Particle detector
Encyclopedia
Particle physics
Particle physics is a branch of physics that studies the existence and interactions of particles that are the constituents of what is usually referred to as matter or radiation. In current understanding, particles are excitations of quantum fields and interact following their dynamics...
, nuclear physics
Nuclear physics
Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies the building blocks and interactions of atomic nuclei. The most commonly known applications of nuclear physics are nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons technology, but the research has provided application in many fields, including those...
, and nuclear engineering
Nuclear engineering
Nuclear engineering is the branch of engineering concerned with the application of the breakdown as well as the fusion of atomic nuclei and/or the application of other sub-atomic physics, based on the principles of nuclear physics...
, a particle detector, also known as a radiation detector, is a device used to detect, track, and/or identify high-energy particle
Elementary particle
In particle physics, an elementary particle or fundamental particle is a particle not known to have substructure; that is, it is not known to be made up of smaller particles. If an elementary particle truly has no substructure, then it is one of the basic building blocks of the universe from which...
s, such as those produced by nuclear decay, cosmic radiation, or reactions in a particle accelerator
Particle accelerator
A particle accelerator is a device that uses electromagnetic fields to propel charged particles to high speeds and to contain them in well-defined beams. An ordinary CRT television set is a simple form of accelerator. There are two basic types: electrostatic and oscillating field accelerators.In...
. Modern detectors are also used as calorimeters to measure the energy of the detected radiation. They may also be used to measure other attributes such as momentum, spin, charge etc. of the particles.
Description
Detectors designed for modern accelerators are huge, both in size and in cost. The term counterCounter
In digital logic and computing, a counter is a device which stores the number of times a particular event or process has occurred, often in relationship to a clock signal.- Electronic counters :...
is often used instead of detector, when the detector counts the particles but does not resolve its energy or ionization. Particle detectors can also usually track ionizing radiation (high energy photon
Photon
In physics, a photon is an elementary particle, the quantum of the electromagnetic interaction and the basic unit of light and all other forms of electromagnetic radiation. It is also the force carrier for the electromagnetic force...
s or even visible light
Light
Light or visible light is electromagnetic radiation that is visible to the human eye, and is responsible for the sense of sight. Visible light has wavelength in a range from about 380 nanometres to about 740 nm, with a frequency range of about 405 THz to 790 THz...
). If their main purpose is radiation measurement, they are called radiation detectors, but as photons are also (massless) particles, the term particle detector is still correct
.
Examples and types
Many of the detectors invented and used so far are ionization detectors (of which gaseous ionization detectors and semiconductor detectorSemiconductor detector
This article is about particle detectors. For information about semiconductor detectors in radio, see Diode#Semiconductor_diodes, rectifier, detector and cat's-whisker detector....
s are most typical) and scintillation detectors; but other, completely different principles have also been applied, like Čerenkov light and transition radiation.
- Bubble chamberBubble chamberA bubble chamber is a vessel filled with a superheated transparent liquid used to detect electrically charged particles moving through it. It was invented in 1952 by Donald A. Glaser, for which he was awarded the 1960 Nobel Prize in Physics...
- Wilson cloud chamber (diffusion chamber)Cloud chamberThe cloud chamber, also known as the Wilson chamber, is a particle detector used for detecting ionizing radiation. In its most basic form, a cloud chamber is a sealed environment containing a supersaturated vapor of water or alcohol. When a charged particle interacts with the mixture, it ionizes it...
- Photographic plates
Detectors for Radiation Protection
- DosimeterDosimeterDosimeters measure an individual's or an object'sexposure to something in the environment — particularly to a hazard inflicting cumulative impact over long periods of time, or over a lifetime...
- ElectroscopeElectroscopeAn electroscope is an early scientific instrument that is used to detect the presence and magnitude of electric charge on a body. It was the first electrical measuring instrument. The first electroscope, a pivoted needle called the versorium, was invented by British physician William Gilbert...
(miniature electroscopes are used as portable dosimeters)
Commonly used detectors for Particle and Nuclear Physics
- Gaseous ionization detectorsGaseous ionization detectorsIn particle physics, gaseous ionization detectors are detectors designed to seek the presence of particles . If a particle has enough energy to ionize a gas atom or molecule, the resulting electrons and ions cause a current flow which can be measured in different ways...
- Ionization chamberIonization chamberThe ionization chamber is the simplest of all gas-filled radiation detectors, and is used for the detection or measurement of ionizing radiation...
- Proportional counterProportional counterA proportional counter is a measurement device to count particles of ionizing radiation and measure their energy.A proportional counter is a type of gaseous ionization detector. Its operation is similar to that of a Geiger-Müller counter, but uses a lower operating voltage. An inert gas is used to...
- Multiwire Proportional Chamber
- Drift chamber
- Time projection chamberTime projection chamberIn physics, a time projection chamber is a particle detector invented by David R. Nygren, an American physicist, at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory in the late 1970s...
- Geiger-Müller tubeGeiger-Müller tubeA Geiger–Müller tube is the sensing element of a Geiger counter instrument that can detect a single particle of ionizing radiation, and typically produce an audible click for each. It was named for Hans Geiger who invented the device in 1908, and Walther Müller who collaborated with Geiger in...
- Spark chamber
- Ionization chamber
- Solid-state detectors
- semiconductor detectorSemiconductor detectorThis article is about particle detectors. For information about semiconductor detectors in radio, see Diode#Semiconductor_diodes, rectifier, detector and cat's-whisker detector....
s and variants including CCDCharge-coupled deviceA charge-coupled device is a device for the movement of electrical charge, usually from within the device to an area where the charge can be manipulated, for example conversion into a digital value. This is achieved by "shifting" the signals between stages within the device one at a time...
s - solid-state track detectorSolid state nuclear track detectorA solid-state nuclear track detector or SSNTD is a section of a solid material uncovered to nuclear radiation , etched, and inspected microscopically...
s - Cherenkov detectorCherenkov detectorA Cherenkov detector is a particle detector using the mass-dependent threshold energy of Cherenkov radiation. This allows a discrimination between a lighter particle and a heavier particle ....
- RICH (Ring Imaging Cherenkov Detector)
- Scintillation counterScintillation counterA scintillation counter measures ionizing radiation. The sensor, called a scintillator, consists of a transparent crystal, usually phosphor, plastic , or organic liquid that fluoresces when struck by ionizing radiation. A sensitive photomultiplier tube measures the light from the crystal...
and associated PhotomultiplierPhotomultiplierPhotomultiplier tubes , members of the class of vacuum tubes, and more specifically phototubes, are extremely sensitive detectors of light in the ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum...
or PhotodiodePhotodiodeA photodiode is a type of photodetector capable of converting light into either current or voltage, depending upon the mode of operation.The common, traditional solar cell used to generateelectric solar power is a large area photodiode....
/ Avalanche photodiodeAvalanche photodiodeAn avalanche photodiode is a highly sensitive semiconductor electronic device that exploits the photoelectric effect to convert light to electricity. APDs can be thought of as photodetectors that provide a built-in first stage of gain through avalanche multiplication. From a functional standpoint,...
- Lucas cell
- Time of flight detectorTime of flight detectorA time of flight detector is a particle detector which can discriminate between a lighter and a heavier elementary particle of same momentum using their time of flight between two scintillators. The first of the scintillators activates a clock upon being hit while the other stops the clock upon...
- Semiconductor detectorSemiconductor detectorThis article is about particle detectors. For information about semiconductor detectors in radio, see Diode#Semiconductor_diodes, rectifier, detector and cat's-whisker detector....
- Silicon Vertex Detector
- Transition radiation detectorTransition radiation detectorA transition radiation detector is a particle detector using the \gamma-dependent threshold of transition radiation in a stratified material. It contains many layers of materials with different indices of refraction. At each interface between materials, the probability of transition radiation...
- semiconductor detector
- CalorimetersCalorimeter (particle physics)In particle physics, a calorimeter is an experimental apparatus that measures the energy of particles. Most particles enter the calorimeter and initiate a particle shower and the particles' energy is deposited in the calorimeter, collected, and measured. The energy may be measured in its...
- Microchannel plate detectors
- Neutron detectorNeutron detectionNeutron detection is the effective detection of neutrons entering a well-positioned detector. There are two key aspects to effective neutron detection: hardware and software. Detection hardware refers to the kind of neutron detector used and to the electronics used in the detection setup...
s
Modern detectors
Modern detectors in particle physics combine several of the above elements in layers much like an onionOnion
The onion , also known as the bulb onion, common onion and garden onion, is the most widely cultivated species of the genus Allium. The genus Allium also contains a number of other species variously referred to as onions and cultivated for food, such as the Japanese bunching onion The onion...
.
At colliders
- At CERNCERNThe European Organization for Nuclear Research , known as CERN , is an international organization whose purpose is to operate the world's largest particle physics laboratory, which is situated in the northwest suburbs of Geneva on the Franco–Swiss border...
- for the LHCLarge Hadron ColliderThe Large Hadron Collider is the world's largest and highest-energy particle accelerator. It is expected to address some of the most fundamental questions of physics, advancing the understanding of the deepest laws of nature....
- CMSCompact Muon SolenoidThe Compact Muon Solenoid experiment is one of two large general-purpose particle physics detectors built on the proton-proton Large Hadron Collider at CERN in Switzerland and France. Approximately 3,600 people from 183 scientific institutes, representing 38 countries form the CMS collaboration...
- ATLAS
- ALICEA Large Ion Collider ExperimentALICE is one of the six detector experiments at the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. The other five are: ATLAS, CMS, TOTEM, LHCb, and LHCf. ALICE is optimized to study heavy ion collisions. Pb-Pb nuclei collisions will be studied at a centre of mass energy of 2.76 TeV per nucleon...
- LHCbLHCbLHCb is one of six particle physics detector experiments collecting data at the Large Hadron Collider accelerator at CERN. LHCb is a specialized b-physics experiment, that is measuring the parameters of CP violation in the interactions of b-hadrons...
- CMS
- for the LEPLarge Electron-Positron ColliderThe Large Electron–Positron Collider was one of the largest particle accelerators ever constructed.It was built at CERN, a multi-national centre for research in nuclear and particle physics near Geneva, Switzerland. LEP was a circular collider with a circumference of 27 kilometres built in a...
- for the SPSSuper Proton SynchrotronThe Super Proton Synchrotron is a particle accelerator of the synchrotron type at CERN. It is housed in a circular tunnel, in circumference, straddling the border of France and Switzerland near Geneva, Switzerland. The SPS was designed by a team led by John Adams, director-general of what was...
- The COMPASS ExperimentCOMPASS experimentThe NA58 experiment, or COMPASS is a fixed-target particle physics experiment at the Super Proton Synchrotron, a particle accelerator at the European Organization for Nuclear Research...
- Gargamelle
- NA49
- The COMPASS Experiment
- for the LHC
- At FermilabFermilabFermi National Accelerator Laboratory , located just outside Batavia, Illinois, near Chicago, is a US Department of Energy national laboratory specializing in high-energy particle physics...
- At DESYDESYThe DESY is the biggest German research center for particle physics, with sites in Hamburg and Zeuthen....
- for HERA
- H1H1 (particle detector)H1 is a particle detector in operation at HERA in DESY, Hamburg. It began operating together with HERA in 1992. Leptons are collided with protons by HERA in the interaction point of H1. H1 is operated by an internationalcollaboration of about 400 physicists from 42 institutes in 15 countries...
- HERA-BHERA-BHERA-B was an innovative, but ultimately unsuccessful, particle physics detector of the HERA accelerator at DESY.Its primary aim was to measure CP violation in the decays of heavy B-mesons in the late 1990s, several years ahead of the Large Hadron Collider and B Factory programs...
- HERMESHERMES experimentHERMES is an experiment being conducted using the HERA particle accelerator located at DESY in Hamburg. The experiment's goal is to investigate the quark-gluon structure of matter by examining how a nucleon's constituents affect its spin...
- ZEUSZeus (particle detector)ZEUS was a particle detector that operated on the HERA particle accelerator at DESY, Hamburg. It began running together with HERA in 1992 and was functional until HERA was decommissioned in June 2007...
- H1
- for HERA
- At BNLBrookhaven National LaboratoryBrookhaven National Laboratory , is a United States national laboratory located in Upton, New York on Long Island, and was formally established in 1947 at the site of Camp Upton, a former U.S. Army base...
- At SLAC
- for the PeP-II
- BaBarBaBar experimentThe BaBar experiment, or simply BaBar, is an international collaboration of more than 500 physicists and engineers studying the subatomic world at energies of approximately ten times the rest mass of a proton . Its design was motivated by the investigation of CP violation...
- BaBar
- for the SLC
- for the PeP-II
- At CornellCornell UniversityCornell University is an Ivy League university located in Ithaca, New York, United States. It is a private land-grant university, receiving annual funding from the State of New York for certain educational missions...
- for CESRCornell Electron Storage RingThe Cornell Electron Storage Ring is an electron-positron collider at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, United States. The CLEO and CUSB particle detectors collected data at CESR, and the CHESS facility used the synchrotron radiation to perform a variety of studies.CESR was built in the...
- CLEOCLEO (particle detector)CLEO was a general purpose particle detector at the Cornell Electron Storage Ring , and the name of the collaboration of physicists who operated the detector. The name CLEO is not an acronym; it is short for Cleopatra and was chosen to go with CESR . CESR was a particle accelerator designed to...
- CUSBCUSBCUSB was a particle detector at the Cornell Electron Storage Ring. CUSB, along with CLEO, confirmed the existence of the Υ and discovered the Υ....
- CLEO
- for CESR
- At BINPBudker Institute of Nuclear PhysicsThe Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics is one of the major centres of advanced study of nuclear physics in Russia. It is located in the Siberian town Akademgorodok, on Academician Lavrentiev Avenue. The institute was founded by Gersh Itskovich Budker in 1959...
- Others
- MECO from UC Irvine
Without colliders
- Super-KamiokandeSuper-KamiokandeSuper-Kamiokande is a neutrino observatory which is under Mount Kamioka near the city of Hida, Gifu Prefecture, Japan...
- AMANDAAntarctic Muon And Neutrino Detector ArrayThe Antarctic Muon And Neutrino Detector Array is a neutrino telescope located beneath the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station. In 2005, after nine years of operation, AMANDA officially became part of its successor project, the IceCube Neutrino Observatory.AMANDA consists of optical modules, each...
- CMDSCryogenic Dark Matter SearchThe Cryogenic Dark Matter Search is a series of experiments designed to directly detect particle dark matter in the form of WIMPs. Using an array of semiconductor detectors at millikelvin temperatures, CDMS has set the most sensitive limits to date on the interactions of WIMP dark matter with...
External articles and references
Filmstrips- "Radiation detectors". H. M. Stone Productions, Schloat. Tarrytown, N.Y., Prentice-Hall Media, 1972.
General Information