List of glossing abbreviations - AbsoluteAstronomy.com

This page lists common abbreviations for grammatical terms that are used in linguistic interlinear glossing.

Abbreviations beginning with (a common prefix for non-) or ending with (a common suffix for -izer) may not be listed separately. For example, is not listed, as it is composable from + .

Gloss	Meaning
›	direction of transitivity or possession Possession (linguistics) Possession, in the context of linguistics, is an asymmetric relationship between two constituents, the referent of one of which possesses the referent of the other .... (2›3 may mean 2 acts on 3; 1sg›sg may mean a 1sg possessor and a singular possessum)
0	zero (null) Null morpheme In morpheme-based morphology, a null morpheme is a morpheme that is realized by a phonologically null affix . In simpler terms, a null morpheme is an "invisible" affix. It is also called a zero morpheme; the process of adding a null morpheme is called null affixation, null derivation or zero... , covert form Covert (linguistics) In linguistics, a feature of a word or phrase is said to be covert if there is no surface evidence of its existence within that word or phrase. For example, many languages have covert grammatical gender in nouns, in that there is no way to tell from the form of a noun which gender it is; gender... (such as gender in a language where the word doesn't show it)
1	first person First person First person may refer to:* First-person narrative, a literary device* First-person interpretation, a museum technique* First Person , an interview-based television series created by Errol Morris...
2	second person Second person Second person can refer to the following:* A grammatical person, you, your and yours in the English language* Second-person narrative, a perspective in storytelling* Second Person , a trip-hop band from London...
3	third person Grammatical person Grammatical person, in linguistics, is deictic reference to a participant in an event; such as the speaker, the addressee, or others. Grammatical person typically defines a language's set of personal pronouns...
A	agent Agent (grammar) In linguistics, a grammatical agent is the cause or initiator of an event. Agent is the name of the thematic role... -like argument of canonical transitive verb
	abessive case Abessive case In linguistics, abessive , caritive and privative are names for a grammatical case expressing the lack or absence of the marked noun... ( caritive case or privative case: 'without')
	ablative case Ablative case In linguistics, ablative case is a name given to cases in various languages whose common characteristic is that they mark motion away from something, though the details in each language may differ... ('from')
	absolutive case Absolutive case The absolutive case is the unmarked grammatical case of a core argument of a verb which is used as the citation form of a noun.-In ergative languages:...
	accusative case Accusative case The accusative case of a noun is the grammatical case used to mark the direct object of a transitive verb. The same case is used in many languages for the objects of prepositions...
	accompanier
	active voice, actor role Role and reference grammar Role and Reference Grammar is a model of grammar developed by William Foley and Robert Van Valin, Jr. in the 1980s, which incorporates many of the points of view of current functional grammar theories....
	adjective Adjective In grammar, an adjective is a 'describing' word; the main syntactic role of which is to qualify a noun or noun phrase, giving more information about the object signified....
	adessive case Adessive case In Uralic languages, such as Finnish, Estonian and Hungarian, the adessive case is the fourth of the locative cases with the basic meaning of "on". For example, Estonian laud and laual , Hungarian asztal and asztalnál... ('at'; more specific than )
	admonitive mood (warning)
	adverb(ial) Adverbial In grammar an adverbial is a word or a group of words that modifies or tells us something about the sentence or the verb. The word adverbial is also used as an adjective, meaning 'having the same function as an adverb'... , adverbial case Adverbial case The adverbial case is a noun case in the Abkhaz language and Georgian language that has a function similar to the translative and essive cases in Finnic languages. It is also featured in the Udmurt language. The term is sometimes used to refer to the ablative case in other languages.-Examples:In...
	affirmative mood Grammatical polarity Grammatical polarity is the distinction of affirmative and negative. In English, grammatical polarity is generally indicated by the presence or absence of the modifier not, which negates the statement. Many other languages contain similar modifiers: Italian and Interlingua have non, Spanish has...
	agentive case Agent (grammar) In linguistics, a grammatical agent is the cause or initiator of an event. Agent is the name of the thematic role... (cf )
	agreement
	allative case Allative case Allative case is a type of the locative cases used in several languages. The term allative is generally used for the lative case in the majority of languages which do not make finer distinctions.-Finnish language:In the Finnish language, the allative is the fifth of the locative cases, with the... ('to')
	allocutive agreement Allocutive agreement In linguistics, allocutive agreement refers to a morphological feature in which the gender of an addressee is marked overtly in an utterance.-Basque:In Basque, allocutive forms are required in the verb forms of a main clause when the speaker uses the familiar pronoun hi "thou"...
	alienable possession
	animate gender Animacy Animacy is a grammatical and/or semantic category of nouns based on how sentient or alive the referent of the noun in a given taxonomic scheme is... (cf )
	andative (going towards: cf venitive)
	anterior tense (used for in some traditions)
	antessive case Antessive case The antessive case is used for marking the spatial relation of preceding or being before. The case is found in some Dravidian languages.... ('before')
	anticausative
	antipassive voice Antipassive voice The antipassive voice is a verb voice that works on transitive verbs by deleting the object. This construction is similar to the passive voice, in that it decreases the verb's valency by one - the passive by deleting the subject , the antipassive by deleting the object The antipassive voice...
	aorist Aorist Aorist is a philological term originally from Indo-European studies, referring to verb forms of various languages that are not necessarily related or similar in meaning... (= or )
	apposition Apposition Apposition is a grammatical construction in which two elements, normally noun phrases, are placed side by side, with one element serving to define or modify the other. When this device is used, the two elements are said to be in apposition...
	applicative voice Applicative voice The applicative voice is a grammatical voice which promotes an oblique argument of a verb to the object argument, and indicates the oblique role within the meaning of the verb. When the applicative voice is applied to a verb, its valency may be increased by one...
	apprehensive mood
	approximative
	article Article (grammar) An article is a word that combines with a noun to indicate the type of reference being made by the noun. Articles specify the grammatical definiteness of the noun, in some languages extending to volume or numerical scope. The articles in the English language are the and a/an, and some...
	aspect
	associative case (= ), assumptive mood Assumptive mood The assumptive mood is an epistemic grammatical mood found in some languages, which indicates that the statement is assumed to be true, because it usually is under similar circumstances, although there may not be any specific evidence that it is true in this particular case... , assertive
	agent trigger Austronesian alignment Austronesian alignment, commonly known as the Philippine- or Austronesian-type voice system, is a typologically unusual morphosyntactic alignment that combines features of ergative and accusative languages... (= agent voice)
	attenuative; attributive Attributive In grammar, an attributive is a word or phrase within a noun phrase that modifies the head noun. It may be an:* attributive adjective* attributive noun* attributive verbor other part of speech.... (= )
	auditory evidential Evidentiality In linguistics, evidentiality is, broadly, the indication of the nature of evidence for a given statement; that is, whether evidence exists for the statement and/or what kind of evidence exists. An evidential is the particular grammatical element that indicates evidentiality...
	augmentative Augmentative An augmentative is a morphological form of a word which expresses greater intensity, often in size, but also in other attributes...
	auxiliary verb Auxiliary verb In linguistics, an auxiliary verb is a verb that gives further semantic or syntactic information about a main or full verb. In English, the extra meaning provided by an auxiliary verb alters the basic meaning of the main verb to make it have one or more of the following functions: passive voice,...
	core benefactive
	'be' verb (a conflation of and )
	benefactive case Benefactive case The benefactive case is a grammatical case used where English would use "for", "for the benefit of", or "intended for", e.g... ('for')
	common gender
	(cap)ability Linguistic modality In linguistics, modality is what allows speakers to evaluate a proposition relative to a set of other propositions.In standard formal approaches to modality, an utterance expressing modality can always roughly be paraphrased to fit the following template:... , modal case Modal case In linguistics, the modal case is a grammatical case used to express ability, intention, necessity, obligation, permission, possibility, etc. It takes the place of English modal verbs such as can, could, would, might, may....
	causative Causative In linguistics, a causative is a form that indicates that a subject causes someone or something else to do or be something, or causes a change in state of a non-volitional event....
	centric case
	counterfactual conditional Counterfactual conditional A counterfactual conditional, subjunctive conditional, or remote conditional, abbreviated , is a conditional statement indicating what would be the case if its antecedent were true...
	circumfix Circumfix A circumfix is an affix, a morpheme that is placed around another morpheme. Circumfixes contrast with prefixes, attached to the beginnings of words; suffixes, that are attached at the end; and infixes, inserted in the middle. See also epenthesis...
	citation form Citation form In linguistics the citation form of a word can mean:* its canonical form or lemma: the form of an inflected word given in dictionaries or glossaries, thus also called the dictionary form....
	classifier Classifier (linguistics) A classifier, in linguistics, sometimes called a measure word, is a word or morpheme used in some languages to classify the referent of a countable noun according to its meaning. In languages that have classifiers, they are often used when the noun is being counted or specified...
	conjunction Grammatical conjunction In grammar, a conjunction is a part of speech that connects two words, sentences, phrases or clauses together. A discourse connective is a conjunction joining sentences. This definition may overlap with that of other parts of speech, so what constitutes a "conjunction" must be defined for each... (= )
	consequential
	collective Collective A collective is a group of entities that share or are motivated by at least one common issue or interest, or work together on a specific project to achieve a common objective... plural
	comitative case Comitative case The comitative case , also known as the associative case , is a grammatical case that denotes companionship, and is used where English would use "in company with" or "together with"... ('together with')
	comparative Comparative In grammar, the comparative is the form of an adjective or adverb which denotes the degree or grade by which a person, thing, or other entity has a property or quality greater or less in extent than that of another, and is used in this context with a subordinating conjunction, such as than,... ; complementizer Complementizer In linguistics , a complementizer is a syntactic category roughly equivalent to the term subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar. For example, the word that is generally called a complementizer in English sentences like Mary believes that it is raining...
	completive aspect
	concessive
	conditional mood Conditional mood In linguistics, the conditional mood is the inflectional form of the verb used in the independent clause of a conditional sentence to refer to a hypothetical state of affairs, or an uncertain event, that is contingent on another set of circumstances...
	conjunction Grammatical conjunction In grammar, a conjunction is a part of speech that connects two words, sentences, phrases or clauses together. A discourse connective is a conjunction joining sentences. This definition may overlap with that of other parts of speech, so what constitutes a "conjunction" must be defined for each... (= )
	connective particle
	continuative aspect
	contrast Contrast (linguistics) In semantics, contrast is a relationship between two discourse segments. Contrast is often overtly marked by markers such as but or however, such as in the following examples:# It's raining, but I am not taking an umbrella.... ive
	copula
	coreference Coreference In linguistics, co-reference occurs when multiple expressions in a sentence or document refer to the same thing; or in linguistic jargon, they have the same "referent."...
	crastinal tense Crastinal tense A crastinal tense is a future tense applied to a following or subsequent day. Crastinal tense refers to an event which will occur tomorrow or the following day . A post-crastinal tense indicates some time after tomorrow or the following day.... ('tomorrow')
	current relevance marker (as in the perfect)
	converb
	core dative case Dative case The dative case is a grammatical case generally used to indicate the noun to whom something is given, as in "George gave Jamie a drink"....
	dative case Dative case The dative case is a grammatical case generally used to indicate the noun to whom something is given, as in "George gave Jamie a drink"....
	different event, change of event (cf )
	declarative mood
	definite
	deixis Deixis In linguistics, deixis refers to the phenomenon wherein understanding the meaning of certain words and phrases in an utterance requires contextual information. Words are deictic if their semantic meaning is fixed but their denotational meaning varies depending on time and/or place... , deictic
	delayed imperative (a command to do s.t. later)
	delative case Delative case The delative case in the Hungarian language can originally express the movement from the surface of something , but it is used in several other meanings , some of them related to the original The delative case (abbreviated ; from Latin deferre "to bear or bring away or down") in the Hungarian... ('off of'), deliberative mood Deliberative mood Deliberative mood is a grammatical mood that asks whether the speaker should do something, e. g. "Shall I go to the market?"The Afar language has a deliberative mood, as in aboo "Shall I do ?", with the suffix -oo denoting the deliberative....
	demonstrative Demonstrative In linguistics, demonstratives are deictic words that indicate which entities a speaker refers to and distinguishes those entities from others...
	deontic mood
	dependent (as in )
	desiderative mood
	destinative aspect
	determiner Determinative A determinative, also known as a taxogram or semagram, is an ideogram used to mark semantic categories of words in logographic scripts which helps to disambiguate interpretation. They have no direct counterpart in spoken language, though they may derive historically from glyphs for real words, and...
	detransitive
	motion downhill, seaward (cf )
	diminutive Diminutive In language structure, a diminutive, or diminutive form , is a formation of a word used to convey a slight degree of the root meaning, smallness of the object or quality named, encapsulation, intimacy, or endearment...
	direct evidential Evidentiality In linguistics, evidentiality is, broadly, the indication of the nature of evidence for a given statement; that is, whether evidence exists for the statement and/or what kind of evidence exists. An evidential is the particular grammatical element that indicates evidentiality... (= ); directional (= ); direct case Direct case In Indo-Aryan languages, and Eastern Iranian languages, the direct case is the name given to a grammatical case used with all three core relations: the agent of transitive verbs, the patient of transitive verbs, and the argument of intransitive verbs...
	disjunction
	distal demonstrative
	distributive case Distributive case The distributive case is used on nouns for the meanings of per or each.In Hungarian it is -nként and expresses the manner when something happens to each member of a set one by one , or the frequency in time .In the Finnish...
	ditransitive
	delimited
	discourse marker Discourse marker In linguistics, a discourse marker is a word or phrase that is relatively syntax-independent and does not change the meaning of the sentence, and has a somewhat empty meaning...
	direct object
	motion downriver (cf )
	different-subject (change of subject) marker (cf )
	dual number
	dubitative mood Dubitative mood Dubitative mood is an epistemic grammatical mood found in some languages, that indicates that the statement is dubious, doubtful, or uncertain. It may subsist as a separate morphological category, as in Bulgarian, or else as a category of use of another form, as of the conditional mood of...
	durative aspect, continuous aspect
	dyadic Dyadic kinship term Dyadic kinship terms are kinship terms in a few languages that express the relationship between individuals as they relate one to the other...
	dynamic aspect
	epenthetic morpheme Epenthesis In phonology, epenthesis is the addition of one or more sounds to a word, especially to the interior of a word. Epenthesis may be divided into two types: excrescence, for the addition of a consonant, and anaptyxis for the addition of a vowel....
	(used to form various -essive cases)
	elative case Elative case See Elative for disambiguation.Elative is a locative case with the basic meaning "out of".... ('out of')
	emphatic
	epistemic mood, epistemic modality Epistemic modality Epistemic modality is a sub-type of linguistic modality that deals with a speaker's evaluation/judgment of, degree of confidence in, or belief of the knowledge upon which a proposition is based. In other words, epistemic modality refers to the way speakers communicate their doubts, certainties, and...
	ergative case Ergative case The ergative case is the grammatical case that identifies the subject of a transitive verb in ergative-absolutive languages.-Characteristics:...
	essive case Essive case The essive or similaris case carries the meaning of a temporary location or state of being, often equivalent to the English "as a ".In the Finnish language, this case is marked by adding "-na/-nä" to the stem of the noun....
	evidential
	evitative case (= aversive case Aversive case The aversive or evitative case is a grammatical case found in Australian Aboriginal languages that indicates that the marked noun is avoided or feared.-Usage:For example, in Walmajarri:... )
	exclusive person Clusivity In linguistics, clusivity is a distinction between inclusive and exclusive first-person pronouns and verbal morphology, also called inclusive "we" and exclusive "we"...
	exclamative
	excessive duration
	existential Existential clause Existential clauses are clauses that indicate only an existence. In English, they are formed with the dummy subject construction with "there", e.g. "There are boys in the yard". Many languages do not require a dummy subject, e.g. Finnish, where the sentence Pihalla on poikia is literally "On the... ('there is')
	exocentric case
	experiential, eyewitness, = direct evidential
	expletive Syntactic expletive Syntactic expletives are words that perform a syntactic role but contribute nothing to meaning. Expletive subjects are part of the grammar of many non-pro-drop languages such as English, whose clauses normally require overt provision of subject even when the subject can be pragmatically inferred... (dummy / meaningless form)
	feminine gender
	factive evidential Evidentiality In linguistics, evidentiality is, broadly, the indication of the nature of evidence for a given statement; that is, whether evidence exists for the statement and/or what kind of evidence exists. An evidential is the particular grammatical element that indicates evidentiality...
	familiar register Register (linguistics) In linguistics, a register is a variety of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting. For example, when speaking in a formal setting an English speaker may be more likely to adhere more closely to prescribed grammar, pronounce words ending in -ing with a velar nasal... (as the T-V distinction T-V distinction In sociolinguistics, a T–V distinction is a contrast, within one language, between second-person pronouns that are specialized for varying levels of politeness, social distance, courtesy, familiarity, or insult toward the addressee.... )
	finite verb Finite verb A finite verb is a verb that is inflected for person and for tense according to the rules and categories of the languages in which it occurs. Finite verbs can form independent clauses, which can stand on their own as complete sentences....
	focus
	formal register Register (linguistics) In linguistics, a register is a variety of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting. For example, when speaking in a formal setting an English speaker may be more likely to adhere more closely to prescribed grammar, pronounce words ending in -ing with a velar nasal... (as the T-V distinction T-V distinction In sociolinguistics, a T–V distinction is a contrast, within one language, between second-person pronouns that are specialized for varying levels of politeness, social distance, courtesy, familiarity, or insult toward the addressee.... )
	final particle (joshi Japanese particles Japanese particles, or , are suffixes or short words in Japanese grammar that immediately follow the modified noun, verb, adjective, or sentence. Their grammatical range can indicate various meanings and functions, such as speaker affect and assertiveness.... )
	frequentative Frequentative In grammar, a frequentative form of a word is one which indicates repeated action. The frequentative form can be considered a separate, but not completely independent word, called a frequentative... aspect
	former, deceased
	future tense Future tense In grammar, a future tense is a verb form that marks the event described by the verb as not having happened yet, but expected to happen in the future , or to happen subsequent to some other event, whether that is past, present, or future .-Expressions of future tense:The concept of the future,...
	gender (G4 = the 4th gender)
	genitive case Genitive case In grammar, genitive is the grammatical case that marks a noun as modifying another noun...
	gerund Gerund In linguistics* As applied to English, it refers to the usage of a verb as a noun ....
	gnomic (generic) aspect
	goal trigger (Austronesian; = goal voice)
	habitual aspect Habitual aspect In linguistics, the aspect of a verb is a grammatical category that defines the temporal flow in a given action, event, or state. As its name suggests, the habitual aspect specifies an action as occurring habitually: the subject performs the action usually, ordinarily, or customarily...
	humble register Register (linguistics) In linguistics, a register is a variety of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting. For example, when speaking in a formal setting an English speaker may be more likely to adhere more closely to prescribed grammar, pronounce words ending in -ing with a velar nasal...
	hesternal tense Hesternal tense A hesternal tense is a past tense for the previous day. Hesternal tense refers to an event which occurred yesterday or on the preceding day . A pre-hesternal tense refers to an event which occurred prior to yesterday or the previous day.... ('yesterday')
	historic(al), as in historical present Historical present In linguistics and rhetoric, the historical present refers to the employment of the present tense when narrating past events... or past historic tense
	hodiernal tense Hodiernal tense A hodiernal tense is a grammatical tense for the current day .Hodiernal tenses refer to events of today or of the day under consideration .... ('today')
	honorific Honorifics (linguistics) In linguistics, an honorific is a grammatical or morphosyntactic form that encodes the relative social status of the participants of the conversation...
	hortative Hortative The hortative is a group of semantically similar deontic moods in some languages, especially English. Hortative moods encourage or urge. There are seven hortative moods in English: the adhortative, exhortative, suprahortative, cohortative, dehortative, inhortative, and infrahortative... ,
	hearsay Hearsay Hearsay is information gathered by one person from another person concerning some event, condition, or thing of which the first person had no direct experience. When submitted as evidence, such statements are called hearsay evidence. As a legal term, "hearsay" can also have the narrower meaning of... , reported evidential Evidentiality In linguistics, evidentiality is, broadly, the indication of the nature of evidence for a given statement; that is, whether evidence exists for the statement and/or what kind of evidence exists. An evidential is the particular grammatical element that indicates evidentiality...
	human, anthropic gender (cf. ; )
	hypothetical mood Hypothetical mood Hypothetical mood is an epistemic grammatical mood found in some languages, which indicates that while a statement is not actually true, it could easily have been. For instance, in English, "You know you shouldn't play with knives! You could have hurt someone!"...
	inflected Inflection In grammar, inflection or inflexion is the modification of a word to express different grammatical categories such as tense, grammatical mood, grammatical voice, aspect, person, number, gender and case...
	identical (~ )
	identifiable
	ideophone Ideophone Ideophones are words used by speakers to evoke a vivid impression of certain sensation or sensory perceptions, e.g. smell, color, shape, sound, action, or movement. Ideophones are attested in all languages of the world, however, languages differ in the extent to which they make use of them... (≈ )
	ignorative
	illative case Illative case Illative is, in the Finnish language, Estonian language and the Hungarian language, the third of the locative cases with the basic meaning of "into ". An example from Hungarian is "a házba"... ('into')
	immediate, as in immediate imperative mood, near future tense
	imperative mood Imperative mood The imperative mood expresses commands or requests as a grammatical mood. These commands or requests urge the audience to act a certain way. It also may signal a prohibition, permission, or any other kind of exhortation.- Morphology :...
	imperfect (= )
	imprecative mood Imprecative mood Some languages distinguish between the optative mood and an imprecative mood . In these languages, the imprecative mood is used to wish misfortune upon others, whereas the optative mood is used for wishes in general. In such a language, "May he lose the race" is in imprecative mood, whereas "May I...
	impersonal verb Impersonal verb In linguistics, an impersonal verb is a verb that cannot take a true subject, because it does not represent an action, occurrence, or state-of-being of any specific person, place, or thing...
	inclusive person Clusivity In linguistics, clusivity is a distinction between inclusive and exclusive first-person pronouns and verbal morphology, also called inclusive "we" and exclusive "we"...
	inalienable possession Inalienable possession In linguistics, inalienable possession refers to the linguistic properties of certain nouns or nominal morphemes based on the fact that they are always possessed. The semantic underpinning is that entities like body parts and relatives do not exist apart from a possessor. For example, a hand...
	inanimate gender Animacy Animacy is a grammatical and/or semantic category of nouns based on how sentient or alive the referent of the noun in a given taxonomic scheme is...
	inchoative Inchoative Inchoative aspect is a grammatical aspect, referring to the beginning of an action or state. It can be found in conservative Indo-European languages such as Latin and Lithuanian, and also in Finnic languages. It should not be confused with the prospective, which denotes actions that are about to... aspect, inceptive aspect
	inclusive person Clusivity In linguistics, clusivity is a distinction between inclusive and exclusive first-person pronouns and verbal morphology, also called inclusive "we" and exclusive "we"... (= )
	indicative mood
	indefinite Definiteness In grammatical theory, definiteness is a feature of noun phrases, distinguishing between entities which are specific and identifiable in a given context and entities which are not ....
	inessive case Inessive case Inessive case is a locative grammatical case. This case carries the basic meaning of "in": for example, "in the house" is "talo·ssa" in Finnish, "maja·s" in Estonian, "etxea·n" in Basque, "nam·e" in Lithuanian and "ház·ban" in Hungarian.In Finnish the inessive case is typically formed by adding... ('in')
	infinitive Infinitive In grammar, infinitive is the name for certain verb forms that exist in many languages. In the usual description of English, the infinitive of a verb is its basic form with or without the particle to: therefore, do and to do, be and to be, and so on are infinitives...
	inferential evidential Deductive mood The deductive mood is an epistemic grammatical mood that indicates that the truth of the statement was deduced from other information, rather than being directly known. In English, deductive mood is often indicated by the word must, which is also used for many other purposes...
	inelative case Inelative case The inelative case expresses the notion "from inside" .It can be found in the Lezgian language. For example:Варшавадай Тегьрандиз саки вад югъ рехъ ава.Varshavadaj Tehrandiz saki vad jugh reqh ava.... ('from within')
	instrumental case Instrumental case The instrumental case is a grammatical case used to indicate that a noun is the instrument or means by or with which the subject achieves or accomplishes an action...
	intensifier Intensifier Intensifier is a linguistic term for a modifier that amplifies the meaning of the word it modifies. Examples are "very," "quite," "extremely," "highly," and "greatly." An intensifier is the opposite of a qualifier, a modifier that weakens the word modified: "fairly," "somewhat," "rather," "a... ; interrogative (= )
	intention Intention Intention is an agent's specific purpose in performing an action or series of actions, the end or goal that is aimed at. Outcomes that are unanticipated or unforeseen are known as unintended consequences.... al
	intransitive (covers an intransitive case Intransitive case The intransitive case is a grammatical case used in some languages to mark the argument of an intransitive verb, but not used with transitive verbs... for the S argument)
	inverse Inversion (linguistics) In linguistics, grammatical inversion is any of a number of different distinct grammatical constructions in the languages of the world. There are three main uses in the literature which, unfortunately, have little if any overlap either formally or typologically: syntactic inversion, thematic...
	indirect object
	imperfective aspect Imperfective aspect The imperfective is a grammatical aspect used to describe a situation viewed with internal structure, such as ongoing, habitual, repeated, and similar semantic roles, whether that situation occurs in the past, present, or future... (= )
	irrealis mood
	indirect speech Indirect speech In grammar, indirect or reported speech is a way of reporting a statement or question. A reported question is called an indirect question. Unlike direct speech, indirect speech does not phrase the statement or question the way the original speaker did; instead, certain grammatical categories are...
	iterative aspect
	jussive mood Jussive mood The jussive is a grammatical mood of verbs for issuing orders, commanding, or exhorting . English verbs are not marked for this mood...
	(used to form various -lative cases)
	second language (code-switching Code-switching In linguistics, code-switching is the concurrent use of more than one language, or language variety, in conversation. Multilinguals—people who speak more than one language—sometimes use elements of multiple languages in conversing with each other... )
	lative case Lative case Lative is a case which indicates motion to a location. It corresponds to the English prepositions "to" and "into". The lative case belongs to the group of the general local cases together with the locative and separative case... (= , direction)
	locative case + directional
	linker
	locative case Locative case Locative is a grammatical case which indicates a location. It corresponds vaguely to the English prepositions "in", "on", "at", and "by"... (includes essive case Essive case The essive or similaris case carries the meaning of a temporary location or state of being, often equivalent to the English "as a ".In the Finnish language, this case is marked by adding "-na/-nä" to the stem of the noun.... )
	logophoric
	masculine gender
	manner
	middle voice
	mimetic (≈ )
	(ad)mirative Mirative A mirative is a particular grammatical element in some languages that indicates unexpected and new information...
	mood Grammatical mood In linguistics, grammatical mood is a grammatical feature of verbs, used to signal modality. That is, it is the use of verbal inflections that allow speakers to express their attitude toward what they are saying... , modal Linguistic modality In linguistics, modality is what allows speakers to evaluate a proposition relative to a set of other propositions.In standard formal approaches to modality, an utterance expressing modality can always roughly be paraphrased to fit the following template:... , modal case Modal case In linguistics, the modal case is a grammatical case used to express ability, intention, necessity, obligation, permission, possibility, etc. It takes the place of English modal verbs such as can, could, would, might, may....
	single action verb (not iterative)
	movement
	neuter gender
	non- (e.g. non-singular, non-past, non-feminine)
	negation, negative Grammatical polarity Grammatical polarity is the distinction of affirmative and negative. In English, grammatical polarity is generally indicated by the presence or absence of the modifier not, which negates the statement. Many other languages contain similar modifiers: Italian and Interlingua have non, Spanish has...
	non-human
	nominalizer/nominalization Nominalization In linguistics, nominalization or nominalisation is the use of a verb, an adjective, or an adverb as the head of a noun phrase, with or without morphological transformation...
	nominative case Nominative case The nominative case is one of the grammatical cases of a noun or other part of speech, which generally marks the subject of a verb or the predicate noun or predicate adjective, as opposed to its object or other verb arguments...
	non-subject (Latin 'oblique case')
	intransitive (covers an intransitive case Intransitive case The intransitive case is a grammatical case used in some languages to mark the argument of an intransitive verb, but not used with transitive verbs... for the S argument)
	numeral
O	patient Patient (grammar) In linguistics, a grammatical patient, also called the target or undergoer, is the participant of a situation upon whom an action is carried out. A patient as differentiated from a theme must undergo a change in state. A theme is denoted by a stative verb, where a patient is denoted by a dynamic... -like argument (object) of canonical transitive verb (= P)
	object Object (grammar) An object in grammar is part of a sentence, and often part of the predicate. It denotes somebody or something involved in the subject's "performance" of the verb. Basically, it is what or whom the verb is acting upon...
	oblique case Oblique case An oblique case in linguistics is a noun case of synthetic languages that is used generally when a noun is the object of a verb or a preposition...
	obviative Obviative Obviate third person person is a grammatical person marking that distinguishes a non-salient third person referent from a more salient third person referent in a given discourse context...
	optative mood Optative mood The optative mood is a grammatical mood that indicates a wish or hope. It is similar to the cohortative mood, and closely related to the subjunctive mood....
P	patient Patient (grammar) In linguistics, a grammatical patient, also called the target or undergoer, is the participant of a situation upon whom an action is carried out. A patient as differentiated from a theme must undergo a change in state. A theme is denoted by a stative verb, where a patient is denoted by a dynamic... -like argument of canonical transitive verb (= O)
	pre-, post- ( prehodiernal)
	participle Participle In linguistics, a participle is a word that shares some characteristics of both verbs and adjectives. It can be used in compound verb tenses or voices , or as a modifier... (= ); particle (= ); partitive case Partitive case The partitive case is a grammatical case which denotes "partialness", "without result", or "without specific identity". It is also used in contexts where a subgroup is selected from a larger group, or with numbers.... (= )
	passive voice
	patient Patient (grammar) In linguistics, a grammatical patient, also called the target or undergoer, is the participant of a situation upon whom an action is carried out. A patient as differentiated from a theme must undergo a change in state. A theme is denoted by a stative verb, where a patient is denoted by a dynamic... ive (= )
	paucal number
	pegative case Pegative case In linguistics, the pegative case is a noun case that marks the agent of an action with a dative-like undergoer argument; that is, it marks the agent of a transitive verb that has only a partial or low-intensity effect on the undergoer argument.... (a special case for the giver)
	perlative case Perlative case Perlative case "expresses that something moved 'through', 'across', or 'along' the referent of the noun that is marked". The case is found in the West Australian Kuku-Yalanji language, Aymara and in Tocharian.... ('per', using)
	perfect (= )
	personal
	perfective aspect Perfective aspect The perfective aspect , sometimes called the aoristic aspect, is a grammatical aspect used to describe a situation viewed as a simple whole, whether that situation occurs in the past, present, or future. The perfective aspect is equivalent to the aspectual component of past perfective forms...
	plural Plural In linguistics, plurality or [a] plural is a concept of quantity representing a value of more-than-one. Typically applied to nouns, a plural word or marker is used to distinguish a value other than the default quantity of a noun, which is typically one...
	pluractional
	phrase Phrase In everyday speech, a phrase may refer to any group of words. In linguistics, a phrase is a group of words which form a constituent and so function as a single unit in the syntax of a sentence. A phrase is lower on the grammatical hierarchy than a clause.... marker, predicate Predicate (grammar) There are two competing notions of the predicate in theories of grammar. Traditional grammar tends to view a predicate as one of two main parts of a sentence, the other being the subject, which the predicate modifies. The other understanding of predicates is inspired from work in predicate calculus... marker
	pronoun Pronoun In linguistics and grammar, a pronoun is a pro-form that substitutes for a noun , such as, in English, the words it and he...
	primary object
	polite register Register (linguistics) In linguistics, a register is a variety of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting. For example, when speaking in a formal setting an English speaker may be more likely to adhere more closely to prescribed grammar, pronounce words ending in -ing with a velar nasal...
	possessive Possessive Possessive may be:* Possessive case* Possessive adjective* Possessive pronoun* Possessive suffix* Possessive construction, pattern among words indicating possession * For possessive behavior in a relationship, see Attachment in adults... marker
	postposition, postpositional case
	postessive case Postessive case In linguistics, the postessive case is a noun case that indicates position behind something.This case is found in Northeast Caucasian languages like Lezgian and Agul. In Lezgian the suffix -хъ , when added to the ergative-case noun, marks the postessive case... ('after')
	potential mood Conditional mood In linguistics, the conditional mood is the inflectional form of the verb used in the independent clause of a conditional sentence to refer to a hypothetical state of affairs, or an uncertain event, that is contingent on another set of circumstances... (a possible conditional)
	past / passive participle
	past passive participle
	past perfective
	proper noun Proper noun A proper noun or proper name is a noun representing a unique entity , as distinguished from a common noun, which represents a class of entities —for example, city, planet, person or corporation)...
	predicative Predicate (grammar) There are two competing notions of the predicate in theories of grammar. Traditional grammar tends to view a predicate as one of two main parts of a sentence, the other being the subject, which the predicate modifies. The other understanding of predicates is inspired from work in predicate calculus...
	precative mood (requests)
	preposition, prepositional case Prepositional case Prepositional case is a grammatical case that marks the object of a preposition. This term can be used in languages where nouns have a declensional form that appears exclusively in combination with certain prepositions...
	present tense Present tense The present tense is a grammatical tense that locates a situation or event in present time. This linguistic definition refers to a concept that indicates a feature of the meaning of a verb...
	present participle
	preterite Preterite The preterite is the grammatical tense expressing actions that took place or were completed in the past... (= )
	perfect (= )
	present tense Present tense The present tense is a grammatical tense that locates a situation or event in present time. This linguistic definition refers to a concept that indicates a feature of the meaning of a verb...
	probability
	progressive aspect
	prohibitive mood ('don't!')
	prolative case Prolative case The prolative case is a declension of a noun or pronoun that has the basic meaning of "by way of".... (= )
	protasis Protasis (linguistics) In linguistics, a protasis is the subordinate clause in a conditional sentence. For example, in "if X, then Y", the protasis is "if X"...
	proximal/proximate
	past tense Past tense The past tense is a grammatical tense that places an action or situation in the past of the current moment , or prior to some specified time that may be in the speaker's past, present, or future...
	patient trigger Austronesian alignment Austronesian alignment, commonly known as the Philippine- or Austronesian-type voice system, is a typologically unusual morphosyntactic alignment that combines features of ergative and accusative languages...
	particle
	participle Participle In linguistics, a participle is a word that shares some characteristics of both verbs and adjectives. It can be used in compound verb tenses or voices , or as a modifier...
	partitive case Partitive case The partitive case is a grammatical case which denotes "partialness", "without result", or "without specific identity". It is also used in contexts where a subgroup is selected from a larger group, or with numbers.... ('some of')
	purposive
	question word or particle (= )
	quotative case (marks quoted speech)
	rational gender (thinking beings)
	realis mood
	recent past tense
	reciprocal voice
	referential
	reflexive voice
	relative(izer) Relativizer In linguistics, a relativizer is a grammatical element used to indicate a relative clause. Not all languages use relativizers; most Indo-European languages use relative pronouns instead, and some languages, such as Japanese, rely solely on word order to indicate relative clauses...
	remote past tense
	reported evidential Evidentiality In linguistics, evidentiality is, broadly, the indication of the nature of evidence for a given statement; that is, whether evidence exists for the statement and/or what kind of evidence exists. An evidential is the particular grammatical element that indicates evidentiality... (= ); repetitive (cf )
	resultative Resultative A resultative is a phrase that indicates the state of a noun resulting from the completion of the verb. In the English examples below, the affected noun is shown in bold and the resulting predicate is in italics:... ; resumptive
	retrospective (synonym for 'perfect' in some traditions)
	referential
S	single argument Verb argument In linguistics, a verb argument is a phrase that appears in a syntactic relationship with the verb in a clause. In English, for example, the two most important arguments are the subject and the direct object.... of canonical intransitive verb (cf )
	subject Subject (grammar) The subject is one of the two main constituents of a clause, according to a tradition that can be tracked back to Aristotle and that is associated with phrase structure grammars; the other constituent is the predicate. According to another tradition, i.e...
	subjunctive mood Subjunctive mood In grammar, the subjunctive mood is a verb mood typically used in subordinate clauses to express various states of irreality such as wish, emotion, possibility, judgment, opinion, necessity, or action that has not yet occurred....
	same event (cf )
	semelfactive aspect ('once')
	sensory evidential mood (= +
	sequential
	singular Grammatical number In linguistics, grammatical number is a grammatical category of nouns, pronouns, and adjective and verb agreement that expresses count distinctions .... (but 1. = 1s, 3 = 3ms)
	singulative number
	simultaneous aspect; similative
	subjunctive mood Subjunctive mood In grammar, the subjunctive mood is a verb mood typically used in subordinate clauses to express various states of irreality such as wish, emotion, possibility, judgment, opinion, necessity, or action that has not yet occurred....
	specifier Specifier In X-bar theory in linguistics, specifiers, head words, and complements together form phrases. Specifiers differ from complements because they are not sisters of the head, but rather sisters of the phrase formed by the head and the complement... ; speculative mood Speculative mood Speculative mood is an epistemic grammatical mood found in some languages, which indicates that the utterance is based on speculation of the speaker, and not actually known to be the case. For example, "The butler could have been the killer."...
	same-subject (cf )
	stative aspect, stative verb Stative verb A stative verb is one that asserts that one of its arguments has a particular property . Statives differ from other aspectual classes of verbs in that they are static; that is, they have undefined duration...
	subject Subject (grammar) The subject is one of the two main constituents of a clause, according to a tradition that can be tracked back to Aristotle and that is associated with phrase structure grammars; the other constituent is the predicate. According to another tradition, i.e...
	subordinator Subordination (linguistics) In linguistics, subordination is a complex syntactic construction in which one or more clauses are dependent on the main clause, such as The dog ran home after it had played with the ball. The italicized text is the subordinate clause...
	subessive case Subessive case The subessive case is a grammatical case indicating location under or below something. It occurs in Northeast Caucasian languages like Tsez and Bezhta.... ('under')
	sublative case Sublative case The term sublative case is used to refer to grammatical cases expressing different situations: In Hungarian, it expresses the destination of the movement, originally to the surface of something , but in other figurative meanings as well The term sublative case (abbreviated ) is used to refer to... ('onto', 'down onto')
	superlative Superlative In grammar, the superlative is the form of an adjective that indicates that the person or thing modified has the quality of the adjective to a degree greater than that of anything it is being compared to in a given context. English superlatives are typically formed with the suffix -est In... ; supine Supine In grammar a supine is a form of verbal noun used in some languages.-In Latin:In Latin there are two supines, I and II . They are originally the accusative and dative or ablative forms of a verbal noun in the fourth declension, respectively. The first supine ends in -um. It has two uses. The first... ; supplicative
	superessive case Superessive case The Superessive case is a grammatical declension indicating location on top of, or on the surface of something. Its name comes from Latin supersum, superesse: to be over and above.... ('on')
	trigger Austronesian alignment Austronesian alignment, commonly known as the Philippine- or Austronesian-type voice system, is a typologically unusual morphosyntactic alignment that combines features of ergative and accusative languages... (used for )
	tense, aspect, or mood
	telic aspect Telicity In linguistics, telicity is the property of a verb or verb phrase that presents an action or event as being complete in some sense... (cf )
	temporal case Temporal case The temporal case in morphology is used to indicate a time. In Hungarian language its suffix is -kor. For example: hétkor "at seven" or hét órakor "at seven o'clock", éjfélkor "at midnight", karácsonykor "at Christmas". This is one of the few suffixes in Hungarian to which rules of vowel harmony...
	terminative case Terminative case In morphology, the terminative case is a case specifying a limit in space and time and also to convey the goal or target of an action.-Usage in Estonian:In the Estonian language, the terminative case is indicated by the '-ni' suffix:...
	tense
	topic
	transitive verb Transitive verb In syntax, a transitive verb is a verb that requires both a direct subject and one or more objects. The term is used to contrast intransitive verbs, which do not have objects.-Examples:Some examples of sentences with transitive verbs:...
	translative case Translative case The translative case is a grammatical case that indicates a change in state of a noun, with the general sense of "becoming X" or "change to X".... (becoming)
	trial number
	trans-numeral (neither nor )
	truth-value focus
	uninflected Inflection In grammar, inflection or inflexion is the modification of a word to express different grammatical categories such as tense, grammatical mood, grammatical voice, aspect, person, number, gender and case...
	motion uphill, inland (cf )
	undergoer role Role and reference grammar Role and Reference Grammar is a model of grammar developed by William Foley and Robert Van Valin, Jr. in the 1980s, which incorporates many of the points of view of current functional grammar theories.... (cf )
	motion upriver (cf )
	usitative
	verb(al) Verbal Verbal may mean:Non-finite verb, a verb form that functions both as a verb and as another lexical category.A word or group of words that functions as a verb by serving as the head of a verb phrase...
	verbalizer
	verb, ditransitive Ditransitive verb In grammar, a ditransitive verb is a verb which takes a subject and two objects which refer to a recipient and a theme. According to certain linguistics considerations, these objects may be called direct and indirect, or primary and secondary...
	venitive (coming towards; cf andative)
	veridical mood Conditional mood In linguistics, the conditional mood is the inflectional form of the verb used in the independent clause of a conditional sentence to refer to a hypothetical state of affairs, or an uncertain event, that is contingent on another set of circumstances... (a certain conditional)
	vialis case
	visible, visual Evidentiality In linguistics, evidentiality is, broadly, the indication of the nature of evidence for a given statement; that is, whether evidence exists for the statement and/or what kind of evidence exists. An evidential is the particular grammatical element that indicates evidentiality...
	verb, intransitive Intransitive verb In grammar, an intransitive verb is a verb that has no object. This differs from a transitive verb, which takes one or more objects. Both classes of verb are related to the concept of the transitivity of a verb....
	verbal noun Verbal noun In linguistics, the verbal noun turns a verb into a noun and corresponds to the infinitive in English language usage. In English the infinitive form of the verb is formed when preceded by to, e.g...
	vocative case Vocative case The vocative case is the case used for a noun identifying the person being addressed and/or occasionally the determiners of that noun. A vocative expression is an expression of direct address, wherein the identity of the party being spoken to is set forth expressly within a sentence...
	volitive mood
	verb, transitive Transitive verb In syntax, a transitive verb is a verb that requires both a direct subject and one or more objects. The term is used to contrast intransitive verbs, which do not have objects.-Examples:Some examples of sentences with transitive verbs:...
	wh-question
	-(al)izer (e.g. transitivizer)
	zoic gender (animals)

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