Mathematical object
Encyclopedia
In mathematics
and the philosophy of mathematics
, a mathematical object is an abstract object
arising in mathematics.
Commonly encountered mathematical objects include number
s, permutation
s, partitions
, matrices
, sets, functions
, and relations
. Geometry
as a branch of mathematics has such objects as hexagons, points
, lines
, triangle
s, circle
s, sphere
s, polyhedra
, topological space
s and manifold
s. Algebra
, another branch, has groups
, rings
, fields
, group-theoretic lattices
and order-theoretic lattices
. Categories
are simultaneously homes to mathematical objects and mathematical objects in their own right.
The ontological status
of mathematical objects has been the subject of much investigation and debate by philosophers of mathematics
. On this debate, see the monograph by Burgess and Rosen (1997).
is that all mathematical objects can be defined as sets. The set {0,1} is a relatively clear-cut example. On the face of it the group
Z2 of integers mod 2 is also a set with two elements. However, it cannot simply be the set {0,1}, because this does not mention the additional structure imputed to Z2 by the operation
s of addition
and negation
mod 2: how are we to tell which of 0 or 1 is the additive identity
, for example? To organize this group as a set it can first be coded as the quadruple ({0,1},+,−,0), which in turn can be coded using one of several conventions as a set representing that quadruple, which in turn entails encoding the operations + and − and the constant 0 as sets.
This approach raises the fundamental philosophical question of whether the ontology of mathematics should be beholden to practice or pedagogy. Mathematicians do not work with such codings, which are neither canonical nor practical. They do not appear in any algebra texts, and neither students nor instructors in algebra courses have any familiarity with such codings. Hence, if ontology is to reflect practice, mathematical objects cannot be reduced to sets in this way.
of its paradox
es. This has been the viewpoint taken by foundations of mathematics
, which has traditionally accorded the management of paradox higher priority than the faithful reflection of the details of mathematical practice as a justification for defining mathematical objects to be sets.
Much of the tension created by this foundational identification of mathematical objects with sets can be relieved without unduly compromising the goals of foundations by allowing two kinds of objects into the mathematical universe, sets and relation
s, without requiring that either be considered merely an instance of the other. These form the basis of model theory
as the domain of discourse
of predicate logic
. From this viewpoint, mathematical objects are entities satisfying the axiom
s of a formal theory expressed in the language of predicate logic.
, the basis of universal algebra
. In this variant the axioms often take the form of equation
s, or implications between equations.
A more abstract variant is category theory
, which abstracts sets as objects and the operations thereon as morphism
s between those objects. At this level of abstraction mathematical objects reduce to mere vertices
of a graph
whose edge
s as the morphisms abstract the ways in which those objects can transform and whose structure is encoded in the composition law
for morphisms. Categories
may arise as the models of some axiomatic theory and the homomorphism
s between them (in which case they are usually concrete
, meaning equipped with a faithful forgetful functor
to the category Set
or more generally to a suitable topos
), or they may be constructed from other more primitive categories, or they may be studied as abstract objects in their own right without regard for their provenance
.
Mathematics
Mathematics is the study of quantity, space, structure, and change. Mathematicians seek out patterns and formulate new conjectures. Mathematicians resolve the truth or falsity of conjectures by mathematical proofs, which are arguments sufficient to convince other mathematicians of their validity...
and the philosophy of mathematics
Philosophy of mathematics
The philosophy of mathematics is the branch of philosophy that studies the philosophical assumptions, foundations, and implications of mathematics. The aim of the philosophy of mathematics is to provide an account of the nature and methodology of mathematics and to understand the place of...
, a mathematical object is an abstract object
Abstract object
An abstract object is an object which does not exist at any particular time or place, but rather exists as a type of thing . In philosophy, an important distinction is whether an object is considered abstract or concrete. Abstract objects are sometimes called abstracta An abstract object is an...
arising in mathematics.
Commonly encountered mathematical objects include number
Number
A number is a mathematical object used to count and measure. In mathematics, the definition of number has been extended over the years to include such numbers as zero, negative numbers, rational numbers, irrational numbers, and complex numbers....
s, permutation
Permutation
In mathematics, the notion of permutation is used with several slightly different meanings, all related to the act of permuting objects or values. Informally, a permutation of a set of objects is an arrangement of those objects into a particular order...
s, partitions
Partition of a set
In mathematics, a partition of a set X is a division of X into non-overlapping and non-empty "parts" or "blocks" or "cells" that cover all of X...
, matrices
Matrix (mathematics)
In mathematics, a matrix is a rectangular array of numbers, symbols, or expressions. The individual items in a matrix are called its elements or entries. An example of a matrix with six elements isMatrices of the same size can be added or subtracted element by element...
, sets, functions
Function (mathematics)
In mathematics, a function associates one quantity, the argument of the function, also known as the input, with another quantity, the value of the function, also known as the output. A function assigns exactly one output to each input. The argument and the value may be real numbers, but they can...
, and relations
Relation (mathematics)
In set theory and logic, a relation is a property that assigns truth values to k-tuples of individuals. Typically, the property describes a possible connection between the components of a k-tuple...
. Geometry
Geometry
Geometry arose as the field of knowledge dealing with spatial relationships. Geometry was one of the two fields of pre-modern mathematics, the other being the study of numbers ....
as a branch of mathematics has such objects as hexagons, points
Point (geometry)
In geometry, topology and related branches of mathematics a spatial point is a primitive notion upon which other concepts may be defined. In geometry, points are zero-dimensional; i.e., they do not have volume, area, length, or any other higher-dimensional analogue. In branches of mathematics...
, lines
Line (geometry)
The notion of line or straight line was introduced by the ancient mathematicians to represent straight objects with negligible width and depth. Lines are an idealization of such objects...
, triangle
Triangle
A triangle is one of the basic shapes of geometry: a polygon with three corners or vertices and three sides or edges which are line segments. A triangle with vertices A, B, and C is denoted ....
s, circle
Circle
A circle is a simple shape of Euclidean geometry consisting of those points in a plane that are a given distance from a given point, the centre. The distance between any of the points and the centre is called the radius....
s, sphere
Sphere
A sphere is a perfectly round geometrical object in three-dimensional space, such as the shape of a round ball. Like a circle in two dimensions, a perfect sphere is completely symmetrical around its center, with all points on the surface lying the same distance r from the center point...
s, polyhedra
Polyhedron
In elementary geometry a polyhedron is a geometric solid in three dimensions with flat faces and straight edges...
, topological space
Topological space
Topological spaces are mathematical structures that allow the formal definition of concepts such as convergence, connectedness, and continuity. They appear in virtually every branch of modern mathematics and are a central unifying notion...
s and manifold
Manifold
In mathematics , a manifold is a topological space that on a small enough scale resembles the Euclidean space of a specific dimension, called the dimension of the manifold....
s. Algebra
Algebra
Algebra is the branch of mathematics concerning the study of the rules of operations and relations, and the constructions and concepts arising from them, including terms, polynomials, equations and algebraic structures...
, another branch, has groups
Group (mathematics)
In mathematics, a group is an algebraic structure consisting of a set together with an operation that combines any two of its elements to form a third element. To qualify as a group, the set and the operation must satisfy a few conditions called group axioms, namely closure, associativity, identity...
, rings
Ring (mathematics)
In mathematics, a ring is an algebraic structure consisting of a set together with two binary operations usually called addition and multiplication, where the set is an abelian group under addition and a semigroup under multiplication such that multiplication distributes over addition...
, fields
Field (mathematics)
In abstract algebra, a field is a commutative ring whose nonzero elements form a group under multiplication. As such it is an algebraic structure with notions of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, satisfying certain axioms...
, group-theoretic lattices
Lattice (group)
In mathematics, especially in geometry and group theory, a lattice in Rn is a discrete subgroup of Rn which spans the real vector space Rn. Every lattice in Rn can be generated from a basis for the vector space by forming all linear combinations with integer coefficients...
and order-theoretic lattices
Lattice (order)
In mathematics, a lattice is a partially ordered set in which any two elements have a unique supremum and an infimum . Lattices can also be characterized as algebraic structures satisfying certain axiomatic identities...
. Categories
Category (mathematics)
In mathematics, a category is an algebraic structure that comprises "objects" that are linked by "arrows". A category has two basic properties: the ability to compose the arrows associatively and the existence of an identity arrow for each object. A simple example is the category of sets, whose...
are simultaneously homes to mathematical objects and mathematical objects in their own right.
The ontological status
Ontology
Ontology is the philosophical study of the nature of being, existence or reality as such, as well as the basic categories of being and their relations...
of mathematical objects has been the subject of much investigation and debate by philosophers of mathematics
Philosophy of mathematics
The philosophy of mathematics is the branch of philosophy that studies the philosophical assumptions, foundations, and implications of mathematics. The aim of the philosophy of mathematics is to provide an account of the nature and methodology of mathematics and to understand the place of...
. On this debate, see the monograph by Burgess and Rosen (1997).
Cantorian framework
One view that emerged around the turn of the 20th century with the work of CantorGeorg Cantor
Georg Ferdinand Ludwig Philipp Cantor was a German mathematician, best known as the inventor of set theory, which has become a fundamental theory in mathematics. Cantor established the importance of one-to-one correspondence between the members of two sets, defined infinite and well-ordered sets,...
is that all mathematical objects can be defined as sets. The set {0,1} is a relatively clear-cut example. On the face of it the group
Group (mathematics)
In mathematics, a group is an algebraic structure consisting of a set together with an operation that combines any two of its elements to form a third element. To qualify as a group, the set and the operation must satisfy a few conditions called group axioms, namely closure, associativity, identity...
Z2 of integers mod 2 is also a set with two elements. However, it cannot simply be the set {0,1}, because this does not mention the additional structure imputed to Z2 by the operation
Operation (mathematics)
The general operation as explained on this page should not be confused with the more specific operators on vector spaces. For a notion in elementary mathematics, see arithmetic operation....
s of addition
Addition
Addition is a mathematical operation that represents combining collections of objects together into a larger collection. It is signified by the plus sign . For example, in the picture on the right, there are 3 + 2 apples—meaning three apples and two other apples—which is the same as five apples....
and negation
Negation (algebra)
Negation is the mathematical operation that reverses the sign of a number. Thus the negation of a positive number is negative, and the negation of a negative number is positive. The negation of zero is zero...
mod 2: how are we to tell which of 0 or 1 is the additive identity
Additive identity
In mathematics the additive identity of a set which is equipped with the operation of addition is an element which, when added to any element x in the set, yields x...
, for example? To organize this group as a set it can first be coded as the quadruple ({0,1},+,−,0), which in turn can be coded using one of several conventions as a set representing that quadruple, which in turn entails encoding the operations + and − and the constant 0 as sets.
This approach raises the fundamental philosophical question of whether the ontology of mathematics should be beholden to practice or pedagogy. Mathematicians do not work with such codings, which are neither canonical nor practical. They do not appear in any algebra texts, and neither students nor instructors in algebra courses have any familiarity with such codings. Hence, if ontology is to reflect practice, mathematical objects cannot be reduced to sets in this way.
Foundational paradoxes
If, however, the goal of mathematical ontology is taken to be the internal consistency of mathematics, it is more important that mathematical objects be definable in some uniform way (for example, as sets) regardless of actual practice, in order to lay bare the essenceEssence
In philosophy, essence is the attribute or set of attributes that make an object or substance what it fundamentally is, and which it has by necessity, and without which it loses its identity. Essence is contrasted with accident: a property that the object or substance has contingently, without...
of its paradox
Paradox
Similar to Circular reasoning, A paradox is a seemingly true statement or group of statements that lead to a contradiction or a situation which seems to defy logic or intuition...
es. This has been the viewpoint taken by foundations of mathematics
Foundations of mathematics
Foundations of mathematics is a term sometimes used for certain fields of mathematics, such as mathematical logic, axiomatic set theory, proof theory, model theory, type theory and recursion theory...
, which has traditionally accorded the management of paradox higher priority than the faithful reflection of the details of mathematical practice as a justification for defining mathematical objects to be sets.
Much of the tension created by this foundational identification of mathematical objects with sets can be relieved without unduly compromising the goals of foundations by allowing two kinds of objects into the mathematical universe, sets and relation
Relation (mathematics)
In set theory and logic, a relation is a property that assigns truth values to k-tuples of individuals. Typically, the property describes a possible connection between the components of a k-tuple...
s, without requiring that either be considered merely an instance of the other. These form the basis of model theory
Model theory
In mathematics, model theory is the study of mathematical structures using tools from mathematical logic....
as the domain of discourse
Domain of discourse
In the formal sciences, the domain of discourse, also called the universe of discourse , is the set of entities over which certain variables of interest in some formal treatment may range...
of predicate logic
Predicate logic
In mathematical logic, predicate logic is the generic term for symbolic formal systems like first-order logic, second-order logic, many-sorted logic or infinitary logic. This formal system is distinguished from other systems in that its formulae contain variables which can be quantified...
. From this viewpoint, mathematical objects are entities satisfying the axiom
Axiom
In traditional logic, an axiom or postulate is a proposition that is not proven or demonstrated but considered either to be self-evident or to define and delimit the realm of analysis. In other words, an axiom is a logical statement that is assumed to be true...
s of a formal theory expressed in the language of predicate logic.
Category theory
A variant of this approach replaces relations with operationsOperation (mathematics)
The general operation as explained on this page should not be confused with the more specific operators on vector spaces. For a notion in elementary mathematics, see arithmetic operation....
, the basis of universal algebra
Universal algebra
Universal algebra is the field of mathematics that studies algebraic structures themselves, not examples of algebraic structures....
. In this variant the axioms often take the form of equation
Equation
An equation is a mathematical statement that asserts the equality of two expressions. In modern notation, this is written by placing the expressions on either side of an equals sign , for examplex + 3 = 5\,asserts that x+3 is equal to 5...
s, or implications between equations.
A more abstract variant is category theory
Category theory
Category theory is an area of study in mathematics that examines in an abstract way the properties of particular mathematical concepts, by formalising them as collections of objects and arrows , where these collections satisfy certain basic conditions...
, which abstracts sets as objects and the operations thereon as morphism
Morphism
In mathematics, a morphism is an abstraction derived from structure-preserving mappings between two mathematical structures. The notion of morphism recurs in much of contemporary mathematics...
s between those objects. At this level of abstraction mathematical objects reduce to mere vertices
Vertex (geometry)
In geometry, a vertex is a special kind of point that describes the corners or intersections of geometric shapes.-Of an angle:...
of a graph
Graph (mathematics)
In mathematics, a graph is an abstract representation of a set of objects where some pairs of the objects are connected by links. The interconnected objects are represented by mathematical abstractions called vertices, and the links that connect some pairs of vertices are called edges...
whose edge
Edge (geometry)
In geometry, an edge is a one-dimensional line segment joining two adjacent zero-dimensional vertices in a polygon. Thus applied, an edge is a connector for a one-dimensional line segment and two zero-dimensional objects....
s as the morphisms abstract the ways in which those objects can transform and whose structure is encoded in the composition law
Function composition
In mathematics, function composition is the application of one function to the results of another. For instance, the functions and can be composed by computing the output of g when it has an argument of f instead of x...
for morphisms. Categories
Category (mathematics)
In mathematics, a category is an algebraic structure that comprises "objects" that are linked by "arrows". A category has two basic properties: the ability to compose the arrows associatively and the existence of an identity arrow for each object. A simple example is the category of sets, whose...
may arise as the models of some axiomatic theory and the homomorphism
Homomorphism
In abstract algebra, a homomorphism is a structure-preserving map between two algebraic structures . The word homomorphism comes from the Greek language: ὁμός meaning "same" and μορφή meaning "shape".- Definition :The definition of homomorphism depends on the type of algebraic structure under...
s between them (in which case they are usually concrete
Concrete category
In mathematics, a concrete category is a category that is equipped with a faithful functor to the category of sets. This functor makes it possible to think of the objects of the category as sets with additional structure, and of its morphisms as structure-preserving functions...
, meaning equipped with a faithful forgetful functor
Forgetful functor
In mathematics, in the area of category theory, a forgetful functor is a type of functor. The nomenclature is suggestive of such a functor's behaviour: given some object with structure as input, some or all of the object's structure or properties is 'forgotten' in the output...
to the category Set
Category of sets
In the mathematical field of category theory, the category of sets, denoted as Set, is the category whose objects are sets. The arrows or morphisms between sets A and B are all functions from A to B...
or more generally to a suitable topos
Topos
In mathematics, a topos is a type of category that behaves like the category of sheaves of sets on a topological space...
), or they may be constructed from other more primitive categories, or they may be studied as abstract objects in their own right without regard for their provenance
Provenance
Provenance, from the French provenir, "to come from", refers to the chronology of the ownership or location of an historical object. The term was originally mostly used for works of art, but is now used in similar senses in a wide range of fields, including science and computing...
.
External links
- Stanford Encyclopedia of PhilosophyStanford Encyclopedia of PhilosophyThe Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy is a freely-accessible online encyclopedia of philosophy maintained by Stanford University. Each entry is written and maintained by an expert in the field, including professors from over 65 academic institutions worldwide...
: "Abstract Objects" -- by Gideon Rosen. - Wells, Charles, "Mathematical Objects."
- AMOF: The Amazing Mathematical Object Factory
- Mathematical Object Exhibit