get their hands on, as well as any Turkic people who were wives or mistresses of Chinese. They then looted their property.
First Battle of Urumqi (1933)
Chinese Muslim and Uyghur forces under Ma Shih-ming and Khoja Niyas attempted to take Urumqi from a force of provincial White RussianWhite Russian
White Russian may refer to:* White Russian , an alcoholic beverage* White movement members during the Russian Civil War from 1918 to 1923* A White émigré from the Russian Civil War...
troops under Colonel Pappengut and the Northeast Salvation Army under Sheng Shicai
Sheng Shicai
Sheng Shicai was a Chinese warlord who "ruled" Xinjiang province from April 12, 1933 to August 29, 1944....
. They were driven back after fierce fighting.
During the Battle, the Han chinese
Han Chinese
Han Chinese are an ethnic group native to China and are the largest single ethnic group in the world.Han Chinese constitute about 92% of the population of the People's Republic of China , 98% of the population of the Republic of China , 78% of the population of Singapore, and about 20% of the...
General of Ili, Zhang Peiyuan
Zhang Peiyuan
Zhang Peiyuan was a Han chinese general, commander of the Ili garrison. He fought against Uighur and Tungans during the Kumul revolt, but then secretly negotiated with the Tungan general, Ma Zhongying to form an alliance against Sheng Shicai and the Soviet Union. Zhang's army had about 3,000...
, refused to help Jin Shuren repulse the attack, a sign that relations between the two were straining.
Battle of Toksun
The Battle of ToksunToksun County
The Toksun County is a county within the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China and is under the administration of the Turpan Prefecture. It contains an area of 16,128 km2. According to the 2002 census, it then had a population of 110,000...
occurred in July 1933 after Khoja Niyas Hajji, a Uighur
Uyghur people
The Uyghur are a Turkic ethnic group living in Eastern and Central Asia. Today, Uyghurs live primarily in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in the People's Republic of China...
leader, defected with his forces to Governor Sheng Shicai
Sheng Shicai
Sheng Shicai was a Chinese warlord who "ruled" Xinjiang province from April 12, 1933 to August 29, 1944....
. He was appointed by Sheng Shicai through agreement to be in charge for the whole Southern Xinjiang
Xinjiang
Xinjiang is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China. It is the largest Chinese administrative division and spans over 1.6 million km2...
( Tarim Basin
Tarim Basin
The Tarim Basin is a large endorheic basin occupying an area of about . It is located in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in China's far west. Its northern boundary is the Tian Shan mountain range and its southern is the Kunlun Mountains on the northern edge of the Tibetan Plateau. The...
) and also Turpan Basin and being satisfied with this agreement marched away from Urumchi
Ürümqi
Ürümqi , formerly Tihwa , is the capital of Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China, in the northwest of the country....
to the South across Dawan Ch'eng
Dabancheng District
The Dabancheng District is a district within the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region and is under the administrative jurisdiction of the Ürümqi City. Located southeast of Ürümq urban area, it contains an area of 5,042 km2...
of Tengritagh Mountains
Tianshan
Tianshan may refer to:*Tian Shan, a mountain range in Central Asia*Tianshan District, Ürümqi, Xinjiang, China*Tianshan Subdistrict, Ar Horqin Banner, Inner Mongolia, China*Tianshan Town, Ar Horqin Banner, in Ar Horqin Banner, Inner Mongolia, China...
and occupied Toksun in Turpan Basin, but was badly defeated by the Chinese Muslim
Hui people
The Hui people are an ethnic group in China, defined as Chinese speaking people descended from foreign Muslims. They are typically distinguished by their practice of Islam, however some also practice other religions, and many are direct descendants of Silk Road travelers.In modern People's...
forces of General Ma Shih-ming, who forced him to retreat to Karashar
Karasahr
Yanqi , or Karasahr , is an ancient town on the Silk Road and capital of Yanqi Hui Autonomous County in the Bayin'gholin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture of Xinjiang, in northwestern China...
in Eastern Kashgaria, where he held his headquarters during July, August and September 1933, defending mountain passes and roads, that led from Turpan Basin to Kashgaria, in the fruitless attempt to stop advancement of Tungan Armies to the South.
Second Battle of Urumqi (1933–34)
Ma ZhongyingMa Zhongying
Ma Zhongying, also Ma Chung-ying was a Tungan Chinese Muslim warlord during the Warlord era of China. Ma Zhongying's birth name was Ma Buying . Zhongying was a warlord of Gansu province in China during the 1930s. He allied himself with the Kuomintang, which gave his soldiers an official...
conducted secret negotiations with the Han chinese General Zhang Peiyuan
Zhang Peiyuan
Zhang Peiyuan was a Han chinese general, commander of the Ili garrison. He fought against Uighur and Tungans during the Kumul revolt, but then secretly negotiated with the Tungan general, Ma Zhongying to form an alliance against Sheng Shicai and the Soviet Union. Zhang's army had about 3,000...
, for a joint attack against Sheng Shicai
Sheng Shicai
Sheng Shicai was a Chinese warlord who "ruled" Xinjiang province from April 12, 1933 to August 29, 1944....
's provincial Manchurian and White Russian troops in Urumqi. They joined their armies together and began the attack. Zhang seized the road between Tacheng and the capital. The Kuomintang
Kuomintang
The Kuomintang of China , sometimes romanized as Guomindang via the Pinyin transcription system or GMD for short, and translated as the Chinese Nationalist Party is a founding and ruling political party of the Republic of China . Its guiding ideology is the Three Principles of the People, espoused...
secretly encouraged Zhang and Ma through Huang Mu-sung to attack Sheng's forces, because of his Soviet connections and to regain the province. Their forces almost defeated Sheng, but then Sheng cabled the Soviet Union for help, which led to the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang
Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang
The Soviet invasion of Xinjiang was a military campaign in the Chinese northwestern region of Xinjiang in 1934. White Russian forces assisted the Soviet Red Army.- Background :...
.
Battle of Kashgar
36th division General Ma Fuyuan led a Chinese MuslimHui people
The Hui people are an ethnic group in China, defined as Chinese speaking people descended from foreign Muslims. They are typically distinguished by their practice of Islam, however some also practice other religions, and many are direct descendants of Silk Road travelers.In modern People's...
army to storm Kashgar
Kashgar
Kashgar or Kashi is an oasis city with approximately 350,000 residents in the western part of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. Kashgar is the administrative centre of Kashgar Prefecture which has an area of 162,000 km² and a population of approximately...
on February 6, 1934, and attacked the Uighur
Uyghur people
The Uyghur are a Turkic ethnic group living in Eastern and Central Asia. Today, Uyghurs live primarily in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in the People's Republic of China...
and Kirghiz rebels of the First East Turkestan Republic
First East Turkestan Republic
The First Eastern Turkestan Republic , or Turkish Islamic Republic of East Turkestan , or, Republic of Uyghurstan, was a short-lived breakaway would-be Islamic republic founded in 1933...
. He freed another 36th division general, Ma Zhancang, who was trapped with his Chinese Muslim
Hui people
The Hui people are an ethnic group in China, defined as Chinese speaking people descended from foreign Muslims. They are typically distinguished by their practice of Islam, however some also practice other religions, and many are direct descendants of Silk Road travelers.In modern People's...
and Han chinese troops in Kashgar New City by the Uighurs and Kirghizs since May 22, 1933. In January, 1934, Ma Zhancang's Chinese Muslim troops repulsed six Uighur attacks, launched by Khoja Niyaz
Hoja-Niyaz
Hoja Niyaz Haji also Khoja or Xoja Niyaz Haji was a Uyghur independence movement leader who led several rebellions in Xinjiang against the Kumul Khanate, the Chinese governor Jin Shuren, and later the Hui warlord Ma Chung-ying...
, who arrived at the city on January 13, 1934, inflicting massive casualties on the Uighur forces. From 2,000 to 8,000 uighur civilians in Kashgar Old City were massacred by Tungans in February, 1934, in revenge for the Kizil massacre
Kizil massacre
The Kizil massacre occurred in June 1933, when Uighur and Kirghiz Turkic fighters of the First East Turkestan Republic broke their agreement not to attack a column of retreating Han Chinese and Chinese Muslim soldiers and civilians from Yarkand New City on their way to Kashgar...
, after retreating of Uighur forces from the city to Yengi Hisar
Yengisar County
Yengisar County is a county in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in northwestern China. It is under the administration of the Kashgar Prefecture. It contains an area of 3,373 km2. As of the 2002 census, it had a population of 230,000....
. The chinese Muslim and 36th division Chief General Ma Zhongying
Ma Zhongying
Ma Zhongying, also Ma Chung-ying was a Tungan Chinese Muslim warlord during the Warlord era of China. Ma Zhongying's birth name was Ma Buying . Zhongying was a warlord of Gansu province in China during the 1930s. He allied himself with the Kuomintang, which gave his soldiers an official...
, who arrived at Kashgar on April 7, 1934, gave a speech at Idgah mosque in April, reminding the Uighurs to be loyal to the Republic of China
Republic of China
The Republic of China , commonly known as Taiwan , is a unitary sovereign state located in East Asia. Originally based in mainland China, the Republic of China currently governs the island of Taiwan , which forms over 99% of its current territory, as well as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and other minor...
government at Nanjing
Nanjing
' is the capital of Jiangsu province in China and has a prominent place in Chinese history and culture, having been the capital of China on several occasions...
. Several British citizens at the British consulate were killed by the 36th division. Ma Zhongying effectively destroyed the First East Turkestan Republic
First East Turkestan Republic
The First Eastern Turkestan Republic , or Turkish Islamic Republic of East Turkestan , or, Republic of Uyghurstan, was a short-lived breakaway would-be Islamic republic founded in 1933...
(TIRET).
Battle of Yangi Hissar
Ma Zhancang led the 36th division to attack Uighur forces at Yangi HissarYengisar County
Yengisar County is a county in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in northwestern China. It is under the administration of the Kashgar Prefecture. It contains an area of 3,373 km2. As of the 2002 census, it had a population of 230,000....
, wiping out the entire Uighur force, and killing the Emir Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra
Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra
Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra , was an Uighur Emir of the First East Turkestan Republic. He was the younger brother of Muhammad Amin Bughra and Abdullah Bughra. He commanded Uighur and Kirghiz forces during the Battle of Kashgar against the Chinese Muslim 36th Division...
. The siege on Yangi Hissar citadel continued about a week, during which 500 uyghur defenders, armed only with rifles, inflicted heavy casualties, up to several hundreds, to Tungan forces, who contrary were armed with cannons and machine guns, besides of rifles. Quickly being ran out of ammunition uyghur defenders applied tree trunks, large stones and oil fire bombs for defending of citadel. On April 16, 1934, Tungans managed to breach through the walls of citadel by successful mining and put to death all remaining defenders by sword. It was reported by Ahmad Kamal in his book "Land Without Laughter" on page 130-131, that Nur Ahmad Jan's head was cut off by the Chinese Muslim troops and sent to the local parade ground to be used as a ball in the soccer (football) game.
Battle of Yarkand
Ma Zhancang and Ma Fuyuan's Chinese Muslim troops defeated the Uighur and Afghan volunteers sent by king Mohammed Zahir ShahMohammed Zahir Shah
Mohammed Zahir Shah was the last King of Afghanistan, reigning for four decades, from 1933 until he was ousted by a coup in 1973...
, and exterminated them all. The emir Abdullah Bughra was killed and beheaded, his head put on display at Idgah mosque.
Charkhlik Revolt
The 36th division under General Ma HushanMa Hushan
Ma Hu-shan was the half-brother and follower of Ma Chung-ying, a Ma Clique warlord. He ruled over an area of southern Xinjiang, nicknamed Tunganistan by westerners from 1934 to 1937.-Tunganistan:...
crushed a revolt by the Uighurs in the Charkliq
Ruoqiang County
Ruoqiang is a county of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in Western China and is under the administration of the Bayingolin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture...
oasis in 1935. More than 100 uighurs were executed, and the family of the Uighur leader was taken as hostage.
Misinformation
Some misinformation had been spread by contemporaneous accounts of the Kumul Rebellion.The Swiss writer Ella K. Maillart reported falsely that the Kizil massacre
Kizil massacre
The Kizil massacre occurred in June 1933, when Uighur and Kirghiz Turkic fighters of the First East Turkestan Republic broke their agreement not to attack a column of retreating Han Chinese and Chinese Muslim soldiers and civilians from Yarkand New City on their way to Kashgar...
was an attack of Chinese Muslims and Uyghurs on a group of Kirghiz and Han chinese. More recent sources prove that it was an attack of Kirghiz and Uyghurs on a group of Han chinese and Chinese Muslims.
She also falsely reported that during the battle of Kashgar that the chinese Muslim and Turkis (Uyghurs) first took the city from the Han chinese and Kirghiz and then fought among themselves. In reality, the Kirghiz defected from Ma Shaowu
Ma Shaowu
Ma Shaowu was a Hui born in Yunnan, in Qing dynasty China. He was a member of the Xinjiang clique during the Republic of China.- Family history :...
and formed their own army, and the Chinese Muslim force under Ma Zhancang
Ma Zhancang
Ma Zhancang was a Chinese muslim general of the 36th Division , who served under Generals Ma Zhongying and Ma Hushan. At the Battle of Kashgar , he repulsed an attack of Uighurs led by the Syrian Arab Tawfiq Bay, wounding Tawfiq...
joined Ma Shaowu.