Sarcoscypha coccinea
Encyclopedia
Sarcoscypha coccinea, commonly known as the scarlet elf cup, or the scarlet cup, is a species of fungus
in the Sarcoscyphaceae
family of the Pezizales
order. The fungus, widely distributed in the northern hemisphere
, has been found in Africa, Asia, Europe, North and South America, and Australia. The type species
of the genus Sarcoscypha
, it has been known by many names since its first appearance in the scientific literature in 1772. Phylogenetic analysis shows the species to be most closely related to other Sarcoscypha species that contain numerous small oil droplets in their spores, such as the North Atlantic island species S. macaronesica. Due to similar physical appearances and sometimes overlapping distributions, S. coccinea has often been confused with S. occidentalis
, S. austriaca
, and S. dudleyi
.
The saprobic fungus grows on decaying sticks and branches in damp spots on forest floors, generally buried under leaf litter
or in the soil. The cup-shaped fruit bodies
are usually produced during the cooler months of winter and early spring. The brilliant red interior of the cups—from which both the common
and scientific names are derived—contrasts with the lighter-colored exterior. The edibility of the fruit bodies is not clearly established, but its small size, tough texture and insubstantial fruitings would dissuade most people from collecting for the table. The fungus has been used medicinally by the Oneida
Indians, and also as a colorful component of table decorations in England. The species Molliardiomyces eucoccinea is an imperfect form of the fungus that lacks a sexually reproductive
stage in its life cycle
.
in 1772. Other early names include Peziza coccinea (Nikolaus Joseph von Jacquin
, 1774) and Peziza dichroa (Theodor Holmskjold
, 1799). Although some authors in older literature have applied the generic name Plectania
to the taxon following Karl Fuckel's
1870 name change (e.g. Seaver, 1928; Kanouse, 1948; Nannfeldt, 1949; Le Gal, 1953), that name is now used for a fungus with brownish-black fruit bodies. Sarcoscypha coccinea was given its current name by Jean Baptiste Émil Lambotte in 1889. Obligate synonyms
(different names for the same species based on one type) include Lachnea coccinea Gillet
(1880), Macroscyphus coccineus Gray
(1821), and Peziza dichroa Holmskjold
(1799). Taxonomic
synonyms (different names for the same species, based on different types) include Peziza aurantia Schumacher
(1803), Peziza aurantiaca Persoon
(1822), Peziza coccinea Jacquin
(1774), Helvella coccinea Schaeffer (1774), Lachnea coccinea Phillips (1887), Geopyxis coccinea Massee
(1895), Sarcoscypha coccinea Saccardo
ex Durand (1900), Plectania coccinea (Fuckel
ex Seaver
), and Peziza cochleata Batsch (1783).
Sarcoscypha coccinea is the type species
of the genus Sarcoscypha, having been first explicitly designated as such in 1931 by Frederick Edward Clements and Cornelius Lott Shear
. A 1990 publication revealed that the genus name Sarcoscypha had been used previously by Carl F.P. von Martius
as the name of a tribe
in the genus Peziza
; according to the rules of Botanical Nomenclature, this meant that the generic name Peziza had priority over Sarcoscypha. To address the taxonomical
dilemma, the genus name Sarcoscypha was conserved
against Peziza, with S. coccinea as the type species, to "avoid the creation of a new generic name for the scarlet cups and also to avoid the disadvantageous loss of a generic name widely used in the popular and scientific literature". The specific epithet coccinea is derived from the Latin word meaning "deep red". The species is commonly
known as the "scarlet elf cup" or the "scarlet cup fungus".
S. coccinea var. jurana was described by Jean Boudier
(1903) as a variety of the species having a brighter and more orange-colored fruit body, and with flattened or blunt-ended ascospores. Today it is known as the distinct species S. jurana. S. coccinea var. albida, named by George Edward Massee
in 1903 (as Geopyxis coccinea var. albida), has a cream-colored rather than red interior surface, but is otherwise identical to the typical variety.
Within the large area that includes the temperate
to alpine
-boreal
zone of the northern hemisphere
(Europe and North America), only S. coccinea had been recognized until the 1980s. However, it had been known since the early 1900s that there existed several macroscopically indistinguishable taxa
with various microscopic differences: the distribution and number of oil droplets in fresh spores; germination
behavior; and spore shape. Detailed analysis and comparison of fresh specimens revealed that what had been collectively called "S. coccinea" actually consisted of four distinct species: S. austriaca, S. coccinea, S. dudleyi, and S. jurana.
The phylogenetic relationships in the genus Sarcoscypha were analyzed by Francis Harrington in the late 1990s. His cladistic
analysis combined comparisons of the sequences of the internal transcribed spacer
in the non-functional RNA
with fifteen traditional morphological
characteristics, such as spore features, fruit body shape, and degree of curliness of the "hairs" that form the tomentum. Based on his analysis, S. coccinea is part of a clade
that includes the species S. austriaca, S. macaronesica, S. knixoniana and S. humberiana. All of these Sarcoscypha species have numerous, small oil droplets in their spores. Its closest relative, S. macaronesica, is found on the Canary Islands
and Madeira
; Harrington hypothesized that the most recent common ancestor
of the two species originated in Europe and was later dispersed to the Macaronesian islands
.
are later shallowly saucer- or cup-shaped with rolled-in rims, and measure 2 – in diameter. The inner surface of the cup is deep red (fading to orange when dry) and smooth, while the outer surface is whitish and covered with a dense matted layer of tiny hairs (a tomentum). The stipe
, when present, is stout and up to 4 cm (1.6 in) long (if deeply buried) by 0.3 – thick, and whitish, with a tomentum. Color variants of the fungus exist that have reduced or absent pigmentation; these forms may be orange, yellow, or even white (as in the variety albida). In the Netherlands, white fruit bodies have been found growing in the polder
s.
Sarcoscypha coccinea is one of several fungi whose fruit bodies have been noted to make a "puffing" sound—an audible manifestation of spore-discharge where thousands of asci simultaneously explode to release a cloud of spores.
Spore
s are 26–40 by 10–12 µm
, elliptical, smooth, hyaline
(translucent), and have small lipid
droplets concentrated at either end. The droplets are refractive to light and visible with light microscopy. In older, dried specimens (such as herbarium
material), the droplets may coalesce
and hinder the identification of species. Depending on their geographical origin, the spores may have a delicate mucilaginous
sheath or "envelope"; European specimens are devoid of an envelope while specimens from North America invariably have one.
The asci
are long and cylindrical, and taper into a short stem-like base; they measure 300–375 by 14–16 µm. Although in most Pezizales
all of the ascospores are formed simultaneously through delimitation by an inner and outer membrane, in S. coccinea the ascospores located in the basal parts of the ascus develop faster. The paraphyses
(sterile filamentous hyphae present in the hymenium
) are about 3 µm wide (and only slightly thickened at the apex), and contain red pigment granules
.
are those that seem to lack a sexual stage in their life cycle
, and typically reproduce by the process of mitosis
in structures called conidia
. In some cases, the sexual stage—or teleomorph
stage—is later identified, and a teleomorph-anamorph relationship is established between the species. The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature permits the recognition of two (or more) names for one and the same organism, one based on the teleomorph, the other(s) restricted to the anamorph. The name of the anamorphic state of S. coccinea is Molliardiomyces eucoccinea, first described by Marin Molliard in 1904. Molliard found the growth of the conidia to resemble those of the genera Coryne and Chlorosplenium
rather than the Pezizaceae, and he considered that this suggested an affinity between Sarcoscypha and the family Helvellaceae
. In 1972, John W. Paden again described the anamorph, but like Molliard, failed to give a complete description of the species. In 1984, Paden created a new genus he named Molliardiomyces to contain the anamorphic forms of several Sarcoscypha species, and set Molliardiomyces eucoccinea as the type species. This form produces colorless conidiophores (specialized stalks that bear conidia) that are usually irregularly branched, measuring 30–110 by 3.2–4.7 µm. The conidia are ellipsoidal to egg-shaped, smooth, translucent (hyaline
), and 4.8–16.0 by 2.3–5.8 µm; they tend to accumulate in "mucilaginous masses".
and S. austriaca
, and in the literature, confusion amongst the three is common. Examination of microscopic features is often required to definitively differentiate between the species. Sarcoscypha occidentalis
has smaller cups (0.5–2.0 cm wide), a more pronounced stalk that is 1–3 cm long, and a smooth exterior surface. Unlike S. coccinea, it is only found in the New World and in east and midwest North America, but not in the far west. It also occurs in Central America and the Caribbean. In North America, S. austriaca and S. dudleyi are found in eastern regions of the continent. S. dudleyi has elliptical spores with rounded ends that are 25–33 by 12–14 µm and completely sheathed when fresh. S. austriaca has elliptical spores that are 29–36 by 12–15 µm that are not completely sheathed when fresh, but have small polar caps on either end. The Macaronesia
n species S. macaronesica, frequently misidentified as S. coccinea, has smaller spores, typically measuring 20.5–28 by 7.3–11 µm and smaller fruit bodies—up to 2 cm (0.78740157480315 in) wide.
, beech
, hazel
, willow
, elm
, and, in the Mediterranean, oak
. The fruit bodies of S. coccinea are often found growing singly or clustered in groups on buried or partly buried sticks in deciduous forests. A Hungarian study noted that the fungus was found mainly on twigs of European hornbeam
(Carpinus betulus) that were typically less than 5 cm (2 in) long. Fruit bodies growing on sticks above the ground tend to be smaller than those on buried wood. Mushrooms that are sheltered from wind also grow larger than their more exposed counterparts. The fruit bodies are persistent and may last for several weeks if the weather is cool. The time required for the development of fruit bodies has been estimated to be about 24 weeks, although it was noted that "the maximum life span may well be more than 24 weeks because the decline of the colonies seemed to be associated more with sunny, windy weather rather than with old age." One field guide
calls the fungus "a welcome sight after a long, desperate winter and ... the harbinger of a new year of mushrooming."
Common over much of the northern hemisphere
, S. coccinea occurs in the midwest
, in the valleys between the Pacific coast
, the Sierra Nevada, and the Cascade Range
. Its North American distribution extends north to various locations in Canada and south to the Mexican state Jalisco
. The fungus has also been collected from Chile in South America. It is also found in the Old World
—Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia, and India. Specimens collected from the Macaronesian islands that once thought to be S. coccinea were later determined to be the distinct species S. macaronesica. A 1995 study of the occurrence of British Sarcoscypha (including S. coccinea and S. austriaca) concluded that S. coccinea was becoming very rare in Great Britain. All species of Sarcoscypha, including S. coccinea, are Red-listed
in Europe.
The red color of the fruit bodies is due to five types of carotenoid
pigments, including plectaniaxanthin and beta-carotene. Carotenoids are lipid-soluble and are stored within granules in the paraphyses. British-Canadian mycologist Arthur Henry Reginald Buller
suggested that pigments in fruit bodies exposed to the Sun absorb some of the Sun's rays, raising the temperature of the hymenium—hastening the development of the ascus and subsequent spore discharge.
Lectins are sugar-binding protein
s that are used in blood typing, biochemical studies and medical research. A lectin
has been purified and characterized from S. coccinea fruit bodies that can bind selectively to several specific carbohydrate
molecules, including lactose
.
Indians, and possibly by other tribes of the Iroquois
Six Nations. The fungus, after being dried and ground up into a powder, was applied as a styptic, particularly to the navels of newborn children that were not healing properly after the umbilical cord
had been severed. Pulverized fruit bodies were also kept under bandages made of soft-tanned deerskin. In Scarborough, England, the fruit bodies used to be arranged with moss and leaves and sold as a table decoration.
The species is said to be edible
, inedible, or "not recommended", depending on the author. Although its insubstantial fruit body and low numbers do not make it particularly suitable for the table, one source claims "children in the Jura are said to eat it raw on bread and butter; and one French author suggests adding the cups, with a little Kirsch, to a fresh fruit salad." The fruit bodies have been noted to be a source of food for rodents in the winter, and slugs in the summer.
Fungus
A fungus is a member of a large group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds , as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from plants, animals, and bacteria...
in the Sarcoscyphaceae
Sarcoscyphaceae
The Sarcoscyphaceae are a family of cup fungi in the Pezizales order. There are 13 genera and 102 species in the family. Members of this family are cosmopolitan in distribution, being found in both tropical and temperate regions.-External links:...
family of the Pezizales
Pezizales
The Pezizales are an order of the subphylum Pezizomycotina within the phylum Ascomycota. The order contains 16 families, 199 genera, and 1683 species. It contains a number of species of economic importance, such as morels, the black and white truffles, and the desert truffles. The Pezizales are...
order. The fungus, widely distributed in the northern hemisphere
Northern Hemisphere
The Northern Hemisphere is the half of a planet that is north of its equator—the word hemisphere literally means “half sphere”. It is also that half of the celestial sphere north of the celestial equator...
, has been found in Africa, Asia, Europe, North and South America, and Australia. The type species
Type species
In biological nomenclature, a type species is both a concept and a practical system which is used in the classification and nomenclature of animals and plants. The value of a "type species" lies in the fact that it makes clear what is meant by a particular genus name. A type species is the species...
of the genus Sarcoscypha
Sarcoscypha
Sarcoscypha is a genus of ascomycete fungus in the family Sarcoscyphaceae. Species of Sarcoscypha are present in Europe, North America and tropical Asia. They are characterised by a cup-shaped apothecium which is often brightly coloured. Some members of the family such as S. coccinea and the -...
, it has been known by many names since its first appearance in the scientific literature in 1772. Phylogenetic analysis shows the species to be most closely related to other Sarcoscypha species that contain numerous small oil droplets in their spores, such as the North Atlantic island species S. macaronesica. Due to similar physical appearances and sometimes overlapping distributions, S. coccinea has often been confused with S. occidentalis
Sarcoscypha occidentalis
Sarcoscypha occidentalis, commonly known as the stalked scarlet cup or the western scarlet cup, is a species of fungus in the family Sarcoscyphaceae of the Pezizales order. Fruit bodies have small, bright red cups up to wide atop a slender whitish stem that is between long...
, S. austriaca
Sarcoscypha austriaca
Sarcoscypha austriaca is a saprobic fungus in the Sarcoscyphaceae family in the Pezizales order of Ascomycota. It is commonly known as the scarlet elfcup, pézize écarlate and scharlachroter kelchbecherling...
, and S. dudleyi
Sarcoscypha dudleyi
Sarcoscypha dudleyi, commonly known as the crimson cup or the scarlet cup, is a species of fungus in the Sarcoscyphaceae family of the Pezizales order. In addition to its main distribution in the central to eastern United States, the fungus has also been recorded once in Bulgaria...
.
The saprobic fungus grows on decaying sticks and branches in damp spots on forest floors, generally buried under leaf litter
Forest floor
The forest floor, also called detritus, duff and the O horizon, is one of the most distinctive features of a forest ecosystem. It mainly consists of shed vegetative parts, such as leaves, branches, bark, and stems, existing in various stages of decomposition above the soil surface...
or in the soil. The cup-shaped fruit bodies
Ascocarp
An ascocarp, or ascoma , is the fruiting body of an ascomycete fungus. It consists of very tightly interwoven hyphae and may contain millions of asci, each of which typically contains eight ascospores...
are usually produced during the cooler months of winter and early spring. The brilliant red interior of the cups—from which both the common
Common name
A common name of a taxon or organism is a name in general use within a community; it is often contrasted with the scientific name for the same organism...
and scientific names are derived—contrasts with the lighter-colored exterior. The edibility of the fruit bodies is not clearly established, but its small size, tough texture and insubstantial fruitings would dissuade most people from collecting for the table. The fungus has been used medicinally by the Oneida
Oneida tribe
The Oneida are a Native American/First Nations people and are one of the five founding nations of the Iroquois Confederacy in the area of upstate New York...
Indians, and also as a colorful component of table decorations in England. The species Molliardiomyces eucoccinea is an imperfect form of the fungus that lacks a sexually reproductive
Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction is the creation of a new organism by combining the genetic material of two organisms. There are two main processes during sexual reproduction; they are: meiosis, involving the halving of the number of chromosomes; and fertilization, involving the fusion of two gametes and the...
stage in its life cycle
Biological life cycle
A life cycle is a period involving all different generations of a species succeeding each other through means of reproduction, whether through asexual reproduction or sexual reproduction...
.
Taxonomy, naming, and phylogeny
The species was originally named Helvella coccinea by the Italian naturalist Giovanni Antonio ScopoliGiovanni Antonio Scopoli
Giovanni Antonio Scopoli was an Italian physician and naturalist.-Biography:...
in 1772. Other early names include Peziza coccinea (Nikolaus Joseph von Jacquin
Nikolaus Joseph von Jacquin
Nikolaus Joseph Freiherr von Jacquin or Baron Nikolaus von Jacquin. was a scientist who studied medicine, chemistry and botany....
, 1774) and Peziza dichroa (Theodor Holmskjold
Johan Theodor Holmskjold
Johan Theodor Holmskiold was a Danish botanist, courtier and administrator.-Early life and career:Johan Theodor was born 14 June 1731 in Nyborg on the Danish island of Funen as the oldest of eight children to Nicolai Holm and Cathrine Lucie née v. Lengerchen...
, 1799). Although some authors in older literature have applied the generic name Plectania
Plectania
Plectania is a genus of fungi in the Sarcosomataceae family. There are 15 species in the genus, which have a widespread distribution, especially in northern temperate areas.-External links:* at Index Fungorum...
to the taxon following Karl Fuckel's
Karl Wilhelm Gottlieb Leopold Fuckel
Karl Wilhelm Gottlieb Leopold Fuckel was a German botanist who worked largely on fungi.The species epithet in the binomen Botryotinia fuckeliana, a plant pathogen and the causal agent of gray mold disease, was named by mycologist Heinrich Anton de Bary in honor of Fuckel.Formerly in nations that...
1870 name change (e.g. Seaver, 1928; Kanouse, 1948; Nannfeldt, 1949; Le Gal, 1953), that name is now used for a fungus with brownish-black fruit bodies. Sarcoscypha coccinea was given its current name by Jean Baptiste Émil Lambotte in 1889. Obligate synonyms
Synonym (taxonomy)
In scientific nomenclature, a synonym is a scientific name that is or was used for a taxon of organisms that also goes by a different scientific name. For example, Linnaeus was the first to give a scientific name to the Norway spruce, which he called Pinus abies...
(different names for the same species based on one type) include Lachnea coccinea Gillet
Claude Casimir Gillet
Claude Casimir Gillet, born 19 May 1806, died 1896, was a French botanist and mycologist. He initially trained as a medical doctor and veterinarian.-Publications:* Claude-Casimir Gillet, * Claude-Casimir Gillet, , 230 pp...
(1880), Macroscyphus coccineus Gray
Samuel Frederick Gray
Samuel Frederick Gray was a British botanist, mycologist, and pharmacologist. He was the father of the zoologists John Edward Gray and George Robert Gray.-Background:...
(1821), and Peziza dichroa Holmskjold
Johan Theodor Holmskjold
Johan Theodor Holmskiold was a Danish botanist, courtier and administrator.-Early life and career:Johan Theodor was born 14 June 1731 in Nyborg on the Danish island of Funen as the oldest of eight children to Nicolai Holm and Cathrine Lucie née v. Lengerchen...
(1799). Taxonomic
Taxonomy
Taxonomy is the science of identifying and naming species, and arranging them into a classification. The field of taxonomy, sometimes referred to as "biological taxonomy", revolves around the description and use of taxonomic units, known as taxa...
synonyms (different names for the same species, based on different types) include Peziza aurantia Schumacher
Heinrich Christian Friedrich Schumacher
Heinrich Christian Friedrich Schumacher , was a Danish surgeon, botanist and professor of anatomy at the University of Copenhagen...
(1803), Peziza aurantiaca Persoon
Christian Hendrik Persoon
Christiaan Hendrik Persoon was a mycologist who made additions to Linnaeus' mushroom taxonomy.-Early life:...
(1822), Peziza coccinea Jacquin
Nikolaus Joseph von Jacquin
Nikolaus Joseph Freiherr von Jacquin or Baron Nikolaus von Jacquin. was a scientist who studied medicine, chemistry and botany....
(1774), Helvella coccinea Schaeffer (1774), Lachnea coccinea Phillips (1887), Geopyxis coccinea Massee
George Edward Massee
George Edward Massee was an English mycologist, plant pathologist, and botanist.-Background and education:George Massee was born in Scampston, East Yorkshire, the son of a farmer...
(1895), Sarcoscypha coccinea Saccardo
Pier Andrea Saccardo
Pier Andrea Saccardo was an Italian botanist and mycologist.- Life :...
ex Durand (1900), Plectania coccinea (Fuckel
Karl Wilhelm Gottlieb Leopold Fuckel
Karl Wilhelm Gottlieb Leopold Fuckel was a German botanist who worked largely on fungi.The species epithet in the binomen Botryotinia fuckeliana, a plant pathogen and the causal agent of gray mold disease, was named by mycologist Heinrich Anton de Bary in honor of Fuckel.Formerly in nations that...
ex Seaver
Fred Jay Seaver
Fred Jay Seaver was an American mycologist. He worked at the New York Botanical Garden for 40 years, initially as the Director of Laboratories , then as the Curator , and finally as Head Curator . He was also an editor of the journal Mycologia between 1909 and 1947.- References :...
), and Peziza cochleata Batsch (1783).
Sarcoscypha coccinea is the type species
Type species
In biological nomenclature, a type species is both a concept and a practical system which is used in the classification and nomenclature of animals and plants. The value of a "type species" lies in the fact that it makes clear what is meant by a particular genus name. A type species is the species...
of the genus Sarcoscypha, having been first explicitly designated as such in 1931 by Frederick Edward Clements and Cornelius Lott Shear
Cornelius Lott Shear
Cornelius Lott Shear was an American mycologist and plant pathologist. In 1908 he created the American Phytopathological Society. He was the first to describe the grass Bromus arizonicus.-References:...
. A 1990 publication revealed that the genus name Sarcoscypha had been used previously by Carl F.P. von Martius
Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius
Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius was a German botanist and explorer.Martius was born at Erlangen, where he graduated M.D. in 1814, publishing as his thesis a critical catalogue of plants in the botanic garden of the university...
as the name of a tribe
Tribe (biology)
In biology, a tribe is a taxonomic rank between family and genus. It is sometimes subdivided into subtribes.Some examples include the tribes: Canini, Acalypheae, Hominini, Bombini, and Antidesmeae.-See also:* Biological classification* Rank...
in the genus Peziza
Peziza
Peziza is a large genus of saprophytic cup fungi that grow on the ground, rotting wood, or dung. Most members of this genus are of unknown edibility and are difficult to identify as separate species without use of microscopy...
; according to the rules of Botanical Nomenclature, this meant that the generic name Peziza had priority over Sarcoscypha. To address the taxonomical
Taxonomy
Taxonomy is the science of identifying and naming species, and arranging them into a classification. The field of taxonomy, sometimes referred to as "biological taxonomy", revolves around the description and use of taxonomic units, known as taxa...
dilemma, the genus name Sarcoscypha was conserved
Conserved name
A conserved name or nomen conservandum is a scientific name that has specific nomenclatural protection. Nomen conservandum is a Latin term, meaning a "name which should be conserved"...
against Peziza, with S. coccinea as the type species, to "avoid the creation of a new generic name for the scarlet cups and also to avoid the disadvantageous loss of a generic name widely used in the popular and scientific literature". The specific epithet coccinea is derived from the Latin word meaning "deep red". The species is commonly
Common name
A common name of a taxon or organism is a name in general use within a community; it is often contrasted with the scientific name for the same organism...
known as the "scarlet elf cup" or the "scarlet cup fungus".
S. coccinea var. jurana was described by Jean Boudier
Jean Louis Émile Boudier
Jean Louis Émile Boudier was a pharmacist who lived in Montmorency, France. He published a fair amount about the Discomycetes and other areas of mycology...
(1903) as a variety of the species having a brighter and more orange-colored fruit body, and with flattened or blunt-ended ascospores. Today it is known as the distinct species S. jurana. S. coccinea var. albida, named by George Edward Massee
George Edward Massee
George Edward Massee was an English mycologist, plant pathologist, and botanist.-Background and education:George Massee was born in Scampston, East Yorkshire, the son of a farmer...
in 1903 (as Geopyxis coccinea var. albida), has a cream-colored rather than red interior surface, but is otherwise identical to the typical variety.
Within the large area that includes the temperate
Temperate
In geography, temperate or tepid latitudes of the globe lie between the tropics and the polar circles. The changes in these regions between summer and winter are generally relatively moderate, rather than extreme hot or cold...
to alpine
Alpine climate
Alpine climate is the average weather for a region above the tree line. This climate is also referred to as mountain climate or highland climate....
-boreal
Boreal ecosystem
The term boreal is usually applied to ecosystems localized in subarctic and subantarctic zones, although Austral is also used for the latter....
zone of the northern hemisphere
Northern Hemisphere
The Northern Hemisphere is the half of a planet that is north of its equator—the word hemisphere literally means “half sphere”. It is also that half of the celestial sphere north of the celestial equator...
(Europe and North America), only S. coccinea had been recognized until the 1980s. However, it had been known since the early 1900s that there existed several macroscopically indistinguishable taxa
Taxon
|thumb|270px|[[African elephants]] form a widely-accepted taxon, the [[genus]] LoxodontaA taxon is a group of organisms, which a taxonomist adjudges to be a unit. Usually a taxon is given a name and a rank, although neither is a requirement...
with various microscopic differences: the distribution and number of oil droplets in fresh spores; germination
Germination
Germination is the process in which a plant or fungus emerges from a seed or spore, respectively, and begins growth. The most common example of germination is the sprouting of a seedling from a seed of an angiosperm or gymnosperm. However the growth of a sporeling from a spore, for example the...
behavior; and spore shape. Detailed analysis and comparison of fresh specimens revealed that what had been collectively called "S. coccinea" actually consisted of four distinct species: S. austriaca, S. coccinea, S. dudleyi, and S. jurana.
The phylogenetic relationships in the genus Sarcoscypha were analyzed by Francis Harrington in the late 1990s. His cladistic
Cladistics
Cladistics is a method of classifying species of organisms into groups called clades, which consist of an ancestor organism and all its descendants . For example, birds, dinosaurs, crocodiles, and all descendants of their most recent common ancestor form a clade...
analysis combined comparisons of the sequences of the internal transcribed spacer
Internal transcribed spacer
ITS refers to a piece of non-functional RNA situated between structural ribosomal RNAs on a common precursor transcript. Read from 5' to 3', this polycistronic rRNA precursor transcript contains the 5' external transcribed sequence , 18S rRNA, ITS1, 5.8S rRNA, ITS2, 28S rRNA and finally the 3'ETS...
in the non-functional RNA
RNA
Ribonucleic acid , or RNA, is one of the three major macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life....
with fifteen traditional morphological
Morphology (biology)
In biology, morphology is a branch of bioscience dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features....
characteristics, such as spore features, fruit body shape, and degree of curliness of the "hairs" that form the tomentum. Based on his analysis, S. coccinea is part of a clade
Clade
A clade is a group consisting of a species and all its descendants. In the terms of biological systematics, a clade is a single "branch" on the "tree of life". The idea that such a "natural group" of organisms should be grouped together and given a taxonomic name is central to biological...
that includes the species S. austriaca, S. macaronesica, S. knixoniana and S. humberiana. All of these Sarcoscypha species have numerous, small oil droplets in their spores. Its closest relative, S. macaronesica, is found on the Canary Islands
Canary Islands
The Canary Islands , also known as the Canaries , is a Spanish archipelago located just off the northwest coast of mainland Africa, 100 km west of the border between Morocco and the Western Sahara. The Canaries are a Spanish autonomous community and an outermost region of the European Union...
and Madeira
Madeira
Madeira is a Portuguese archipelago that lies between and , just under 400 km north of Tenerife, Canary Islands, in the north Atlantic Ocean and an outermost region of the European Union...
; Harrington hypothesized that the most recent common ancestor
Most recent common ancestor
In genetics, the most recent common ancestor of any set of organisms is the most recent individual from which all organisms in the group are directly descended...
of the two species originated in Europe and was later dispersed to the Macaronesian islands
Macaronesia
Macaronesia is a modern collective name for several groups of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean near Europe and North Africa belonging to three countries: Portugal, Spain, and Cape Verde...
.
Description
Initially spherical, the fruit bodiesAscocarp
An ascocarp, or ascoma , is the fruiting body of an ascomycete fungus. It consists of very tightly interwoven hyphae and may contain millions of asci, each of which typically contains eight ascospores...
are later shallowly saucer- or cup-shaped with rolled-in rims, and measure 2 – in diameter. The inner surface of the cup is deep red (fading to orange when dry) and smooth, while the outer surface is whitish and covered with a dense matted layer of tiny hairs (a tomentum). The stipe
Stipe (mycology)
thumb|150px|right|Diagram of a [[basidiomycete]] stipe with an [[annulus |annulus]] and [[volva |volva]]In mycology a stipe refers to the stem or stalk-like feature supporting the cap of a mushroom. Like all tissues of the mushroom other than the hymenium, the stipe is composed of sterile hyphal...
, when present, is stout and up to 4 cm (1.6 in) long (if deeply buried) by 0.3 – thick, and whitish, with a tomentum. Color variants of the fungus exist that have reduced or absent pigmentation; these forms may be orange, yellow, or even white (as in the variety albida). In the Netherlands, white fruit bodies have been found growing in the polder
Polder
A polder is a low-lying tract of land enclosed by embankments known as dikes, that forms an artificial hydrological entity, meaning it has no connection with outside water other than through manually-operated devices...
s.
Spore
Spore
In biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many bacteria, plants, algae, fungi and some protozoa. According to scientist Dr...
s are 26–40 by 10–12 µm
Micrometre
A micrometer , is by definition 1×10-6 of a meter .In plain English, it means one-millionth of a meter . Its unit symbol in the International System of Units is μm...
, elliptical, smooth, hyaline
Hyaline
The term hyaline denotes a substance with a glass-like appearance.-Histopathology:In histopathological medical usage, a hyaline substance appears glassy and pink after being stained with haematoxylin and eosin — usually it is an acellular, proteinaceous material...
(translucent), and have small lipid
Lipid
Lipids constitute a broad group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins , monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, phospholipids, and others...
droplets concentrated at either end. The droplets are refractive to light and visible with light microscopy. In older, dried specimens (such as herbarium
Herbarium
In botany, a herbarium – sometimes known by the Anglicized term herbar – is a collection of preserved plant specimens. These specimens may be whole plants or plant parts: these will usually be in a dried form, mounted on a sheet, but depending upon the material may also be kept in...
material), the droplets may coalesce
Coalescence (chemistry)
In chemistry, coalescence is a process in which two phase domains of the same composition come together and form a larger phase domain.-References:*...
and hinder the identification of species. Depending on their geographical origin, the spores may have a delicate mucilaginous
Mucilage
Mucilage is a thick, gluey substance produced by most plants and some microorganisms. It is a polar glycoprotein and an exopolysaccharide.It occurs in various parts of nearly all classes of plant, usually in relatively small percentages, and is frequently associated with other substances, such as...
sheath or "envelope"; European specimens are devoid of an envelope while specimens from North America invariably have one.
The asci
Ascus
An ascus is the sexual spore-bearing cell produced in ascomycete fungi. On average, asci normally contain eight ascospores, produced by a meiotic cell division followed, in most species, by a mitotic cell division. However, asci in some genera or species can number one , two, four, or multiples...
are long and cylindrical, and taper into a short stem-like base; they measure 300–375 by 14–16 µm. Although in most Pezizales
Pezizales
The Pezizales are an order of the subphylum Pezizomycotina within the phylum Ascomycota. The order contains 16 families, 199 genera, and 1683 species. It contains a number of species of economic importance, such as morels, the black and white truffles, and the desert truffles. The Pezizales are...
all of the ascospores are formed simultaneously through delimitation by an inner and outer membrane, in S. coccinea the ascospores located in the basal parts of the ascus develop faster. The paraphyses
Paraphyses
Paraphyses are part of the fertile spore-bearing layer in certain fungi. More specifically, paraphyses are sterile filamentous hyphal end cells composing part of the hymenium of Ascomycota and Basidiomycota interspersed among either the asci or basidia respectively, and not sufficiently...
(sterile filamentous hyphae present in the hymenium
Hymenium
The hymenium is the tissue layer on the hymenophore of a fungal fruiting body where the cells develop into basidia or asci, which produce spores. In some species all of the cells of the hymenium develop into basidia or asci, while in others some cells develop into sterile cells called cystidia or...
) are about 3 µm wide (and only slightly thickened at the apex), and contain red pigment granules
Granule (cell biology)
In cell biology, a granule is a small particle. It can be any structure barely visible by light microscopy. The term is most often used to describe a secretory vesicle.-Leukocytes:...
.
Anamorph form
Anamorphic or imperfect fungiFungi imperfecti
The Fungi imperfecti or imperfect fungi, also known as Deuteromycota, are fungi which do not fit into the commonly established taxonomic classifications of fungi that are based on biological species concepts or morphological characteristics of sexual structures because their sexual form of...
are those that seem to lack a sexual stage in their life cycle
Biological life cycle
A life cycle is a period involving all different generations of a species succeeding each other through means of reproduction, whether through asexual reproduction or sexual reproduction...
, and typically reproduce by the process of mitosis
Mitosis
Mitosis is the process by which a eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus into two identical sets, in two separate nuclei. It is generally followed immediately by cytokinesis, which divides the nuclei, cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane into two cells containing roughly...
in structures called conidia
Conidium
Conidia, sometimes termed conidiospores, are asexual, non-motile spores of a fungus and are named after the greek word for dust, konia. They are also called mitospores due to the way they are generated through the cellular process of mitosis...
. In some cases, the sexual stage—or teleomorph
Teleomorph, anamorph and holomorph
The terms teleomorph, anamorph, and holomorph apply to portions of the life cycles of fungi in the phyla Ascomycota and Basidiomycota.*Teleomorph: the sexual reproductive stage , typically a fruiting body....
stage—is later identified, and a teleomorph-anamorph relationship is established between the species. The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature permits the recognition of two (or more) names for one and the same organism, one based on the teleomorph, the other(s) restricted to the anamorph. The name of the anamorphic state of S. coccinea is Molliardiomyces eucoccinea, first described by Marin Molliard in 1904. Molliard found the growth of the conidia to resemble those of the genera Coryne and Chlorosplenium
Chlorosplenium
Chlorosplenium is a genus of fungi in the Dermateaceae family. The genus, first described by Elias Magnus Fries in 1849, contains 5 species.- External links :* at Index Fungorum...
rather than the Pezizaceae, and he considered that this suggested an affinity between Sarcoscypha and the family Helvellaceae
Helvellaceae
The Helvellaceae are a family of ascomycete fungi, the best known members of which are the elfin saddles of the genus Helvella. Originally erected by Elias Magnus Fries in 1823 as Elvellacei, it contained many genera...
. In 1972, John W. Paden again described the anamorph, but like Molliard, failed to give a complete description of the species. In 1984, Paden created a new genus he named Molliardiomyces to contain the anamorphic forms of several Sarcoscypha species, and set Molliardiomyces eucoccinea as the type species. This form produces colorless conidiophores (specialized stalks that bear conidia) that are usually irregularly branched, measuring 30–110 by 3.2–4.7 µm. The conidia are ellipsoidal to egg-shaped, smooth, translucent (hyaline
Hyaline
The term hyaline denotes a substance with a glass-like appearance.-Histopathology:In histopathological medical usage, a hyaline substance appears glassy and pink after being stained with haematoxylin and eosin — usually it is an acellular, proteinaceous material...
), and 4.8–16.0 by 2.3–5.8 µm; they tend to accumulate in "mucilaginous masses".
Similar species
Similar species include S. dudleyiSarcoscypha dudleyi
Sarcoscypha dudleyi, commonly known as the crimson cup or the scarlet cup, is a species of fungus in the Sarcoscyphaceae family of the Pezizales order. In addition to its main distribution in the central to eastern United States, the fungus has also been recorded once in Bulgaria...
and S. austriaca
Sarcoscypha austriaca
Sarcoscypha austriaca is a saprobic fungus in the Sarcoscyphaceae family in the Pezizales order of Ascomycota. It is commonly known as the scarlet elfcup, pézize écarlate and scharlachroter kelchbecherling...
, and in the literature, confusion amongst the three is common. Examination of microscopic features is often required to definitively differentiate between the species. Sarcoscypha occidentalis
Sarcoscypha occidentalis
Sarcoscypha occidentalis, commonly known as the stalked scarlet cup or the western scarlet cup, is a species of fungus in the family Sarcoscyphaceae of the Pezizales order. Fruit bodies have small, bright red cups up to wide atop a slender whitish stem that is between long...
has smaller cups (0.5–2.0 cm wide), a more pronounced stalk that is 1–3 cm long, and a smooth exterior surface. Unlike S. coccinea, it is only found in the New World and in east and midwest North America, but not in the far west. It also occurs in Central America and the Caribbean. In North America, S. austriaca and S. dudleyi are found in eastern regions of the continent. S. dudleyi has elliptical spores with rounded ends that are 25–33 by 12–14 µm and completely sheathed when fresh. S. austriaca has elliptical spores that are 29–36 by 12–15 µm that are not completely sheathed when fresh, but have small polar caps on either end. The Macaronesia
Macaronesia
Macaronesia is a modern collective name for several groups of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean near Europe and North Africa belonging to three countries: Portugal, Spain, and Cape Verde...
n species S. macaronesica, frequently misidentified as S. coccinea, has smaller spores, typically measuring 20.5–28 by 7.3–11 µm and smaller fruit bodies—up to 2 cm (0.78740157480315 in) wide.
Ecology, habitat and distribution
A saprobic species, Sarcoscypha coccinea grows on decaying woody material from various plants: the rose familyRosaceae
Rosaceae are a medium-sized family of flowering plants, including about 2830 species in 95 genera. The name is derived from the type genus Rosa. Among the largest genera are Alchemilla , Sorbus , Crataegus , Cotoneaster , and Rubus...
, beech
Beech
Beech is a genus of ten species of deciduous trees in the family Fagaceae, native to temperate Europe, Asia and North America.-Habit:...
, hazel
Hazel
The hazels are a genus of deciduous trees and large shrubs native to the temperate northern hemisphere. The genus is usually placed in the birch family Betulaceae, though some botanists split the hazels into a separate family Corylaceae.They have simple, rounded leaves with double-serrate margins...
, willow
Willow
Willows, sallows, and osiers form the genus Salix, around 400 species of deciduous trees and shrubs, found primarily on moist soils in cold and temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere...
, elm
Elm
Elms are deciduous and semi-deciduous trees comprising the genus Ulmus in the plant family Ulmaceae. The dozens of species are found in temperate and tropical-montane regions of North America and Eurasia, ranging southward into Indonesia. Elms are components of many kinds of natural forests...
, and, in the Mediterranean, oak
Oak
An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus , of which about 600 species exist. "Oak" may also appear in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus...
. The fruit bodies of S. coccinea are often found growing singly or clustered in groups on buried or partly buried sticks in deciduous forests. A Hungarian study noted that the fungus was found mainly on twigs of European hornbeam
European Hornbeam
Carpinus betulus is a hornbeam native to eastern, western, central and southern England. It requires a warm climate for good growth, and occurs only at elevations up to 600 metres...
(Carpinus betulus) that were typically less than 5 cm (2 in) long. Fruit bodies growing on sticks above the ground tend to be smaller than those on buried wood. Mushrooms that are sheltered from wind also grow larger than their more exposed counterparts. The fruit bodies are persistent and may last for several weeks if the weather is cool. The time required for the development of fruit bodies has been estimated to be about 24 weeks, although it was noted that "the maximum life span may well be more than 24 weeks because the decline of the colonies seemed to be associated more with sunny, windy weather rather than with old age." One field guide
Field guide
A field guide is a book designed to help the reader identify wildlife or other objects of natural occurrence . It is generally designed to be brought into the 'field' or local area where such objects exist to help distinguish between similar objects...
calls the fungus "a welcome sight after a long, desperate winter and ... the harbinger of a new year of mushrooming."
Common over much of the northern hemisphere
Northern Hemisphere
The Northern Hemisphere is the half of a planet that is north of its equator—the word hemisphere literally means “half sphere”. It is also that half of the celestial sphere north of the celestial equator...
, S. coccinea occurs in the midwest
Midwestern United States
The Midwestern United States is one of the four U.S. geographic regions defined by the United States Census Bureau, providing an official definition of the American Midwest....
, in the valleys between the Pacific coast
Pacific Coast
A country's Pacific coast is the part of its coast bordering the Pacific Ocean.-The Americas:Countries on the western side of the Americas have a Pacific coast as their western border.* Geography of Canada* Geography of Chile* Geography of Colombia...
, the Sierra Nevada, and the Cascade Range
Cascade Range
The Cascade Range is a major mountain range of western North America, extending from southern British Columbia through Washington and Oregon to Northern California. It includes both non-volcanic mountains, such as the North Cascades, and the notable volcanoes known as the High Cascades...
. Its North American distribution extends north to various locations in Canada and south to the Mexican state Jalisco
Jalisco
Jalisco officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Jalisco is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is located in Western Mexico and divided in 125 municipalities and its capital city is Guadalajara.It is one of the more important states...
. The fungus has also been collected from Chile in South America. It is also found in the Old World
Old World
The Old World consists of those parts of the world known to classical antiquity and the European Middle Ages. It is used in the context of, and contrast with, the "New World" ....
—Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia, and India. Specimens collected from the Macaronesian islands that once thought to be S. coccinea were later determined to be the distinct species S. macaronesica. A 1995 study of the occurrence of British Sarcoscypha (including S. coccinea and S. austriaca) concluded that S. coccinea was becoming very rare in Great Britain. All species of Sarcoscypha, including S. coccinea, are Red-listed
Red-listed
Red-listed species includes any indigenous species or subspecies considered to be extirpated, endangered, or threatened in their locale. Extirpated taxa no longer exist in the wild in the locale in which they are listed , but do occur elsewhere. Endangered taxa are facing imminent extirpation or...
in Europe.
Chemistry
Carotenoid
Carotenoids are tetraterpenoid organic pigments that are naturally occurring in the chloroplasts and chromoplasts of plants and some other photosynthetic organisms like algae, some bacteria, and some types of fungus. Carotenoids can be synthesized fats and other basic organic metabolic building...
pigments, including plectaniaxanthin and beta-carotene. Carotenoids are lipid-soluble and are stored within granules in the paraphyses. British-Canadian mycologist Arthur Henry Reginald Buller
Arthur Henry Reginald Buller
Arthur Henry Reginald Buller was a British-Canadian mycologist. He is mainly known as a researcher of fungi and wheat rust.- Academic career :...
suggested that pigments in fruit bodies exposed to the Sun absorb some of the Sun's rays, raising the temperature of the hymenium—hastening the development of the ascus and subsequent spore discharge.
Lectins are sugar-binding protein
Protein
Proteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of...
s that are used in blood typing, biochemical studies and medical research. A lectin
Lectin
Lectins are sugar-binding proteins that are highly specific for their sugar moieties. They play a role in biological recognition phenomena involving cells and proteins. For example, some viruses use lectins to attach themselves to the cells of the host organism during infection...
has been purified and characterized from S. coccinea fruit bodies that can bind selectively to several specific carbohydrate
Carbohydrate
A carbohydrate is an organic compound with the empirical formula ; that is, consists only of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with a hydrogen:oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 . However, there are exceptions to this. One common example would be deoxyribose, a component of DNA, which has the empirical...
molecules, including lactose
Lactose
Lactose is a disaccharide sugar that is found most notably in milk and is formed from galactose and glucose. Lactose makes up around 2~8% of milk , although the amount varies among species and individuals. It is extracted from sweet or sour whey. The name comes from or , the Latin word for milk,...
.
Uses
Sarcoscypha coccinea was used as a medicinal plant by the OneidaOneida tribe
The Oneida are a Native American/First Nations people and are one of the five founding nations of the Iroquois Confederacy in the area of upstate New York...
Indians, and possibly by other tribes of the Iroquois
Iroquois
The Iroquois , also known as the Haudenosaunee or the "People of the Longhouse", are an association of several tribes of indigenous people of North America...
Six Nations. The fungus, after being dried and ground up into a powder, was applied as a styptic, particularly to the navels of newborn children that were not healing properly after the umbilical cord
Umbilical cord
In placental mammals, the umbilical cord is the connecting cord from the developing embryo or fetus to the placenta...
had been severed. Pulverized fruit bodies were also kept under bandages made of soft-tanned deerskin. In Scarborough, England, the fruit bodies used to be arranged with moss and leaves and sold as a table decoration.
The species is said to be edible
Edible mushroom
Edible mushrooms are the fleshy and edible fruiting bodies of several species of fungi. Mushrooms belong to the macrofungi, because their fruiting structures are large enough to be seen with the naked eye. They can appear either below ground or above ground where they may be picked by hand...
, inedible, or "not recommended", depending on the author. Although its insubstantial fruit body and low numbers do not make it particularly suitable for the table, one source claims "children in the Jura are said to eat it raw on bread and butter; and one French author suggests adding the cups, with a little Kirsch, to a fresh fruit salad." The fruit bodies have been noted to be a source of food for rodents in the winter, and slugs in the summer.