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Teochew (dialect)
Encyclopedia
The Teochew dialect of Southern Min Chinese
is spoken in the Chaoshan
(潮汕) region of eastern Guangdong
and by the Teochew
diaspora in various regions around the world.
Teochew preserves many Ancient Chinese
archaic pronunciations and vocabulary that have been lost in some of the other modern dialects of Chinese. As such, many linguists consider Teochew one of the most conservative Chinese dialects.
. As with other varieties of Chinese
, linguists have not yet agreed on whether Teochew should be treated as a language
or a dialect although it is mutually unintelligible with other "dialect groups" of China but mutually intelligible with some other Southern Min Languages, such as the dialects of Zhangzhou
(漳州话) and Quanzhou
(泉州话) probably because of their proximity. Even within the Teochew varieties, there is substantial variation in phonology
between different regions of Chaoshan and between different Teochew communities overseas.
The Chaozhou language in China, in terms of their closeness, can be roughly divided into 3 sub-groups:
Modern Teochew evolved from the more archaic Southern Min Language. Between the 9th and the 15th century, a group of Min people migrated south from Fujian to the coastal region of eastern Guangdong
now known as Chaoshan
(潮汕). This migration was most likely due in part to over-population in Fujian
(福建).
Due to geographical isolation from Fujian
, Teochew evolved into a separate dialect.
The Chaoshan
region where Chaozhou is spoken includes the cities of Chaozhou, Shantou, which are jointly the source of the name, as well as Jieyang, Chaoyang, Puning, Chao'an, Raoping, Huilai, Chenghai, Nanao, Lufeng, Haifeng, Shanwei and Huidong (惠东). Parts of the Hakka-speaking region, like Jiexi (揭西), Dabu (大埔) and Fengshun
(豐順/丰顺) are also Chaozhou-speaking.
The administrative region now known as Chaoshan in China was one of the major sources of Chinese emigration to Southeast Asia
during the 18th–20th centuries, forming one of the larger dialect groups among the Overseas Chinese
. In particular, the Teochew people settled in significant numbers in Thailand
, Cambodia
, and Laos
where they form the largest Chinese dialect group. They constitute a significant minority in Hong Kong
, Taiwan
, Vietnam
, Malaysia, Singapore
, and Indonesia
(especially in Riau, North Sumatra
, South Sumatra
, and West Kalimantan
, in Pontianak
and Ketapang
). Teochew speakers also live in Japan
, South Korea
, Australia
, New Zealand
, Canada
, the United States of America, France
, Germany
, and England
, a result of both direct emigration from Chaoshan
to these nations and secondary emigration from Southeast Asia
.
In Singapore
, due to common culture, and influences from the media and government
, Singaporean Chinese youths whose ancestral language is Teochew are either converting to English
, Mandarin
or Hokkien
(with which it shares a certain degree of mutual intelligibility). Teochew remains the ancestral language of many Chinese people in Singapore - Teochew people are the second largest Chinese group in Singapore, after the Hokkien - although Mandarin is gradually supplanting
Teochew as their mother tongue, especially among the younger generations. In Thailand, particularly in Bangkok, Teochew is still spoken among older ethnic Chinese Thai-citizen, however the younger generation ethnic Chinese Thai-citizen tends to learn Mandarin as a third language after Thai and English. Teochew was never popular in Japan and South Korea among the Chinese communities since most of the ethnic Chinese of Teochew ancestry who migrated to these countries are secondary immigrants from Hong Kong and Taiwan. Most of them are second generation people from Hong Kong and Taiwan who speak Cantonese and Mandarin as well as Korean and Japanese, leaving Teochew to be spoken mostly by elders.
as early as in kindergarten; however, Chaozhou remains the primary medium of instruction. In the early years of primary education, Mandarin becomes the sole language of instruction, although students typically continue to talk to one another in Chaozhou. Mandarin is widely understood, however minimally, by most younger Chaozhou speakers, but the elderly usually do not speak Mandarin since, in their times, teaching was done in the local vernacular.
ending [-n] and so the people often replace the sound in Mandarin with the velar nasal
[-ŋ]. None of the southern Min dialects has a front rounded vowel, therefore a typical Chaozhou accent supplants the unrounded counterpart [i] for [y]. Chaozhou, like its ancient ancestor, lacks labio-dentals; people therefore substitute [h] or [hu] for [f] when they speak Mandarin. Chaozhou does not have any of the retroflex consonants in the northern dialects, so they say [ts], [tsʰ], [s], and [z] instead of [tʂ], [tʂʰ], [ʂ] and [ʐ].
people can understand quite a lot of Cantonese
even if they cannot speak it.
language, the She language
, is spoken by a few hundred aboriginal She people
(畲). It belongs to the Hmong–Mien language family.
s (stops, fricatives and affricates); however, unlike the Wu and Xiang languages, the Teochew voiced stops and fricatives
did not evolve from the Middle Chinese
voiced obstruents, instead, they were from the Middle Chinese nasal
s. Therefore, the voiced stops [b] and [ɡ] are in fact prenasalised
as [ᵐb] and [ᵑɡ] respectively. The voiced alveolar affricate [dz] was originally a fricative sound [z] in earlier Teochew and still is in some varieties of Teochew. Southern Min languages are typified by a lack of labio-dentals, as illustrated below:
s in Teochew contain an onset consonant, a medial glide, a nucleus, usually in the form of a vowel
, but can also be occupied by a syllabic consonant
like [ŋ], and a final consonant
. All the elements of the syllable except for the nucleus are optional, which means a vowel or a syllabic consonant alone can stand as a fully-fledged syllable.
The nucleus is the only obligatory and therefore the most important element of a syllable. It can be occupied by a vowel, a nasalised vowel or a syllabic consonant in Teochew.
The coda position is usually fulfilled by a stop or nasal consonant (which, technically speaking, is also a stop sound because the soft palate is lowered to allow air to flow through the nasal cavity) but is nevertheless optional.
(reduced to two in stopped syllables) and extensive tone sandhi
.
As with sandhi in other Min Nan dialects, the checked tones interchange. The yang tones all become low. Sandhi is not accounted for in the description below.
of Teochew is similar to other southern Chinese dialects, especially with Hakka and Cantonese. The sequence 'subject–verb–object' is typical, like Mandarin, although 'subject–object–verb' is also possible using particles.
The personal pronouns in Teochew, like in other Sinitic languages, do not show case marking, therefore 我 [ua] means both I and me and 伊人 [i naŋ] means they and them. The southern Min dialects, like some northern dialects, have a distinction between an inclusive
and exclusive
we, meaning that when the addressee is being included, the inclusive pronoun 俺 [naŋ] would be used, otherwise 阮 [ŋ]. No other southern Chinese language, such as Cantonese or Hakka, has this distinction.
The Teochew language does not distinguish the possessive pronouns from the possessive adjectives. As a general rule, the possessive pronouns or adjectives are formed by adding the genitive or possessive marker 個/个 [kai5] to their respective personal pronouns, as summarised below:
本書是我個/本书是我个
[puŋ˥˨ tsɤ˧ si˧˥ ua˥˨ kai˥]
The book is mine.
However, there are instances in which 個/个 [kai˥] can be dropped, such as when followed by a measure word, as in:
我條裙/我条裙
[ua˥˨ tiou˥ kuŋ˥]
my skirt
Teochew has the typical two-way distinction between the demonstratives, namely the proximals and the distals, as summarised in the following chart:
Note: (T): Traditional characters; (S): Simplified characters.
Ordinal numbers are formed by adding 第 [tõĩ˧˥] in front of a cardinal number.
In Teochew passive construction, the agent
phrase
by somebody always has to be present, and is introduced by either 乞 [kʰoiʔ˦]* or 分 [puŋ˧], even though it is in fact a zero or indefinite agent as in:
伊分人刣掉
[i˧ puŋ˧ naŋ˥ tʰai˥ tiau˩]
s/he was killed (by someone)
* Some speakers use [kʰɤʔ] or [kʰiɤʔ] instead.
While in Mandarin we can have the agent introducer 被 bèi or 給 gěi alone without the agent itself, it is not grammatical to say
* 個杯分敲掉
[kai˥ pue˧ puŋ˧ kʰa˧ tiau˩]
the cup was broken.
(cf. Mandarin: 杯子給打破了 bēizi gěi dǎ pòle)
Instead, we have to say:
個杯分人敲掉
[kai˥ pue˧ puŋ˧ naŋ˥ kʰa˧ tiau˩]
Even though this 人 [naŋ˥] is unknown.
Note also that the agent phrase 分人 [puŋ˧ naŋ˥] always comes immediately after the subject, not at the end of the sentence or between the auxiliary
and the past participle
like in some European languages (e.g. German
, Dutch
)
Teochew uses the construction "X ADJ 過 [kue˨˩˧] Y", which is believed to have evolved from the Ancient Chinese "X ADJ 于 (yú) Y" structure, to express the idea of comparison:
伊雅過汝
[i˧ ŋia˥˨ kue˨˩˧ lɤ˥˨]
She is more beautiful than you.
Cantonese uses the same construction:
cf. 佢靚過你 [kʰœy˥ leŋ˨˩˧ kʷɔ˨˩˧ nei˥]
However, due to influences from Mandarin, the Mandarin structure "X 比 Y ADJ" has also gained popularity over the years. Therefore, the same sentence can be re-structured and becomes:
伊比汝雅。
[i˩ pi˥˨ lɤ˥˨ ŋia˥˨]
cf. Mandarin 她比你漂亮 (tā bǐ nǐ piàoliang)
Note: the 過- or 比-construction must involve two or more nouns to be compared; an ill-formed sentence will be yielded when only one is being mentioned:
* 伊雅過 (?)
This is different from English since the second noun being compared can be left out:
cf. Tatyana is more beautiful (than Lisa).
In this case, the 夭-construction has to be used instead:
伊夭雅
[i1 iou6 ŋia2]
She is more beautiful.
The same holds true for Mandarin and Cantonese in that another structure needs to be used when only one of the nouns being compared is mentioned. Note also that Teochew and Mandarin both use a pre-modifier (before the adjective) while Cantonese uses a post-modifier (after the adjective).
cf. Mandarin 她比較漂亮 (tā bǐjiào piàoliang) & Cantonese 佢靚啲 [kʰœy5 leŋ3 ti1]
There are two words which are intrinsically comparative in meaning, i.e. 贏 [ĩã5] "better" and 輸 [su1] "worse". They can be used alone or in conjunction with the 過-structure:
只領裙輸(過)許領
[tsi2 nĩã2 kuŋ5 su1 kue3 hɤ2 nĩã2]
This skirt is not as good as that one.
我內個電腦贏伊個好多
[ua2 lai6 kai7 tieŋ6 nao2 ĩã5 i1 kai7 hoʔ2 tsoi7]
My computer (at home) is far better than his.
Note the use of the adverbial 好多 [hoʔ2 tsoi7] at the end of the sentence to express a higher degree.
In Teochew, the idea of equality is expressed with the word 平 [pẽ5] or 平樣 [pẽ5 ĩẽ7]:
只本書佮許本平重。
[tsi2 puŋ2 tsɤ1 kaʔ4 hɤ2 puŋ2 pẽ5 taŋ6]
This book is as heavy as that one.
伊兩人平平樣。
[i1 no6 naŋ5 pẽ5 pẽ5 ĩẽ7]
They are the same. (They look the same./They're as good as each other./They're as bad as each other.)
To express the superlative, Teochew uses the adverb 上 [siaŋ5] or 上頂 [siaŋ5 teŋ2]. However, it should be noted that 上頂 is usually used with a complimentary connotation.
只間物上頂好食。
[tsi2 kõĩ1 mueʔ8 siaŋ5 teŋ2 ho2 tsiaʔ8]
This (restaurant) is (absolutely) the most delicious.
伊人對我上好。
[i1 naŋ5 tui3 ua2 siaŋ5 ho2]
They treat me best.
words, which to a certain extent reflects the age of the Teochew language since monosyllabic words were prevalent in Ancient Chinese
. However, ever since the standardisation of Modern Standard Chinese, Teochew has absorbed a lot of Putonghua vocabulary, which is predominantly polysyllabic. In addition, due to the migration to Southeast Asia, Teochew has also borrowed extensively from Malay
.
provincial government to aid linguistic studies and the publication of dictionaries, although the Taiwanese Pe̍h-oē-jī could also be used because the Christian missionaries invented it in a way that is also suitable for the transcription of other Min Nan
dialects.
A modified version of the Guangdong romanization
system called Peng'im is also used in an online Teochew community.
system as: B, BH, C, D, G, GH, H, K, L, M, N, NG, P, R, S, T, and Z.
Examples:
combinations in the Teochew dialect include: A, E, Ê, I, O, U, AI, AO, IA, IO, IU, OI, OU, UA, UAI, UE, and UI.
Examples:
Many words in Teochew are nasalized. This is represented by the letter "n" in the Guangdong Pengim system.
Example (nasalized):
s in Teochew include M and NG as well as the stops
discussed below.
Examples:
Teochew retains many consonant
stops lost to Mandarin. These stops include a labial stop: "b"; velar stop: "g"; and glottal stop: "h".
Examples:
Chinese language
The Chinese language is a language or language family consisting of varieties which are mutually intelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages...
is spoken in the Chaoshan
Chaoshan
Cháoshàn refers to the linguistic and cultural region in the east of Guangdong, a southeastern province of China. This region is the origin of the Min Nan dialect Teochew. The area is known as Teochew for most people overseas, although it also consists of the cities of Shantou and Jieyang...
(潮汕) region of eastern Guangdong
Guangdong
Guangdong is a province on the South China Sea coast of the People's Republic of China. The province was previously often written with the alternative English name Kwangtung Province...
and by the Teochew
Teochew people
The Chaozhou people are Han people, native to the Chaoshan region of eastern Guangdong province of China who speak the Teochew dialect. Today, most Teochew people live outside China in Southeast Asia especially in Singapore, Thailand, and Malaysia. They can also be found almost anywhere in the...
diaspora in various regions around the world.
Teochew preserves many Ancient Chinese
Old Chinese
The earliest known written records of the Chinese language were found at a site near modern Anyang identified as Yin, the last capital of the Shang dynasty, and date from about 1200 BC....
archaic pronunciations and vocabulary that have been lost in some of the other modern dialects of Chinese. As such, many linguists consider Teochew one of the most conservative Chinese dialects.
Classification
Teochew is a member of the Southern Min or Min Nan dialect group, which in turn constitutes one of the seven major dialect groups of the Sinitic language familyLanguage family
A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ancestor, called the proto-language of that family. The term 'family' comes from the tree model of language origination in historical linguistics, which makes use of a metaphor comparing languages to people in a...
. As with other varieties of Chinese
Chinese language
The Chinese language is a language or language family consisting of varieties which are mutually intelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages...
, linguists have not yet agreed on whether Teochew should be treated as a language
Language
Language may refer either to the specifically human capacity for acquiring and using complex systems of communication, or to a specific instance of such a system of complex communication...
or a dialect although it is mutually unintelligible with other "dialect groups" of China but mutually intelligible with some other Southern Min Languages, such as the dialects of Zhangzhou
Zhangzhou
Zhangzhou is a prefecture-level city in southern Fujian province, People's Republic of China. Located on the banks of the Jiulong River , Zhangzhou borders the cities of Xiamen and Quanzhou to the northeast, Longyan City to the northwest and the province of Guangdong to the southwest.Zhangzhou...
(漳州话) and Quanzhou
Quanzhou
Quanzhou is a prefecture-level city in Fujian province, People's Republic of China. It borders all other prefecture-level cities in Fujian but two and faces the Taiwan Strait...
(泉州话) probably because of their proximity. Even within the Teochew varieties, there is substantial variation in phonology
Phonology
Phonology is, broadly speaking, the subdiscipline of linguistics concerned with the sounds of language. That is, it is the systematic use of sound to encode meaning in any spoken human language, or the field of linguistics studying this use...
between different regions of Chaoshan and between different Teochew communities overseas.
The Chaozhou language in China, in terms of their closeness, can be roughly divided into 3 sub-groups:
- Chaozhou sub-group (潮州片)： including ChaozhouChaozhouChaozhou is a city in eastern Guangdong province of the People's Republic of China. It borders Shantou to the south, Jieyang to the southwest, Meizhou to the northwest, the province of Fujian to the east, and the South China Sea to the southeast...
(潮州), ShantouShantouShantou , historically known as Swatow or Suátao, is a prefecture-level city on the eastern coast of Guangdong province, People's Republic of China, with a total population of 5,391,028 as of 2010 and an administrative area of...
(汕头), JieyangJieyangJieyang is a prefecture-level city in Guangdong Province, People's Republic of China. It borders Shantou to the east, Chaozhou to the northeast, Meizhou to the north, Shanwei to the west, and looks out to the South China Sea to the south.-Administration:...
(揭阳), Chenghai (澄海), Nan'ao CountyNan'ao CountyNan'ao County is a county in Shantou, Guangdong, China.Geographically, the main part of the county is the island of Nan’ao, which lies 2 – 5 miles off the coast of Guangdong...
(南澳) and RaopingRaopingRaoping County is a county in eastern Guangdong Province, to the west of Fujian Province, near the South China Sea. The city with the same name has 135,600 inhabitants .It is under the jurisdiction of Chaozhou....
(饶平), - Chaopu sub-group (潮普片)： including Chaoyang (潮阳), PuningPuningPuning is a county-level city in the municipal region of Jieyang, Guangdong, China.-Puning in the News:The city's family planning excesses attracted first national then international attention in 2010 April due to the Iron Fist Campaign....
(普宁), Huilai (惠来), and - Hailufeng sub-group (海陆丰片)： including ShanweiShanweiShanwei is a prefecture-level city in Guangdong province of Southern China, People's Republic of China. It borders Jieyang to the east, Meizhou and Heyuan to the north, Huizhou to the west, and looks out to the South China Sea to the south...
(汕尾), Lufeng (陆丰) and HaifengHaifengHaifeng County is a county of Shanwei prefecture, southeastern Guangdong province, Southern china.The people there speak a Teochew dialect related to Hoklo and Hakka....
(海丰)
History and geography
Guangdong
Guangdong is a province on the South China Sea coast of the People's Republic of China. The province was previously often written with the alternative English name Kwangtung Province...
now known as Chaoshan
Chaoshan
Cháoshàn refers to the linguistic and cultural region in the east of Guangdong, a southeastern province of China. This region is the origin of the Min Nan dialect Teochew. The area is known as Teochew for most people overseas, although it also consists of the cities of Shantou and Jieyang...
(潮汕). This migration was most likely due in part to over-population in Fujian
Fujian
' , formerly romanised as Fukien or Huguing or Foukien, is a province on the southeast coast of mainland China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, and Guangdong to the south. Taiwan lies to the east, across the Taiwan Strait...
(福建).
Due to geographical isolation from Fujian
Fujian
' , formerly romanised as Fukien or Huguing or Foukien, is a province on the southeast coast of mainland China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, and Guangdong to the south. Taiwan lies to the east, across the Taiwan Strait...
, Teochew evolved into a separate dialect.
The Chaoshan
Chaoshan
Cháoshàn refers to the linguistic and cultural region in the east of Guangdong, a southeastern province of China. This region is the origin of the Min Nan dialect Teochew. The area is known as Teochew for most people overseas, although it also consists of the cities of Shantou and Jieyang...
region where Chaozhou is spoken includes the cities of Chaozhou, Shantou, which are jointly the source of the name, as well as Jieyang, Chaoyang, Puning, Chao'an, Raoping, Huilai, Chenghai, Nanao, Lufeng, Haifeng, Shanwei and Huidong (惠东). Parts of the Hakka-speaking region, like Jiexi (揭西), Dabu (大埔) and Fengshun
Fengshun
Fengshun is a county in Meizhou Municipality , Guangdong Province.-Ethno-linguistic Make-up:While Meizhou is famously Hakka, Fengshun is the southernmost of its counties : it borders Jieyang and Chaozhou municipalities and is comprised in their Teochew dialect area...
(豐順/丰顺) are also Chaozhou-speaking.
The administrative region now known as Chaoshan in China was one of the major sources of Chinese emigration to Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia, South-East Asia, South East Asia or Southeastern Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India, west of New Guinea and north of Australia. The region lies on the intersection of geological plates, with heavy seismic...
during the 18th–20th centuries, forming one of the larger dialect groups among the Overseas Chinese
Overseas Chinese
Overseas Chinese are people of Chinese birth or descent who live outside the Greater China Area . People of partial Chinese ancestry living outside the Greater China Area may also consider themselves Overseas Chinese....
. In particular, the Teochew people settled in significant numbers in Thailand
Thailand
Thailand , officially the Kingdom of Thailand , formerly known as Siam , is a country located at the centre of the Indochina peninsula and Southeast Asia. It is bordered to the north by Burma and Laos, to the east by Laos and Cambodia, to the south by the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia, and to the...
, Cambodia
Cambodia
Cambodia , officially known as the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country located in the southern portion of the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia...
, and Laos
Laos
Laos Lao: ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ Sathalanalat Paxathipatai Paxaxon Lao, officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic, is a landlocked country in Southeast Asia, bordered by Burma and China to the northwest, Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the south and Thailand to the west...
where they form the largest Chinese dialect group. They constitute a significant minority in Hong Kong
Hong Kong
Hong Kong is one of two Special Administrative Regions of the People's Republic of China , the other being Macau. A city-state situated on China's south coast and enclosed by the Pearl River Delta and South China Sea, it is renowned for its expansive skyline and deep natural harbour...
, Taiwan
Taiwan
Taiwan , also known, especially in the past, as Formosa , is the largest island of the same-named island group of East Asia in the western Pacific Ocean and located off the southeastern coast of mainland China. The island forms over 99% of the current territory of the Republic of China following...
, Vietnam
Vietnam
Vietnam – sometimes spelled Viet Nam , officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam – is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by China to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea –...
, Malaysia, Singapore
Singapore
Singapore , officially the Republic of Singapore, is a Southeast Asian city-state off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, north of the equator. An island country made up of 63 islands, it is separated from Malaysia by the Straits of Johor to its north and from Indonesia's Riau Islands by the...
, and Indonesia
Indonesia
Indonesia , officially the Republic of Indonesia , is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is an archipelago comprising approximately 13,000 islands. It has 33 provinces with over 238 million people, and is the world's fourth most populous country. Indonesia is a republic, with an...
(especially in Riau, North Sumatra
North Sumatra
North Sumatra is a province of Indonesia on the Sumatra island. Its capital is Medan. It is the most populous Indonesian province outside of Java. It is slightly larger than Sri Lanka in area.- Geography and population :...
, South Sumatra
South Sumatra
South Sumatra is a province of Indonesia.-Geography:It is on the island of Sumatra, and borders the provinces of Lampung to the south, Bengkulu to the west, and Jambi to the north...
, and West Kalimantan
West Kalimantan
West Kalimantan is a province of Indonesia. It is one of four Indonesian provinces in Kalimantan, the Indonesian part of the island of Borneo. Its capital city Pontianak is located right on the Equator....
, in Pontianak
Pontianak, Indonesia
Pontianak is the capital of the Indonesian province of West Kalimantan. It is a medium-size industrial city on the island of Borneo. Pontianak occupies an area of 107.82 km² in the delta of the Kapuas River...
and Ketapang
Ketapang
Ketapang is the capital city of Ketapang regency . Ketapang city is located, on the island of Borneo. It is a small city on the delta of the Pawan River. Ketapang regency is one of the regencies of West Kalimantan province in Indonesia. It occupies an area of 35,809 km²...
). Teochew speakers also live in Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
, South Korea
South Korea
The Republic of Korea , , is a sovereign state in East Asia, located on the southern portion of the Korean Peninsula. It is neighbored by the People's Republic of China to the west, Japan to the east, North Korea to the north, and the East China Sea and Republic of China to the south...
, Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
, New Zealand
New Zealand
New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses and numerous smaller islands. The country is situated some east of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and roughly south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga...
, Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
, the United States of America, France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
, and England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
, a result of both direct emigration from Chaoshan
Chaoshan
Cháoshàn refers to the linguistic and cultural region in the east of Guangdong, a southeastern province of China. This region is the origin of the Min Nan dialect Teochew. The area is known as Teochew for most people overseas, although it also consists of the cities of Shantou and Jieyang...
to these nations and secondary emigration from Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia, South-East Asia, South East Asia or Southeastern Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India, west of New Guinea and north of Australia. The region lies on the intersection of geological plates, with heavy seismic...
.
In Singapore
Singapore
Singapore , officially the Republic of Singapore, is a Southeast Asian city-state off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, north of the equator. An island country made up of 63 islands, it is separated from Malaysia by the Straits of Johor to its north and from Indonesia's Riau Islands by the...
, due to common culture, and influences from the media and government
Speak Mandarin Campaign
The Speak Mandarin Campaign is an initiative by the government of Singapore to encourage the Singaporean Chinese population to speak Mandarin, one of the four official languages of Singapore...
, Singaporean Chinese youths whose ancestral language is Teochew are either converting to English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
, Mandarin
Standard Chinese
Standard Chinese, or Modern Standard Chinese, also known as Mandarin or Putonghua, is the official language of the People's Republic of China and Republic of China , and is one of the four official languages of Singapore....
or Hokkien
Hokkien
Hokkien is a Hokkien word corresponding to Standard Chinese "Fujian". It may refer to:* Hokkien dialect, a dialect of Min Nan Chinese spoken in Southern Fujian , Taiwan, South-east Asia, and elsewhere....
(with which it shares a certain degree of mutual intelligibility). Teochew remains the ancestral language of many Chinese people in Singapore - Teochew people are the second largest Chinese group in Singapore, after the Hokkien - although Mandarin is gradually supplanting
Language shift
Language shift, sometimes referred to as language transfer or language replacement or assimilation, is the progressive process whereby a speech community of a language shifts to speaking another language. The rate of assimilation is the percentage of individuals with a given mother tongue who speak...
Teochew as their mother tongue, especially among the younger generations. In Thailand, particularly in Bangkok, Teochew is still spoken among older ethnic Chinese Thai-citizen, however the younger generation ethnic Chinese Thai-citizen tends to learn Mandarin as a third language after Thai and English. Teochew was never popular in Japan and South Korea among the Chinese communities since most of the ethnic Chinese of Teochew ancestry who migrated to these countries are secondary immigrants from Hong Kong and Taiwan. Most of them are second generation people from Hong Kong and Taiwan who speak Cantonese and Mandarin as well as Korean and Japanese, leaving Teochew to be spoken mostly by elders.
Languages in contact
This refers to Chaozhou, which is the variety of Teochew spoken in the People's Republic of China.Mandarin
Chaozhou children are introduced to MandarinStandard Chinese
Standard Chinese, or Modern Standard Chinese, also known as Mandarin or Putonghua, is the official language of the People's Republic of China and Republic of China , and is one of the four official languages of Singapore....
as early as in kindergarten; however, Chaozhou remains the primary medium of instruction. In the early years of primary education, Mandarin becomes the sole language of instruction, although students typically continue to talk to one another in Chaozhou. Mandarin is widely understood, however minimally, by most younger Chaozhou speakers, but the elderly usually do not speak Mandarin since, in their times, teaching was done in the local vernacular.
Chaozhou accent in Mandarin
Native Chaozhou speakers find the neutral tone in Mandarin hardest to master. Chaozhou has lost the alveolar nasalAlveolar nasal
The alveolar nasal is a type of consonantal sound used in numerous spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents dental, alveolar, and postalveolar nasals is , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is n....
ending [-n] and so the people often replace the sound in Mandarin with the velar nasal
Velar nasal
The velar nasal is the sound of ng in English sing. It is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is N....
[-ŋ]. None of the southern Min dialects has a front rounded vowel, therefore a typical Chaozhou accent supplants the unrounded counterpart [i] for [y]. Chaozhou, like its ancient ancestor, lacks labio-dentals; people therefore substitute [h] or [hu] for [f] when they speak Mandarin. Chaozhou does not have any of the retroflex consonants in the northern dialects, so they say [ts], [tsʰ], [s], and [z] instead of [tʂ], [tʂʰ], [ʂ] and [ʐ].
Hakka
Since Chao'an, Raoping and Jieyang border the Hakka-speaking region in the north, some people in these regions speak Hakka, though they can usually speak Chaozhou as well. Chaozhou people have historically had a great deal of contact with the Hakka people, but the Hakka language has had little, if any, influence on Chaozhou. Similarly, in Dabu and Fengshun, where the Chaozhou- and Hakka-speaking regions meet, Chaozhou is also spoken although Hakka remains the primary language there.Cantonese
Because of the influence of Hong Kong soap operas and Guangdong provincial television programmes, many young ChaoshanChaoshan
Cháoshàn refers to the linguistic and cultural region in the east of Guangdong, a southeastern province of China. This region is the origin of the Min Nan dialect Teochew. The area is known as Teochew for most people overseas, although it also consists of the cities of Shantou and Jieyang...
people can understand quite a lot of Cantonese
Standard Cantonese
Cantonese, or Standard Cantonese, is a language that originated in the vicinity of Canton in southern China, and is often regarded as the prestige dialect of Yue Chinese....
even if they cannot speak it.
Other languages
In the mountainous area of Fenghuang (鳳凰/凤凰), a non-SiniticChinese language
The Chinese language is a language or language family consisting of varieties which are mutually intelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages...
language, the She language
She language
The She language , spoken by the She people, is a Hmong–Mien language. Most of the over 709,000 She people today speak Hakka Chinese...
, is spoken by a few hundred aboriginal She people
She people
The She people are a Chinese ethnic group. They form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China....
(畲). It belongs to the Hmong–Mien language family.
Consonants
Teochew (along with other southern Min languages) is one of the few Sinitic languages which have voiced obstruentObstruent
An obstruent is a consonant sound formed by obstructing airflow, causing increased air pressure in the vocal tract, such as [k], [d͡ʒ] and [f]. In phonetics, articulation may be divided into two large classes: obstruents and sonorants....
s (stops, fricatives and affricates); however, unlike the Wu and Xiang languages, the Teochew voiced stops and fricatives
Fricative consonant
Fricatives are consonants produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together. These may be the lower lip against the upper teeth, in the case of ; the back of the tongue against the soft palate, in the case of German , the final consonant of Bach; or...
did not evolve from the Middle Chinese
Middle Chinese
Middle Chinese , also called Ancient Chinese by the linguist Bernhard Karlgren, refers to the Chinese language spoken during Southern and Northern Dynasties and the Sui, Tang, and Song dynasties...
voiced obstruents, instead, they were from the Middle Chinese nasal
Nasal consonant
A nasal consonant is a type of consonant produced with a lowered velum in the mouth, allowing air to escape freely through the nose. Examples of nasal consonants in English are and , in words such as nose and mouth.- Definition :...
s. Therefore, the voiced stops [b] and [ɡ] are in fact prenasalised
Prenasalized consonant
Prenasalized consonants are phonetic sequences of a nasal and an obstruent that behave phonologically like single consonants. The reasons for considering these sequences to be single consonants is in their behavior, not in their actual composition...
as [ᵐb] and [ᵑɡ] respectively. The voiced alveolar affricate [dz] was originally a fricative sound [z] in earlier Teochew and still is in some varieties of Teochew. Southern Min languages are typified by a lack of labio-dentals, as illustrated below:
| Bilabial Bilabial consonant In phonetics, a bilabial consonant is a consonant articulated with both lips. The bilabial consonants identified by the International Phonetic Alphabet are:... |
Alveolar Alveolar consonant Alveolar consonants are articulated with the tongue against or close to the superior alveolar ridge, which is called that because it contains the alveoli of the superior teeth... |
Velar Velar consonant Velars are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue against the soft palate, the back part of the roof of the mouth, known also as the velum).... |
Glottal Glottal consonant Glottal consonants, also called laryngeal consonants, are consonants articulated with the glottis. Many phoneticians consider them, or at least the so-called fricative, to be transitional states of the glottis without a point of articulation as other consonants have; in fact, some do not consider... |
||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal Nasal consonant A nasal consonant is a type of consonant produced with a lowered velum in the mouth, allowing air to escape freely through the nose. Examples of nasal consonants in English are and , in words such as nose and mouth.- Definition :... |
m | n | ŋ | ||
| Plosive | aspirated Aspiration (phonetics) In phonetics, aspiration is the strong burst of air that accompanies either the release or, in the case of preaspiration, the closure of some obstruents. To feel or see the difference between aspirated and unaspirated sounds, one can put a hand or a lit candle in front of one's mouth, and say pin ... |
pʰ | tʰ | kʰ | |
| voiceless | p | t | k | ʔ | |
| voiced | b | ɡ | |||
| Affricate Affricate consonant Affricates are consonants that begin as stops but release as a fricative rather than directly into the following vowel.- Samples :... |
aspirated Aspiration (phonetics) In phonetics, aspiration is the strong burst of air that accompanies either the release or, in the case of preaspiration, the closure of some obstruents. To feel or see the difference between aspirated and unaspirated sounds, one can put a hand or a lit candle in front of one's mouth, and say pin ... |
tsʰ | |||
| voiceless | ts | ||||
| voiced | dz | ||||
| Fricative Fricative consonant Fricatives are consonants produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together. These may be the lower lip against the upper teeth, in the case of ; the back of the tongue against the soft palate, in the case of German , the final consonant of Bach; or... |
s | h | |||
| Approximant Approximant consonant Approximants are speech sounds that involve the articulators approaching each other but not narrowly enough or with enough articulatory precision to create turbulent airflow. Therefore, approximants fall between fricatives, which do produce a turbulent airstream, and vowels, which produce no... |
l | ||||
Syllable
SyllableSyllable
A syllable is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds. For example, the word water is composed of two syllables: wa and ter. A syllable is typically made up of a syllable nucleus with optional initial and final margins .Syllables are often considered the phonological "building...
s in Teochew contain an onset consonant, a medial glide, a nucleus, usually in the form of a vowel
Vowel
In phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, such as English ah! or oh! , pronounced with an open vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis. This contrasts with consonants, such as English sh! , where there is a constriction or closure at some...
, but can also be occupied by a syllabic consonant
Syllabic consonant
A syllabic consonant is a consonant which either forms a syllable on its own, or is the nucleus of a syllable. The diacritic for this in the International Phonetic Alphabet is the under-stroke, ⟨⟩...
like [ŋ], and a final consonant
Consonant
In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. Examples are , pronounced with the lips; , pronounced with the front of the tongue; , pronounced with the back of the tongue; , pronounced in the throat; and ,...
. All the elements of the syllable except for the nucleus are optional, which means a vowel or a syllabic consonant alone can stand as a fully-fledged syllable.
Onsets
All the consonants except for the glottal stop ʔ shown in the consonants chart above can act as the onset of a syllable; however, the onset position is not obligatorily occupied.Nucleus
The nucleus is the only obligatory and therefore the most important element of a syllable. It can be occupied by a vowel, a nasalised vowel or a syllabic consonant in Teochew.
Coda
The coda position is usually fulfilled by a stop or nasal consonant (which, technically speaking, is also a stop sound because the soft palate is lowered to allow air to flow through the nasal cavity) but is nevertheless optional.
Citation tones
Teochew, like other Chinese languages, is a tonal language. It has six tonesTone (linguistics)
Tone is the use of pitch in language to distinguish lexical or grammatical meaning—that is, to distinguish or inflect words. All verbal languages use pitch to express emotional and other paralinguistic information, and to convey emphasis, contrast, and other such features in what is called...
(reduced to two in stopped syllables) and extensive tone sandhi
Tone sandhi
Tone sandhi is a feature of tonal languages in which the tones assigned to individual words vary based on the pronunciation of the words that surround them in a phrase or sentence. It is a type of sandhi, or fusional change, from the Sanskrit word for "joining".-Languages with tone sandhi:Not all...
.
| Tone number | Tone name | Pitch contour | Description | Sandhi |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | yin level (陰平/阴平) | ˧ (3) | mid | 1 |
| 2 | yin rising (陰上/阴上) | ˥˨ (52) | falling | 6 |
| 3 | yin departing (陰去/阴去) | ˨˩˧ (213) | low rising | 2 or 5 |
| 4 | yin entering (陰入/阴入) | ˨̚ (2) | low checked | 8 |
| 5 | yang level (陽平/阳平) | ˥ (5) | high | 7 |
| 6 | yang rising (陽上/阳上) | ˧˥ (35) | high rising | 7 |
| 7 | yang departing (陽去/阳去) | ˩ (1) | low | 7 |
| 8 | yang entering (陽入/阳入) | ˦̚ (4) | high checked | 4 |
As with sandhi in other Min Nan dialects, the checked tones interchange. The yang tones all become low. Sandhi is not accounted for in the description below.
Grammar
The grammarGrammar
In linguistics, grammar is the set of structural rules that govern the composition of clauses, phrases, and words in any given natural language. The term refers also to the study of such rules, and this field includes morphology, syntax, and phonology, often complemented by phonetics, semantics,...
of Teochew is similar to other southern Chinese dialects, especially with Hakka and Cantonese. The sequence 'subject–verb–object' is typical, like Mandarin, although 'subject–object–verb' is also possible using particles.
Personal pronouns
The personal pronouns in Teochew, like in other Sinitic languages, do not show case marking, therefore 我 [ua] means both I and me and 伊人 [i naŋ] means they and them. The southern Min dialects, like some northern dialects, have a distinction between an inclusive
Clusivity
In linguistics, clusivity is a distinction between inclusive and exclusive first-person pronouns and verbal morphology, also called inclusive "we" and exclusive "we"...
and exclusive
Clusivity
In linguistics, clusivity is a distinction between inclusive and exclusive first-person pronouns and verbal morphology, also called inclusive "we" and exclusive "we"...
we, meaning that when the addressee is being included, the inclusive pronoun 俺 [naŋ] would be used, otherwise 阮 [ŋ]. No other southern Chinese language, such as Cantonese or Hakka, has this distinction.
| Singular Grammatical number In linguistics, grammatical number is a grammatical category of nouns, pronouns, and adjective and verb agreement that expresses count distinctions .... |
Plural Plural In linguistics, plurality or [a] plural is a concept of quantity representing a value of more-than-one. Typically applied to nouns, a plural word or marker is used to distinguish a value other than the default quantity of a noun, which is typically one... |
||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st person Grammatical person Grammatical person, in linguistics, is deictic reference to a participant in an event; such as the speaker, the addressee, or others. Grammatical person typically defines a language's set of personal pronouns... |
我 ua˥˨ | I / me | Inclusive Clusivity In linguistics, clusivity is a distinction between inclusive and exclusive first-person pronouns and verbal morphology, also called inclusive "we" and exclusive "we"... |
俺 naŋ˥˨ | we / us |
| Exclusive Clusivity In linguistics, clusivity is a distinction between inclusive and exclusive first-person pronouns and verbal morphology, also called inclusive "we" and exclusive "we"... |
阮 ŋ˥˨ | we / us | |||
| 2nd person | 汝 lɤ˥˨ | thou / thee | 恁 niŋ˥˨ | you (all) | |
| 3rd person | 伊 i˧ | he/she/it/him/her | 伊人 i˧ naŋ˥ | they/them | |
Possessive pronouns
The Teochew language does not distinguish the possessive pronouns from the possessive adjectives. As a general rule, the possessive pronouns or adjectives are formed by adding the genitive or possessive marker 個/个 [kai5] to their respective personal pronouns, as summarised below:
| Singular Grammatical number In linguistics, grammatical number is a grammatical category of nouns, pronouns, and adjective and verb agreement that expresses count distinctions .... |
Plural Plural In linguistics, plurality or [a] plural is a concept of quantity representing a value of more-than-one. Typically applied to nouns, a plural word or marker is used to distinguish a value other than the default quantity of a noun, which is typically one... |
||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st person Grammatical person Grammatical person, in linguistics, is deictic reference to a participant in an event; such as the speaker, the addressee, or others. Grammatical person typically defines a language's set of personal pronouns... |
我個/我个 ua˥˨ kai˥ | my / mine | Inclusive Clusivity In linguistics, clusivity is a distinction between inclusive and exclusive first-person pronouns and verbal morphology, also called inclusive "we" and exclusive "we"... |
俺個/俺个 naŋ˥˨ kai˥ | our / ours |
| Exclusive Clusivity In linguistics, clusivity is a distinction between inclusive and exclusive first-person pronouns and verbal morphology, also called inclusive "we" and exclusive "we"... |
阮個/阮个 ŋ˥˨ kai˥ | ours / ours | |||
| 2nd person | 汝個/汝个 lɤ˥˨ kai˥ | thine / | 恁個/恁个 niŋ˥˨ kai˥ | your / yours | |
| 3rd person | 伊個/伊个 i˧ kai˥ | his / his; her / hers; its / its | 伊人個/伊人个 i˧ naŋ˥ kai˥ | their / theirs | |
本書是我個/本书是我个
[puŋ˥˨ tsɤ˧ si˧˥ ua˥˨ kai˥]
The book is mine.
However, there are instances in which 個/个 [kai˥] can be dropped, such as when followed by a measure word, as in:
我條裙/我条裙
[ua˥˨ tiou˥ kuŋ˥]
my skirt
Demonstrative pronouns
Teochew has the typical two-way distinction between the demonstratives, namely the proximals and the distals, as summarised in the following chart:
| Proximal | | Distal | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| General | Singular | 只個 [tsi˥˨ kai˥] | this | 許個 [hɤ˥˨ kai˥] | that |
| Plural | 只撮 [tsi˥˨ tsʰoʔ˦] | these | 許撮 [hɤ˥˨ tsʰoʔ˦] | those | |
| Spatial | 只塊 [tsi˥˨ ko˨˩˧] | here | 許塊 [hɤ˥˨ ko˨˩˧] | there | |
| 只內 [tsi˥˨ lai˧˥] | inside | 許內 [hɤ˥˨ lai˧˥] | inside | ||
| 只口 [tsi˥˨ kʰao˩] | outside | 許口 [hɤ˥˨ kʰao˩] | outside | ||
| Temporal | 只陣 / 當 [tsi˥˨ tsuŋ˥ / tɤŋ˨˩˧] | now; recently | 許陣 / 當 [hɤ˥˨ tsuŋ˥ / tɤŋ˨˩˧] | then | |
| Adverbial | 這生 [tse˥˨ sẽ˧] | like this | 向生 [hia˥˨ sẽ˧] | like that | |
| Degree | 醬 [tsĩẽ˨˩˧] | this | 向 [hĩẽ˨˩˧] | that | |
| Type | 者個 [tsia˥˨ kai˥] | this kind | 向個 [hia˥˨ kai˥] | that kind | |
Interrogative pronouns
| who / whom | (底)珍 [ti tieŋ] | |
|---|---|---|
| 底人 [ti naŋ] | ||
| what | 乜個 [miʔ kai] | |
| what (kind of) + noun | 乜 + N Noun In linguistics, a noun is a member of a large, open lexical category whose members can occur as the main word in the subject of a clause, the object of a verb, or the object of a preposition .Lexical categories are defined in terms of how their members combine with other kinds of... [miʔ] |
|
| which | 底 + NUM Numeral system A numeral system is a writing system for expressing numbers, that is a mathematical notation for representing numbers of a given set, using graphemes or symbols in a consistent manner.... + CL Classifier (linguistics) A classifier, in linguistics, sometimes called a measure word, is a word or morpheme used in some languages to classify the referent of a countable noun according to its meaning. In languages that have classifiers, they are often used when the noun is being counted or specified... + (N) [ti] |
|
| 底個 [ti kai] | ||
| where | 底塊 [ti ko] | |
| when | 珍時 [tieŋ si] | |
| how | manner | 做呢 [tso ni] |
| state | 在些(樣) [tsai sẽ ĩẽ] | |
| 乜些樣 [miʔ sẽ ĩẽ] | ||
| 什乜樣 [si miʔ ĩẽ] | ||
| how many | 幾 + CL + N [kui] | |
| 若多 + (CL) + (N) [dzieʔ tsoi] | ||
| how much | 若多 [dzieʔ tsoi] | |
| why | 做呢 [tso ni] | |
Numerals
| Pronunciation | Financial | Normal | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| liŋ5 | 零 | 〇 | 0 0 (number) 0 is both a numberand the numerical digit used to represent that number in numerals.It fulfills a central role in mathematics as the additive identity of the integers, real numbers, and many other algebraic structures. As a digit, 0 is used as a placeholder in place value systems... |
〇 is an informal way to represent zero, but 零 is more commonly used, especially in schools. also 空 [kang3] |
| tsek8 | 壹 | 一 | 1 | also 蜀 [tsek8] (original character) also 弌 (obsolete) also [ik4] as the last digit of a 2-or-more-digit number e.g. 二十一 [dzi6 tsap8 ik4] or days of a month e.g. 一號 [ik4 ho7] or as an ordinal number e.g. 第一 [tõĩ6 ik4] also 么(T) or 幺(S) [iou1] when used in phone numbers etc. |
| no6 | 兩(T) or 两(S) |
二 | 2 | also 弍 (obsolete) also 貳(T) or 贰(S) also [dzi6] as the last digit of a 2-or-more-digit number e.g. 三十二 [sã1 tsap8 dzi6] or days of a month e.g. 二號 [dzi6 ho7] or as an ordinal number e.g. 第二 [tõĩ6 dzi6]. |
| sã1 | 叄(T) or 叁(S) |
三 | 3 | also 弎 (obsolete) also 參(T) or 参(S) [sã1]. |
| si3 | 肆 | 四 | 4 | |
| ŋou6 | 伍 | 五 | 5 | |
| lak8 | 陸 | 六 | 6 | |
| tsʰik4 | 柒 | 七 | 7 | |
| poiʔ4 | 捌 | 八 | 8 | |
| kao2 | 玖 | 九 | 9 | |
| tsap8 | 拾 | 十 | 10 10 (number) 10 is an even natural number following 9 and preceding 11.-In mathematics:Ten is a composite number, its proper divisors being , and... |
Although some people use 什, It is not acceptable because it can be written over into 伍. |
Note: (T): Traditional characters; (S): Simplified characters.
Ordinal numbers are formed by adding 第 [tõĩ˧˥] in front of a cardinal number.
Voice
In Teochew passive construction, the agent
Agent (grammar)
In linguistics, a grammatical agent is the cause or initiator of an event. Agent is the name of the thematic role...
phrase
Phrase
In everyday speech, a phrase may refer to any group of words. In linguistics, a phrase is a group of words which form a constituent and so function as a single unit in the syntax of a sentence. A phrase is lower on the grammatical hierarchy than a clause....
by somebody always has to be present, and is introduced by either 乞 [kʰoiʔ˦]* or 分 [puŋ˧], even though it is in fact a zero or indefinite agent as in:
伊分人刣掉
[i˧ puŋ˧ naŋ˥ tʰai˥ tiau˩]
s/he was killed (by someone)
While in Mandarin we can have the agent introducer 被 bèi or 給 gěi alone without the agent itself, it is not grammatical to say
* 個杯分敲掉
[kai˥ pue˧ puŋ˧ kʰa˧ tiau˩]
the cup was broken.
(cf. Mandarin: 杯子給打破了 bēizi gěi dǎ pòle)
Instead, we have to say:
個杯分人敲掉
[kai˥ pue˧ puŋ˧ naŋ˥ kʰa˧ tiau˩]
Even though this 人 [naŋ˥] is unknown.
Note also that the agent phrase 分人 [puŋ˧ naŋ˥] always comes immediately after the subject, not at the end of the sentence or between the auxiliary
Auxiliary verb
In linguistics, an auxiliary verb is a verb that gives further semantic or syntactic information about a main or full verb. In English, the extra meaning provided by an auxiliary verb alters the basic meaning of the main verb to make it have one or more of the following functions: passive voice,...
and the past participle
Participle
In linguistics, a participle is a word that shares some characteristics of both verbs and adjectives. It can be used in compound verb tenses or voices , or as a modifier...
like in some European languages (e.g. German
German language
German is a West Germanic language, related to and classified alongside English and Dutch. With an estimated 90 – 98 million native speakers, German is one of the world's major languages and is the most widely-spoken first language in the European Union....
, Dutch
Dutch language
Dutch is a West Germanic language and the native language of the majority of the population of the Netherlands, Belgium, and Suriname, the three member states of the Dutch Language Union. Most speakers live in the European Union, where it is a first language for about 23 million and a second...
)
The comparative construction with two or more nouns
Teochew uses the construction "X ADJ 過 [kue˨˩˧] Y", which is believed to have evolved from the Ancient Chinese "X ADJ 于 (yú) Y" structure, to express the idea of comparison:
伊雅過汝
[i˧ ŋia˥˨ kue˨˩˧ lɤ˥˨]
She is more beautiful than you.
Cantonese uses the same construction:
cf. 佢靚過你 [kʰœy˥ leŋ˨˩˧ kʷɔ˨˩˧ nei˥]
However, due to influences from Mandarin, the Mandarin structure "X 比 Y ADJ" has also gained popularity over the years. Therefore, the same sentence can be re-structured and becomes:
伊比汝雅。
[i˩ pi˥˨ lɤ˥˨ ŋia˥˨]
cf. Mandarin 她比你漂亮 (tā bǐ nǐ piàoliang)
The comparative construction with only one noun
Note: the 過- or 比-construction must involve two or more nouns to be compared; an ill-formed sentence will be yielded when only one is being mentioned:
* 伊雅過 (?)
This is different from English since the second noun being compared can be left out:
cf. Tatyana is more beautiful (than Lisa).
In this case, the 夭-construction has to be used instead:
伊夭雅
[i1 iou6 ŋia2]
She is more beautiful.
The same holds true for Mandarin and Cantonese in that another structure needs to be used when only one of the nouns being compared is mentioned. Note also that Teochew and Mandarin both use a pre-modifier (before the adjective) while Cantonese uses a post-modifier (after the adjective).
cf. Mandarin 她比較漂亮 (tā bǐjiào piàoliang) & Cantonese 佢靚啲 [kʰœy5 leŋ3 ti1]
There are two words which are intrinsically comparative in meaning, i.e. 贏 [ĩã5] "better" and 輸 [su1] "worse". They can be used alone or in conjunction with the 過-structure:
只領裙輸(過)許領
[tsi2 nĩã2 kuŋ5 su1 kue3 hɤ2 nĩã2]
This skirt is not as good as that one.
我內個電腦贏伊個好多
[ua2 lai6 kai7 tieŋ6 nao2 ĩã5 i1 kai7 hoʔ2 tsoi7]
My computer (at home) is far better than his.
Note the use of the adverbial 好多 [hoʔ2 tsoi7] at the end of the sentence to express a higher degree.
The equal construction
In Teochew, the idea of equality is expressed with the word 平 [pẽ5] or 平樣 [pẽ5 ĩẽ7]:
只本書佮許本平重。
[tsi2 puŋ2 tsɤ1 kaʔ4 hɤ2 puŋ2 pẽ5 taŋ6]
This book is as heavy as that one.
伊兩人平平樣。
[i1 no6 naŋ5 pẽ5 pẽ5 ĩẽ7]
They are the same. (They look the same./They're as good as each other./They're as bad as each other.)
The superlative construction
To express the superlative, Teochew uses the adverb 上 [siaŋ5] or 上頂 [siaŋ5 teŋ2]. However, it should be noted that 上頂 is usually used with a complimentary connotation.
只間物上頂好食。
[tsi2 kõĩ1 mueʔ8 siaŋ5 teŋ2 ho2 tsiaʔ8]
This (restaurant) is (absolutely) the most delicious.
伊人對我上好。
[i1 naŋ5 tui3 ua2 siaŋ5 ho2]
They treat me best.
Vocabulary
The vocabulary of Teochew shares a lot of similarities with Cantonese owing to their continuous contact with each other. Like Cantonese, Teochew has a great deal of monosyllabicSyllable
A syllable is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds. For example, the word water is composed of two syllables: wa and ter. A syllable is typically made up of a syllable nucleus with optional initial and final margins .Syllables are often considered the phonological "building...
words, which to a certain extent reflects the age of the Teochew language since monosyllabic words were prevalent in Ancient Chinese
Middle Chinese
Middle Chinese , also called Ancient Chinese by the linguist Bernhard Karlgren, refers to the Chinese language spoken during Southern and Northern Dynasties and the Sui, Tang, and Song dynasties...
. However, ever since the standardisation of Modern Standard Chinese, Teochew has absorbed a lot of Putonghua vocabulary, which is predominantly polysyllabic. In addition, due to the migration to Southeast Asia, Teochew has also borrowed extensively from Malay
Malay language
Malay is a major language of the Austronesian family. It is the official language of Malaysia , Indonesia , Brunei and Singapore...
.
Archaic vocabulary
Teochew and other Min Nan dialects such as Taiwanese preserve a good deal of Ancient Chinese vocabulary. Examples include words such as 目 [mak] eye (cf. Putonghua: 眼睛 yǎnjīng; Taiwanese: 目 ba̍k), 灱 [ta] dry (cf. Putonghua: 乾 gān; Taiwanese: 焦 ta), and 囥 [kʰɤŋ] hide (cf. Putonghua: 藏 cáng; Taiwanese: 囥 khǹg).Romanisation
Teochew has been romanised by the GuangdongGuangdong
Guangdong is a province on the South China Sea coast of the People's Republic of China. The province was previously often written with the alternative English name Kwangtung Province...
provincial government to aid linguistic studies and the publication of dictionaries, although the Taiwanese Pe̍h-oē-jī could also be used because the Christian missionaries invented it in a way that is also suitable for the transcription of other Min Nan
Min Nan
The Southern Min languages, or Min Nan , are a family of Chinese languages spoken in southern Fujian, eastern Guangdong, Hainan, Taiwan, and southern Zhejiang provinces of China, and by descendants of emigrants from these areas in diaspora....
dialects.
A modified version of the Guangdong romanization
Guangdong Romanization
Guangdong Romanization refers to the four romanization schemes published by the Guangdong Provincial Education Department in 1960 for transliterating the Cantonese, Teochew, Hakka, and Hainanese...
system called Peng'im is also used in an online Teochew community.
Initials
Initial consonants of Teochew, are represented in the Guangdong Peng'imGuangdong Romanization
Guangdong Romanization refers to the four romanization schemes published by the Guangdong Provincial Education Department in 1960 for transliterating the Cantonese, Teochew, Hakka, and Hainanese...
system as: B, BH, C, D, G, GH, H, K, L, M, N, NG, P, R, S, T, and Z.
Examples:
- B - bag (北 north)
- Bh- bhê (馬/马 horse)
- C - cên (青 green)
- C - cǔi (嘴 mouth)
- C - cêng (槍/枪 gun)
- D - dio (潮 tide)
- G - gio (橋/桥 bridge)
- GH- gho (鵝/鹅 goose)
- H - hung (雲/云 cloud)
- K - ke (走 to go)
- L - lag (六 six)
- M - mêng (明 bright)
- N - nang (人 person)
- NG - ngou (五 five)
- P - peng (平 peace)
- R - riêg/ruah (熱/热 hot)
- S - sên (生 to be born)
- T - tin (天 sky)
- Z - ziu (州 region/state)
Vowels
Vowels and vowelVowel
In phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, such as English ah! or oh! , pronounced with an open vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis. This contrasts with consonants, such as English sh! , where there is a constriction or closure at some...
combinations in the Teochew dialect include: A, E, Ê, I, O, U, AI, AO, IA, IO, IU, OI, OU, UA, UAI, UE, and UI.
Examples:
- A - ma (媽/妈 mother)
- E - de (箸 chopsticks)
- Ê - sên (生 to be born)
- I - bhi (味 smell/taste)
- O - to (桃 peach)
- U - ghu (牛 cow)
Many words in Teochew are nasalized. This is represented by the letter "n" in the Guangdong Pengim system.
Example (nasalized):
- suan (山 mountain)
- cên (青 green)
Ending
Ending consonantConsonant
In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. Examples are , pronounced with the lips; , pronounced with the front of the tongue; , pronounced with the back of the tongue; , pronounced in the throat; and ,...
s in Teochew include M and NG as well as the stops
Stop consonant
In phonetics, a plosive, also known as an occlusive or an oral stop, is a stop consonant in which the vocal tract is blocked so that all airflow ceases. The occlusion may be done with the tongue , lips , and &...
discussed below.
Examples:
- M - iam (鹽/盐 salt)
- NG - bhuang (萬/万 ten thousand)
Teochew retains many consonant
Consonant
In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. Examples are , pronounced with the lips; , pronounced with the front of the tongue; , pronounced with the back of the tongue; , pronounced in the throat; and ,...
stops lost to Mandarin. These stops include a labial stop: "b"; velar stop: "g"; and glottal stop: "h".
Examples:
- B - zab (十 ten)
- G - hog (福 happiness)
- H - tih (鐵/铁 iron)
See also
- Chinese in SingaporeChinese in SingaporeChinese Singaporeans are people of Chinese ethnicity who hold Singaporean nationality. As of 2010, Chinese Singaporeans constitute 74.1% of Singapore's resident population, or approximately three out of four Singaporeans, making them the largest ethnic group in Singapore...
- Bangkok TeochewThai ChineseThe Thai Chinese are an overseas Chinese community who live in Thailand. Thailand is home to the largest, oldest, most prominent, and most integrated overseas Chinese community in the world with a population of approximately 9.5 million people...
- Fuzhou dialectFuzhou dialectFuzhou dialect , also known as Foochow dialect, Foochow, Foochowese, Fuzhounese, or Fuzhouhua, is considered the standard dialect of Min Dong, which is a branch of Min Chinese mainly spoken in the eastern part of Fujian Province. Native speakers also call it ' , meaning the language spoken in...
- Hokkien dialect
- Languages of ChinaLanguages of ChinaChina's many different ethnic groups speak many different languages, collectively called Zhōngguó Yǔwén , literally, "speech and writing of China", which span eight primary language families. Most of them are dissimilar morphologically and phonetically. Even within each family, most are mutually...
- List of Chinese dialects
- Malaysian ChineseMalaysian ChineseMalaysian Chinese is a Malaysian of Chinese origin. Most are descendants of Chinese who arrived between the fifteenth and the mid-twentieth centuries. Within Malaysia, they are usually simply referred to as "Chinese" in all languages. The term Chinese Malaysian is also sometimes used to refer to...
- Min NanMin NanThe Southern Min languages, or Min Nan , are a family of Chinese languages spoken in southern Fujian, eastern Guangdong, Hainan, Taiwan, and southern Zhejiang provinces of China, and by descendants of emigrants from these areas in diaspora....
- Taiwanese Hokkien
- Tiechiu swadesh list
Notations
- Beijing da xue Zhongguo yu yan wen xue xi yu yan xue jiao yan shi. (2003). Han yu fang yin zi hui. (Chinese dialectal vocabulary) Beijing, China : Yu wen chu ban she (北京大學中國語言文學系語言學教研室, 2003. 漢語方音字彙. 北京: 語文出版社) ISBN 7-80184-034-8
- Cai Junming. (1991). Putonghua dui zhao Chaozhou fang yan ci hui. (Chaozhou dialectal vocabulary, contrasted with Mandarin) Hong Kong, China: Wu Duotai Zhongguo yu wen yan jiu zhong xin (蔡俊明, 1991. 普通話對照潮州方言詞彙. 香港: 香港中文大學吳多泰中國語文研究中心) ISBN 962-7330-02-7
- Chappell, Hilary (ed.) (2001). Sinitic grammar : synchronic and diachronic perspectives. Oxford; New York: OUP ISBN 0-19-829977-X
- Chen, Matthew Y. (2000). Tone Sandhi : patterns across Chinese dialects. Cambridge, England: CUP ISBN 0-521-65272-3
- DeFrancis, John. (1984). The Chinese language: fact and fantasy. Honolulu: University of Hawaii PressUniversity of Hawaii PressThe University of Hawaii Press is a university press that is part of the University of Hawaii.The University of Hawaii Press was founded in 1947, with the mission of advancing and disseminating scholarship by publishing current research in all disciplines of the humanities and natural and social...
ISBN 0-8248-1068-6 - Li, Xin Kui. (1994). Guangdong di fang yan. (Dialects of Guangdong) Guangzhou, China: Guangdong ren min chu ban she (李新魁, 1994. 廣東的方言. 廣州: 廣東 人民出版社) ISBN 7-218-00960-3
- Li, Yongming. (1959). Chaozhou fang yan. (Chaozhou dialect) Beijing, China : Zhonghua. (李永明, 1959. 潮州方言. 北京: 中華)
- Lin, Lun Lun. (1997). Xin bian Chaozhou yin zi dian. (New Chaozhou pronunciation dictionary) Shantou, China : Shantou da xue chu ban she. (林倫倫, 1997. 新編潮州音字典. 汕頭: 汕頭大學出版社) ISBN 7-81036-189-9
- Norman, Jerry. [1988] (2002). Chinese. Cambridge, England: CUP ISBN 0-521-29653-6
- Ramsey, S. Robert (1986). Languages of China. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University PressPrinceton University Press-Further reading:* "". Artforum International, 2005.-External links:* * * * *...
ISBN 0-691-06694-9
External links
- Database of Pronunciations of Chinese Dialects (in English, Chinese and Japanese)
- Teochew People - Teochew dialect (in Chinese)
- Diojiu Bhung Gak
- GagiNang
- Glossika - Chinese Languages and Dialects
- MoGher (in Chinese, English and French)
- Omniglot
- Shantou University Chaozhou Studies Resources (in Chinese)
- Teochew Web (in Chinese and English)
- Tonal harmony and register contour in Chaozhou