Miko
Encyclopedia
is a Japanese
term that anciently meant a "female shaman, spirit medium" who conveyed oracles from kami
("spirits; gods"), and currently means a "shrine maiden; virgin consecrated to a deity" who serves at Shinto
shrines.
word miko or fujo "female shaman; shrine maiden" is usually written 巫女, compounding the kanji
fu, miko, or kannagi 巫 "shaman" and jo, onna, or me 女 "woman; female". In Chinese
, wu
nü 巫女 (or the reverse nüwu 女巫) means "female shaman; witch; sorceress". Miko was archaically written 神子 (lit. "kami
/god child") and 巫子 ("shaman child").
Miko are known by many names; Fairchild (1962:119–122) lists 26 terms for "shrine attached miko" and 43 for "non shrine attached miko". Common names are ichiko 市子 (lit. "market/town child") "female medium; fortuneteller", reibai 霊媒 (lit. "spirit go-between") "spirit medium", and itako
いたこ "(usually blind) female shaman".
English has diverse translation
equivalents for Japanese miko. While "shrine maiden" is frequently used, other equivalents are "female shaman" (aka "shamaness" or "shamanka"), "(spirit) medium
", "prophet
", "priest
ess", "witch
", or "sorceress
". Some scholars prefer the transliteration
miko over translations, and contrast Japanese "mikoism" with East Asian "shamanism". Fairchild explains:
or sibyl
in Ancient Greece
(Blacker 1975:104).
The (ca. 712) Kojiki
mytho-history contains what scholars interpret as the oldest reference to miko trance dancing. Japanese mythology
recounts a legend about the sky turning dark when the sun goddess Amaterasu Omikami
got angry with her brother Susanoo-no-Mikoto and sealed herself into the dark Amano-Iwato
cave. In order to restore light to earth, the gods devised a plan to trick Amaterasu using a mirror hung on a bejeweled sakaki
tree (which later became Shinto symbols). The goddess of revelry Ame-no-Uzume-no-Mikoto performed a shamanistic dance to lure Amaterasu out of the cave.
When Amaterasu heard the roar of gods' laughter, she came out in fascination with her mirror image, and restored sunlight. One traditional school of miko, says Kuly (2003:198) "claimed to descend from the Goddess Uzume".
Other mythical and historical examples of Japanese women identified as shamanistic miko include:
During the Nara period
(710–794) and Heian period
(794–1185), government officials tried to control miko practices.
The early Japanese miko was an important figure who associated with the ruling class. "In addition to her ritual performances of ecstatic trance", writes Kuly (2003:199), "she performed a variety of religious and political functions." For example, the Heian statesman Fujiwara no Kaneie
consulted with Kamo Shrine
miko before he made important decisions.
During the feudal Kamakura period
(1185–1333) when Japan was controlled by militaristic shogun
s,
During in the Edo period
(1603–1868), writes Groemer (2007:46), "the organizational structures and arts practiced by female shamans in eastern Japan underwent significant transformations". Miko practices were heterogeneous, working independently or in hierarchical groups, they transmitted spirit voices of the deceased, performed exorcisms to cure illness, and sold talismans and ema
plaques.
During the Meiji period
(1868–1912), authorities prohibited many shamanistic miko practices. Groemer explains,
In the 20th century, the miko was restored back to her respectable position in Japanese society. Miko are often female attendants at Shinto shrines, traditionally the daughter of a shrine's kannushi
神主 "Shinto priest". The Shinto kagura
神楽 (lit. "god-entertainment") dance ceremony, which originated with miko ritual dancing to convey divine oracles, has transformed into the popular ceremonial dance called miko-mai 巫女舞 or miko-kagura 巫女神楽.
Traditional miko props and paraphernalia (Fairchild 1962:76-78) included azusayumi
梓弓 "catalpa bow", bells, tamagushi
玉串 "offertory sakaki
-tree branches", drums, candles, altars, rice bowl of water, and the gehōbako 外法箱 (lit. "supernatural box") containing dolls, animal and human skulls, and rosaries.
Fairchild summarizes their historical role.
fortune telling, and sell souvenirs. Kuly (2003:201) describes the contemporary miko, "A far distant relative of her premodern shamanic sister, she is most probably a university student collecting a modest wage in this part-time position." The traditional attire of a miko would be a pair of red hakama
(which are long, divided trousers) or a long red slightly pleated skirt tied with a bow, a white haori (which is a kimono
jacket), and some white or red hair ribbons. In Shintoism, the color white symbolizes purity.
The ethnologist Kunio Yanagita
(1875–1962), who first studied Japanese female shamans, differentiated them (see Kawamura 2003:258–259) into jinja miko 神社巫女 "shrine shamans" who dance with bells and participate in yudate 湯立て "boiling water" rituals, "kuchiyose shamans" 口寄せ巫女 "spirit medium shamans" who speak on behalf of the deceased, and kami uba 神姥 "god women" who engage in cult worship and invocations (for instance, the Tenrikyo
founder Nakayama Miki
).
Researchers have further categorized contemporary miko in terms of their diverse traditions and practices. Fairchild (1962:62–85) grouped them into: blind itako (concentrated in north and east Japan), mostly blind okamin (north and east Japan), blind waka or owaka (northeastern Japan), moriko (north and east of Tokyo), nono (central Japan), blind zatokaka (northwest Japan), sasa hataki who tap sasa
"bamboo grass" on their faces (northeast of Tokyo), plus various family and village organizations. Kawamura (2003:263-264) divided miko or fujo by blindness
between blind ogamiya 尾上屋 "invocation specialist" or ogamisama who perform kuchiyose and spirit mediumship and sighted miko or kamisama who perform divination and invocations.
In the eclectic Shugendō
religion, male priests who practiced ecstasy often married miko (Fairchild 1962:55). Many scholars (e.g., Blacker 1975:140, Hardacre 1996, Kuly 2003:205) identify shamanic miko characteristics in Shinshūkyō
"Japanese New Religions" such as Sukyo Mahikari
, Oomoto
, and Shinmeiaishinkai
.
's 15th-century Noh
drama Aoi no Ue
, a miko named Teruhi performs an exorcism to remove the spirit of Lady Rokujo
from the body of Lady Aoi.
In the 1985 bestselling historical fantasy
novel Teito Monogatari
(Hiroshi Aramata
), the heroine Keiko Tatsumiya, is a miko who serves the guardian spirit of Taira no Masakado
. She channels the power of the bodhisattva
Kwannon to contend with harmful spirits who threaten her family and the capital Tokyo
.
Manga and anime typically portray a miko as a hero
ine who fights evil spirits or demons. Miko are frequently ascribed with magical or supernatural powers, especially divination
, and skilled in Japanese martial arts
. Examples are Kannagi: Crazy Shrine Maidens and Kannazuki no Miko
. In western role-playing games, they sometimes correspond with clerics
or white witch
es. Some romantic bishōjo video games
and visual novel
s portray miko as attractive but prim girls. Fictional Kuro miko 黒巫女 "Black/Dark Miko" are an evil counterpart to traditional miko; for instance, the manga Shrine of the Morning Mist
depicts kuro miko as proficient in demonology
and black magic
. The character Rei Hino
from Sailor Moon
is a miko in her civilian form, and is shown to use shintoist shamanistic abilities such as dispelling evil forces with an ofuda
and divining the future. In the manga
and anime
series Inuyasha
, the characters Kagome and Kikiyo are mikos, capable of shooting sacred arrows and erecting magical barriers. Reimu Hakurei, arguably the main character of the Touhou Project
series of dōjin soft
games, is a miko.
Japanese language
is a language spoken by over 130 million people in Japan and in Japanese emigrant communities. It is a member of the Japonic language family, which has a number of proposed relationships with other languages, none of which has gained wide acceptance among historical linguists .Japanese is an...
term that anciently meant a "female shaman, spirit medium" who conveyed oracles from kami
Kami
is the Japanese word for the spirits, natural forces, or essence in the Shinto faith. Although the word is sometimes translated as "god" or "deity", some Shinto scholars argue that such a translation can cause a misunderstanding of the term...
("spirits; gods"), and currently means a "shrine maiden; virgin consecrated to a deity" who serves at Shinto
Shinto
or Shintoism, also kami-no-michi, is the indigenous spirituality of Japan and the Japanese people. It is a set of practices, to be carried out diligently, to establish a connection between present day Japan and its ancient past. Shinto practices were first recorded and codified in the written...
shrines.
Word
The JapaneseJapanese language
is a language spoken by over 130 million people in Japan and in Japanese emigrant communities. It is a member of the Japonic language family, which has a number of proposed relationships with other languages, none of which has gained wide acceptance among historical linguists .Japanese is an...
word miko or fujo "female shaman; shrine maiden" is usually written 巫女, compounding the kanji
Kanji
Kanji are the adopted logographic Chinese characters hanzi that are used in the modern Japanese writing system along with hiragana , katakana , Indo Arabic numerals, and the occasional use of the Latin alphabet...
fu, miko, or kannagi 巫 "shaman" and jo, onna, or me 女 "woman; female". In Chinese
Chinese language
The Chinese language is a language or language family consisting of varieties which are mutually intelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages...
, wu
Wu (shaman)
Wu are spirit mediums who have practiced divination, prayer, sacrifice, rainmaking, and healing in Chinese traditions dating back over 3,000 years.-The word wu:...
nü 巫女 (or the reverse nüwu 女巫) means "female shaman; witch; sorceress". Miko was archaically written 神子 (lit. "kami
Kami
is the Japanese word for the spirits, natural forces, or essence in the Shinto faith. Although the word is sometimes translated as "god" or "deity", some Shinto scholars argue that such a translation can cause a misunderstanding of the term...
/god child") and 巫子 ("shaman child").
Miko are known by many names; Fairchild (1962:119–122) lists 26 terms for "shrine attached miko" and 43 for "non shrine attached miko". Common names are ichiko 市子 (lit. "market/town child") "female medium; fortuneteller", reibai 霊媒 (lit. "spirit go-between") "spirit medium", and itako
Itako
An itako is a traditional, blind, usually female shaman from northern Japan.Itako are said to have the ability to communicate with the dead, even to evil spirits due to their intense spiritual power. They also are said to have the power to remove evil spirit from one's body and mind...
いたこ "(usually blind) female shaman".
English has diverse translation
Translation
Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Whereas interpreting undoubtedly antedates writing, translation began only after the appearance of written literature; there exist partial translations of the Sumerian Epic of...
equivalents for Japanese miko. While "shrine maiden" is frequently used, other equivalents are "female shaman" (aka "shamaness" or "shamanka"), "(spirit) medium
Mediumship
Mediumship is described as a form of communication with spirits. It is a practice in religious beliefs such as Spiritualism, Spiritism, Espiritismo, Candomblé, Voodoo and Umbanda.- Concept :...
", "prophet
Prophet
In religion, a prophet, from the Greek word προφήτης profitis meaning "foreteller", is an individual who is claimed to have been contacted by the supernatural or the divine, and serves as an intermediary with humanity, delivering this newfound knowledge from the supernatural entity to other people...
", "priest
Priest
A priest is a person authorized to perform the sacred rites of a religion, especially as a mediatory agent between humans and deities. They also have the authority or power to administer religious rites; in particular, rites of sacrifice to, and propitiation of, a deity or deities...
ess", "witch
Witchcraft
Witchcraft, in historical, anthropological, religious, and mythological contexts, is the alleged use of supernatural or magical powers. A witch is a practitioner of witchcraft...
", or "sorceress
Sorcerer
-Gaming:* Sorcerer , a 2002 tabletop role playing game made by Ron Edwards* Sorcerer , a 1984 interactive fiction computer game made by Infocom...
". Some scholars prefer the transliteration
Transliteration
Transliteration is a subset of the science of hermeneutics. It is a form of translation, and is the practice of converting a text from one script into another...
miko over translations, and contrast Japanese "mikoism" with East Asian "shamanism". Fairchild explains:
Women played an important role in a region stretching from Manchuria, China, Korea and Japan to the Ryukyu Islands. In Japan these women were priests, soothsayers, magicians, prophets and shamans in the folk religion, and they were the chief performers in organized Shintoism. These women were called Miko, and the author calls the complex "mikoism" for lack of a suitable English word. (1962:57)
Historical miko
Miko traditions date back to ancient Japanese women prophets who were believed to go into trances and convey the words of the gods, comparable with the pythiaPythia
The Pythia , commonly known as the Oracle of Delphi, was the priestess at the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, located on the slopes of Mount Parnassus. The Pythia was widely credited for her prophecies inspired by Apollo. The Delphic oracle was established in the 8th century BC...
or sibyl
Sibyl
The word Sibyl comes from the Greek word σίβυλλα sibylla, meaning prophetess. The earliest oracular seeresses known as the sibyls of antiquity, "who admittedly are known only through legend" prophesied at certain holy sites, under the divine influence of a deity, originally— at Delphi and...
in Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece is a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Included in Ancient Greece is the...
(Blacker 1975:104).
The (ca. 712) Kojiki
Kojiki
is the oldest extant chronicle in Japan, dating from the early 8th century and composed by Ō no Yasumaro at the request of Empress Gemmei. The Kojiki is a collection of myths concerning the origin of the four home islands of Japan, and the Kami...
mytho-history contains what scholars interpret as the oldest reference to miko trance dancing. Japanese mythology
Japanese mythology
Japanese mythology is a system of beliefs that embraces Shinto and Buddhist traditions as well as agriculturally based folk religion. The Shinto pantheon comprises innumerable kami...
recounts a legend about the sky turning dark when the sun goddess Amaterasu Omikami
Amaterasu Omikami
, or is apart of the Japanese myth cycle and also a major deity of the Shinto religion. She is the goddess of the sun, but also of the universe. the name Amaterasu derived from Amateru meaning "shining in heaven." The meaning of her whole name, Amaterasu-ōmikami, is "the great August kami who...
got angry with her brother Susanoo-no-Mikoto and sealed herself into the dark Amano-Iwato
Amano-Iwato
literally means "The cave of the sun god" or "heavenly rock cave". In Japanese mythology, Susanoo, the Japanese god of the seas, was the one who drove Amaterasu into Ame-no-Iwato. This caused the sun to hide for a long period of time....
cave. In order to restore light to earth, the gods devised a plan to trick Amaterasu using a mirror hung on a bejeweled sakaki
Sakaki
Sakaki is a flowering evergreen tree native to warm areas of Japan, Korea and mainland China. It can reach a height of 10 m. The leaves are 6–10 cm long, smooth, oval, leathery, shiny and dark green above, yellowish-green below, with deep furrows for the leaf stem. The bark is dark reddish...
tree (which later became Shinto symbols). The goddess of revelry Ame-no-Uzume-no-Mikoto performed a shamanistic dance to lure Amaterasu out of the cave.
Her Augustness Heavenly-Alarming Female [Uzume] hanging round her the heavenly clubmoss of the Heavenly Mount Kagu as a sash, and making the heavenly spindle-tree her head-dress, and binding the leaves of the bamboo-grass of the Heavenly Mount Kagu in a posy for her hands, and laying a soundingboard before the door of the Heavenly Rock-Dwelling, and stamping till she made it resound and doing as if possessed by a Deity, and pulling out the nipples of her breasts, pushing down her skirt-string usque ad privates partes [Latin for "all the way to her private parts"]. (tr. Chamberlain 1919:64–65)
When Amaterasu heard the roar of gods' laughter, she came out in fascination with her mirror image, and restored sunlight. One traditional school of miko, says Kuly (2003:198) "claimed to descend from the Goddess Uzume".
Other mythical and historical examples of Japanese women identified as shamanistic miko include:
- Yamatohime-no-mikotoYamatohime-no-mikotois a Japanese deity figure that is said to have established Ise Shrine, where the Sun Goddess, Amaterasu Omikami is enshrined. Yamatohime-no-mikoto is recorded as being the daughter of Emperor Suinin, Japan's 11th Emperor.-Traditional historical view:...
, daughter of Emperor SuininEmperor Suinin; also known as Ikumeiribikoisachi no Mikoto; was the 11th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 29 BC–AD 70....
, founder of the Ise ShrineIse Shrineis a Shinto shrine dedicated to goddess Amaterasu-ōmikami, located in the city of Ise in Mie prefecture, Japan. Officially known simply as , Ise Jingū is in fact a shrine complex composed of a large number of Shinto shrines centered on two main shrines, and .... - Yamato-totohi-momoso-hime-no-mikoto, aunt of Emperor SujinEmperor Sujin; also known as Mimakiiribikoinie no Sumeramikoto or Hatsukunishirasu Sumeramikoto; was the tenth emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession....
, lover of a dragonJapanese dragonJapanese dragons are diverse legendary creatures in Japanese mythology and folklore. Japanese dragon myths amalgamate native legends with imported stories about dragons from China, Korea and India. The style of the dragon was heavily influenced by the Chinese dragon...
god - Empress Jingū, wife of Emperor ChūaiEmperor Chuai; also known as Tarashinakatsuhiko no Sumeramikoto; was the 14th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign, but he is conventionally considered to have reigned from 192–200....
, medium for voices of the gods - Queen Himiko, 3rd-century ruler of Wa (Japan)Wa (Japan)Japanese is the oldest recorded name of Japan. Chinese, Korean, and Japanese scribes regularly wrote Wa or Yamato "Japan" with the Chinese character 倭 until the 8th century, when the Japanese found fault with it, replacing it with 和 "harmony, peace, balance".- Historical references :The earliest...
- Izumo no OkuniIzumo no Okuniwas the originator of kabuki theater. She was believed to be a miko at the Grand Shrine of Izumo who began performing this new style of dancing, singing, and acting in the dry riverbeds of Kyoto.-Early years:...
, 16th-century founder of kabukiKabukiis classical Japanese dance-drama. Kabuki theatre is known for the stylization of its drama and for the elaborate make-up worn by some of its performers.The individual kanji characters, from left to right, mean sing , dance , and skill...
During the Nara period
Nara period
The of the history of Japan covers the years from AD 710 to 794. Empress Gemmei established the capital of Heijō-kyō . Except for 5 years , when the capital was briefly moved again, it remained the capital of Japanese civilization until Emperor Kammu established a new capital, Nagaoka-kyō, in 784...
(710–794) and Heian period
Heian period
The is the last division of classical Japanese history, running from 794 to 1185. The period is named after the capital city of Heian-kyō, or modern Kyōto. It is the period in Japanese history when Buddhism, Taoism and other Chinese influences were at their height...
(794–1185), government officials tried to control miko practices.
In 780 A.D. and in 807 A.D. official bulls against the practice of ecstasy outside of the authority of the shrines were published. These bulls were not only aimed at ecstasy, but were aimed at magicians, priests, sorcerers, etc. It was an attempt to gain complete control, while at the same time it aimed at eradicating abuses which were occurring. Fairchild (1962:53)
The early Japanese miko was an important figure who associated with the ruling class. "In addition to her ritual performances of ecstatic trance", writes Kuly (2003:199), "she performed a variety of religious and political functions." For example, the Heian statesman Fujiwara no Kaneie
Fujiwara no Kaneie
was a Japanese statesman, courtier and politician during the Heian period.-Career:Kaneie served as a minister during the reigns of Emperor En'yū, Emperor Kazan and Emperor Go-Ichijō....
consulted with Kamo Shrine
Kamo Shrine
is a general term for an important Shinto sanctuary complex on both banks of the Kamo River in northeast Kyoto. It is centered on two shrines. The two shrines, an upper and a lower, lie in a corner of the old capital which was known as the due to traditional geomancy beliefs that the north-east...
miko before he made important decisions.
During the feudal Kamakura period
Kamakura period
The is a period of Japanese history that marks the governance by the Kamakura Shogunate, officially established in 1192 in Kamakura by the first shogun Minamoto no Yoritomo....
(1185–1333) when Japan was controlled by militaristic shogun
Shogun
A was one of the hereditary military dictators of Japan from 1192 to 1867. In this period, the shoguns, or their shikken regents , were the de facto rulers of Japan though they were nominally appointed by the emperor...
s,
the miko was forced into a state of mendicancy as the shrines and temples that provided her with a livelihood fell into bankruptcy. Disassociated from a religious context, her performance moved further away from a religious milieu and more toward one of a non-ecclesiastical nature. The travelling miko, known as the aruki miko, became associated with prostitution. (Kuly 2003:199)
During in the Edo period
Edo period
The , or , is a division of Japanese history which was ruled by the shoguns of the Tokugawa family, running from 1603 to 1868. The political entity of this period was the Tokugawa shogunate....
(1603–1868), writes Groemer (2007:46), "the organizational structures and arts practiced by female shamans in eastern Japan underwent significant transformations". Miko practices were heterogeneous, working independently or in hierarchical groups, they transmitted spirit voices of the deceased, performed exorcisms to cure illness, and sold talismans and ema
Ema (Shinto)
are small wooden plaques on which Shinto worshippers write their prayers or wishes. The ema are then left hanging up at the shrine, where the kami receive them. They bear various pictures, often of animals or other Shinto imagery, and many have the word gan'i , meaning "wish", written along the side...
plaques.
During the Meiji period
Meiji period
The , also known as the Meiji era, is a Japanese era which extended from September 1868 through July 1912. This period represents the first half of the Empire of Japan.- Meiji Restoration and the emperor :...
(1868–1912), authorities prohibited many shamanistic miko practices. Groemer explains,
After 1867 the Meiji government's desire to create a form of state Shinto headed by the emperor—the shaman-in-chief of the nation—meant that Shinto needed to be segregated from both Buddhism and folk-religious beliefs. As a result, official discourse increasingly repeated negative views of miko and their institutions. (2007:44)
In the 20th century, the miko was restored back to her respectable position in Japanese society. Miko are often female attendants at Shinto shrines, traditionally the daughter of a shrine's kannushi
Kannushi
A , also called , is the person responsible for the maintenance of a Shinto shrine as well as for leading worship of a given kami. The characters for kannushi are sometimes also read jinshu with the same meaning....
神主 "Shinto priest". The Shinto kagura
Kagura
- Fictional characters :*Kagura Tsuchimiya, the protagonist of Ga-rei*Kagura, an InuYasha character*Kagura Sohma , a Fruits Basket character*Kagura, an Azumanga Daioh character*Ten'nōzu Kagura, a Speed Grapher character...
神楽 (lit. "god-entertainment") dance ceremony, which originated with miko ritual dancing to convey divine oracles, has transformed into the popular ceremonial dance called miko-mai 巫女舞 or miko-kagura 巫女神楽.
Traditional miko props and paraphernalia (Fairchild 1962:76-78) included azusayumi
Azusayumi
An is a Japanese bow made from the wood of the catalpa tree . Playing an azusayumi forms part of some Shinto rituals.In Japanese poetry, the word azusayumi functions as a makurakotoba ....
梓弓 "catalpa bow", bells, tamagushi
Tamagushi
is a form of Shinto offering made from a sakaki-tree branch decorated with shide strips of washi paper, silk, or cotton. At Japanese weddings, funerals, miyamairi and other ceremonies at Shinto shrines, tamagushi are ritually presented to the kami by parishioners or kannushi priests.-Linguistic...
玉串 "offertory sakaki
Sakaki
Sakaki is a flowering evergreen tree native to warm areas of Japan, Korea and mainland China. It can reach a height of 10 m. The leaves are 6–10 cm long, smooth, oval, leathery, shiny and dark green above, yellowish-green below, with deep furrows for the leaf stem. The bark is dark reddish...
-tree branches", drums, candles, altars, rice bowl of water, and the gehōbako 外法箱 (lit. "supernatural box") containing dolls, animal and human skulls, and rosaries.
Fairchild summarizes their historical role.
Mikos performed in Japan throughout history. The term miko means possession by gods and spirits, and while originally perhaps all mikos employed ecstasy, the term gradually came to include many groups which did not use ecstasy. Mikos performed both within the shrines and outside of the shrines, divining, driving out evil spirits, performing sacred dances, etc., the purpose of which was to serve mankind by preserving life and bringing happiness to man. (1962:61)
Contemporary miko
Modern miko are often seen at Shinto shrines, where they assist with shrine functions, perform ceremonial dances, offer omikujiOmikuji
Omikuji are random fortunes written on strips of paper at Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples in Japan. Literally "sacred lot", these are usually received by making a small offering and randomly choosing one from a box, hoping for the resulting fortune to be good...
fortune telling, and sell souvenirs. Kuly (2003:201) describes the contemporary miko, "A far distant relative of her premodern shamanic sister, she is most probably a university student collecting a modest wage in this part-time position." The traditional attire of a miko would be a pair of red hakama
Hakama
are a type of traditional Japanese clothing. They were originally worn only by men, but today they are worn by both sexes. Hakama are tied at the waist and fall approximately to the ankles. Hakama are worn over a kimono ....
(which are long, divided trousers) or a long red slightly pleated skirt tied with a bow, a white haori (which is a kimono
Kimono
The is a Japanese traditional garment worn by men, women and children. The word "kimono", which literally means a "thing to wear" , has come to denote these full-length robes...
jacket), and some white or red hair ribbons. In Shintoism, the color white symbolizes purity.
The ethnologist Kunio Yanagita
Kunio Yanagita
was a Japanese scholar who is often known as the father of Japanese native folkloristics, or minzokugaku.He was born in Fukusaki, Hyōgo Prefecture. After graduating with a degree in law from Tokyo Imperial University, he became employed as a bureaucrat in the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce...
(1875–1962), who first studied Japanese female shamans, differentiated them (see Kawamura 2003:258–259) into jinja miko 神社巫女 "shrine shamans" who dance with bells and participate in yudate 湯立て "boiling water" rituals, "kuchiyose shamans" 口寄せ巫女 "spirit medium shamans" who speak on behalf of the deceased, and kami uba 神姥 "god women" who engage in cult worship and invocations (for instance, the Tenrikyo
Tenrikyo
Tenrikyo is a monotheistic religion originating in revelations to a 19th-century Japanese woman named Nakayama Miki, known as Oyasama by followers...
founder Nakayama Miki
Nakayama Miki
was the Japanese foundress of Tenrikyo who is worshiped by that religion as the Shrine of God the Parent. Tenrikyo is, arguably, the largest current religion to have a woman founder. The official Tenrikyo biography states she was a holy woman born to a wealthy farming family in what is now Nara...
).
Researchers have further categorized contemporary miko in terms of their diverse traditions and practices. Fairchild (1962:62–85) grouped them into: blind itako (concentrated in north and east Japan), mostly blind okamin (north and east Japan), blind waka or owaka (northeastern Japan), moriko (north and east of Tokyo), nono (central Japan), blind zatokaka (northwest Japan), sasa hataki who tap sasa
Sasa (genus)
Sasa is a genus of running bamboo. These species have at most one branch per node....
"bamboo grass" on their faces (northeast of Tokyo), plus various family and village organizations. Kawamura (2003:263-264) divided miko or fujo by blindness
Blindness
Blindness is the condition of lacking visual perception due to physiological or neurological factors.Various scales have been developed to describe the extent of vision loss and define blindness...
between blind ogamiya 尾上屋 "invocation specialist" or ogamisama who perform kuchiyose and spirit mediumship and sighted miko or kamisama who perform divination and invocations.
In the eclectic Shugendō
Shugendo
is a highly syncretic Buddhic religion or sect and mystical-spiritual tradition which originated in pre-Feudal Japan, in which enlightenment is equated with attaining oneness with the . This perception of experiential "awakening" is obtained through the understanding of the relationship between...
religion, male priests who practiced ecstasy often married miko (Fairchild 1962:55). Many scholars (e.g., Blacker 1975:140, Hardacre 1996, Kuly 2003:205) identify shamanic miko characteristics in Shinshūkyō
Shinshukyo
is a Japanese term used to describe domestic new religious movements. They are also known as in Japanese, and are most often called simply Japanese new religions in English. Japanese theologians classify all religious organizations founded since the middle of the 19th century as Shinshūkyō. Thus,...
"Japanese New Religions" such as Sukyo Mahikari
Sukyo Mahikari
Sukyo Mahikari is a nonprofit spiritual and community service organization with centers in more than 75 countries. Originally founded by Kotama Okada in 1959 under the name L.H. Yokoshi Tomo no Kai, Sukyo Mahikari was registered on 23 June 1978 by Keishu Okada as part of an amicable settlement...
, Oomoto
Oomoto
Oomoto also known as Oomoto-kyo , is a sect, often categorised as a new Japanese religion originated from Shinto; it was founded in 1892 by Deguchi Nao...
, and Shinmeiaishinkai
Shinmeiaishinkai
is a Japanese new religious movement founded by Komatsu Kiyoko in 1976. Komatsu was born in Yokohama, Japan in 1928; her mother was the successor to a hereditary line of Shinto priests. In 1976, an acquaintance of Komatsu's made a prophecy that a Shinto kami was about to descend to Earth...
.
In popular culture
In Zeami MotokiyoZeami Motokiyo
Zeami Motokiyo , also called Kanze Motokiyo , was a Japanese aesthetician, actor and playwright.-Acting:...
's 15th-century Noh
Noh
, or - derived from the Sino-Japanese word for "skill" or "talent" - is a major form of classical Japanese musical drama that has been performed since the 14th century. Many characters are masked, with men playing male and female roles. Traditionally, a Noh "performance day" lasts all day and...
drama Aoi no Ue
Aoi no Ue (play)
Aoi no Ue is a Noh play based on an episode in the Tale of Genji and named for Lady Aoi, one of the novel's characters. It is an example of the fourth category of "miscellaneous" Noh plays. Aoi no Ue was the first of many Noh plays based on the Tale of Genji...
, a miko named Teruhi performs an exorcism to remove the spirit of Lady Rokujo
Lady Rokujo
Lady Rokujo is a fictional character in The Tale of Genji . She is the widow of Prince Zembo and a longtime mistress of Genji. She has great pride, and her jealousy is so strong that her wandering spirit kills Yugao, Lady Aoi and attacks Murasaki....
from the body of Lady Aoi.
In the 1985 bestselling historical fantasy
Historical fantasy
Historical fantasy is a sub-genre of fantasy and related to historical fiction, which makes use of specific elements of real world history. It is used as an umbrella term for the sword and sorcery genre and sometimes, if fantasy is involved, the sword-and-sandal genre too...
novel Teito Monogatari
Teito Monogatari
is a massive Japanese historical fantasy epic written by Hiroshi Aramata.-Overview:The story is a retelling of the history of Edo from an occultist perspective. The premise is based on the idea that the curse of Taira no Masakado greatly influenced the city's history from its inception to the...
(Hiroshi Aramata
Hiroshi Aramata
is a Japanese author, translator, and screenplay writer, as well as a specialist in natural history and cartography.His most popular novel was Teito Monogatari , which has sold over 3.5 million copies in Japan alone. He also wrote Alexander Senki, a novel which eventually evolved into the anime...
), the heroine Keiko Tatsumiya, is a miko who serves the guardian spirit of Taira no Masakado
Taira no Masakado
was a samurai in the Heian period of Japan, who led one of the largest insurgent forces in the period against the central government of Kyoto.-History:...
. She channels the power of the bodhisattva
Bodhisattva
In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is either an enlightened existence or an enlightenment-being or, given the variant Sanskrit spelling satva rather than sattva, "heroic-minded one for enlightenment ." The Pali term has sometimes been translated as "wisdom-being," although in modern publications, and...
Kwannon to contend with harmful spirits who threaten her family and the capital Tokyo
Tokyo
, ; officially , is one of the 47 prefectures of Japan. Tokyo is the capital of Japan, the center of the Greater Tokyo Area, and the largest metropolitan area of Japan. It is the seat of the Japanese government and the Imperial Palace, and the home of the Japanese Imperial Family...
.
Manga and anime typically portray a miko as a hero
Hero
A hero , in Greek mythology and folklore, was originally a demigod, their cult being one of the most distinctive features of ancient Greek religion...
ine who fights evil spirits or demons. Miko are frequently ascribed with magical or supernatural powers, especially divination
Divination
Divination is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an occultic standardized process or ritual...
, and skilled in Japanese martial arts
Japanese martial arts
Japanese martial arts refers to the enormous variety of martial arts native to Japan. At least three Japanese terms are often used interchangeably with the English phrase "Japanese martial arts": , literally meaning "martial way", , which has no perfect translation but means something like science,...
. Examples are Kannagi: Crazy Shrine Maidens and Kannazuki no Miko
Kannazuki no Miko
is a manga series created by the duo Kaishaku. The series was serialized in fourteen chapters by Kadokawa Shoten and in Shōnen Ace in 2004 and 2005, and collected in two bound volumes. The series was adapted as an anime television series broadcast in 12 episodes on TNK between October and December...
. In western role-playing games, they sometimes correspond with clerics
Cleric (character class)
The Cleric, Priest, or Bishop is a character class in Dungeons & Dragons and other fantasy role-playing games. The cleric is a healer, usually a priest and a holy warrior, originally modeled on or inspired by the Military Orders...
or white witch
White witch
White witch and good witch are qualifying terms in English used to distinguish practitioners of folk magic for benevolent purposes from practitioners of malevolent witchcraft...
es. Some romantic bishōjo video games
Bishojo game
A , or , is "a type of Japanese video game centered on interactions with attractive anime-style girls". These games are a sub-genre of dating sims targeted towards a male audience....
and visual novel
Visual novel
A is an interactive fiction game featuring mostly static graphics, usually with anime-style art, or occasionally live-action stills or video footage...
s portray miko as attractive but prim girls. Fictional Kuro miko 黒巫女 "Black/Dark Miko" are an evil counterpart to traditional miko; for instance, the manga Shrine of the Morning Mist
Shrine of the Morning Mist
is a Japanese manga written and illustrated by Hiroki Ugawa. The manga was serialized in Shōnen Gahōsha's Young King Ours. The manga is licensed in North America by Tokyopop and in Australia and New Zealand by Madman Entertainment. The manga was adapted into an anime series, directed by Yuji Moriyama...
depicts kuro miko as proficient in demonology
Demonology
Demonology is the systematic study of demons or beliefs about demons. It is the branch of theology relating to superhuman beings who are not gods. It deals both with benevolent beings that have no circle of worshippers or so limited a circle as to be below the rank of gods, and with malevolent...
and black magic
Black magic
Black magic is the type of magic that draws on assumed malevolent powers or is used with the intention to kill, steal, injure, cause misfortune or destruction, or for personal gain without regard to harmful consequences. As a term, "black magic" is normally used by those that do not approve of its...
. The character Rei Hino
Rei Hino
is one of the central characters in the Sailor Moon metaseries. Her real name is , a Shinto priestess and schoolgirl who can transform into one of the series' specialized heroines, the Sailor Senshi....
from Sailor Moon
Sailor Moon
Sailor Moon, known as , is a media franchise created by manga artist Naoko Takeuchi. Fred Patten credits Takeuchi with popularizing the concept of a team of magical girls, and Paul Gravett credits the series with "revitalizing" the magical-girl genre itself...
is a miko in her civilian form, and is shown to use shintoist shamanistic abilities such as dispelling evil forces with an ofuda
Ofuda
Ofuda, is a gofu or a talisman issued by a Shinto shrine. It may also be called shinpu . It is made by inscribing the name of a kami and the name of the Shinto shrine or of a representative of the kami on a strip of paper, wood, cloth, or metal.It is to be renewed yearly, typically before the end...
and divining the future. In the manga
Manga
Manga is the Japanese word for "comics" and consists of comics and print cartoons . In the West, the term "manga" has been appropriated to refer specifically to comics created in Japan, or by Japanese authors, in the Japanese language and conforming to the style developed in Japan in the late 19th...
and anime
Anime
is the Japanese abbreviated pronunciation of "animation". The definition sometimes changes depending on the context. In English-speaking countries, the term most commonly refers to Japanese animated cartoons....
series Inuyasha
InuYasha
, also known as , is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Rumiko Takahashi. It premiered in Weekly Shōnen Sunday on November 13, 1996 and concluded on June 18, 2008...
, the characters Kagome and Kikiyo are mikos, capable of shooting sacred arrows and erecting magical barriers. Reimu Hakurei, arguably the main character of the Touhou Project
Touhou Project
The , also known as Toho Project or Project Shrine Maiden, is a Japanese dōjin game series focused on bullet hell shooters made by the one-man developer Team Shanghai Alice, whose sole member, known as ZUN, is responsible for all the graphics, music, and programming for the most part...
series of dōjin soft
Dojin soft
, also sometimes called , are video games created by Japanese hobbyists or hobbyist groups , more for fun than for profit; essentially, the Japanese equivalent of independent video games. Most of them are based on pre-existing material, but some are entirely original creations...
games, is a miko.
External links
- Miko, Encyclopedia of Shinto entry