Zunghar Khanate
Encyclopedia
The Zunghar Khanate was a nomadic power on the Eurasian steppe
. It covered the area called Dzungaria
and stretched from the west end of the Great Wall of China
to present-day eastern Kazakhstan
, and from present-day northern Kyrgyzstan
to southern Siberia
(most of this area is part of Xinjiang
nowadays).
In 1678 Galdan received from the Dalai Lama
the title Boshogtu Khan
. This confirmed the Zunghars as the new leading tribe of the Oirats
. However, the Zunghar rulers bore title of Khong Tayiji
(originally meaning crown prince from the Chinese word, Huang Taizi, which also means the same thing) while their state was often called Zunghar Khanate. After the deaths of Galdan Boshogtu Khan and Tsewang Rabtan
, the Khanate began to decline; it was annexed by the Qing Dynasty
in 1756-59.
, "left" means "east" and "right" means "west") The region of Dzungaria
derives its name from this confederation. Although the Dzungars were located west of the Eastern Mongols, the derivation of their name has been attributed to the fact that they represented the left wing of the Oirats
.
or western Mongols became united in Dzungaria
. By about 1680 they had conquered the Tarim Basin
to the south. In 1688 Galdan defeated the Khalkhas or eastern Mongols, many of whom fled southeast to Inner Mongolia
where they became and remained Manchu subjects. In 1696, the Manchu defeated Galdan near Ulan Bator, chased him westward and gained control over Outer Mongolia
. In 1717 Tsewang Rabtan sent an army to Tibet
. The Manchu drove the Dzunghars out and established a protectorate over Tibet. In 1750-57, the Manchu took advantage of a Zunghar civil war to conquer Dzungaria and killed a large part of the population. The Manchu turned south and annexed the Tarim Basin by 1759, thus completing the current western border of China.
lineage and reckoned their descent from the Oirat taishis Toghoon (d.1438) and Esen
(r.1438-54). At the beginning of the 17th century, a young leader named Khara Khula
emerged to unite the Oirats to fight Sholui Ubashi Khong Tayiji, the first Altan Khan of the Khalkha
, who few years earlier expelled the Oirats from their home in the Kobdo region in present-day northwest Mongolia
. Early in his reign, Khara Kula united the Choros, Dorbod and Khoid tribes, thus forming the Dzungar nation. In the 1620s wars against the Khalkha
, he could gain decisive victory over the Eastern Mongols. The Oirats homeland was under the dominion
of Jasaghtu Khan
of the Khalkha. In 1623 the Oirat confederation
killed Ubashi Khong Tayiji, and secured their independence. At the time, only Torobaikhu
, a leader of the Khoshud tribe could claim the title of Khan
while Baatur Dalai Taishi of the Dorbods was considered the most powerful Oirat chief. Even so, Khara Khula's son Baatur Khung Taiji
(d.1653) joined the 1636-42 expedition to Tibet
led by Gushi Khan Torobaikhu. After Baatur returned to Dzungaria with the title Erdeni (given by Dalai Lama
) and much booty, he made three expeditions against the Kazakhs
. With the migrations of the Torghuds, the Khoshuds and the Dorbods from 1630 to 1677, the Zunghars' relative power was increased in Zungaria.
In 1653 Sengge
succeeded his father Baatur Khung Taiji as Zungharian chief, but an internal strife with his half brother Chechen Tayiji involved the Khoshuud
. From 1657 on, Amin-Dara's sons Sengge and Galdan
faced disafection from their half-brothers. With the support of Ochirtu Khan
of the Khoshuud, this strife ended with Sengge's victory in 1661. In 1667 he captured Erinchin Lobsang Tayiji
, the third and last Altan Khan. However, he himself was assassinated by his half brothers Chechen Tayiji and Zotov in a coup in 1670.
Sengge's younger brother Galdan immediately returned from Tibet to lay life and took revenge on Chechen. As a Buddhist priest, Galdan had been to Tibet at the age of thirteen and had trained under the fourth Panchen Lama
and then the Fifth Dalai Lama. Allied with Ochirtu Sechen of the Khoshuud, Galdan defeated Chechen, and drove Zotov out of Zungaria. However, Sengge's two sons Sonom Rabdan and Tsewang Rabtan
revolted against him, but they were also crushed in the end. In 1671 The Dalai Lama bestowed the title of Khan on Galdan. Although, already married Anu-Dara
, granddaughter of Ochirtu, he came into conflict with his grandfather in law. Fearing of Galdan's popularity, Ochirtu supported his uncle and rival Choqur Ubashi who refused to recognize Galdan's title. The victory over Ochirtu in 1677 resulted in the establishment of hegemony over the Oirats. In the next year the Dalai Lama gave the highest title of Boshoghtu (or Boshughtu) Khan to him, Galdan thus united the entire Oirats in Zungaria and Western Mongolia.
Sufi Imam
s had replaced the Chagatayid Khans in the early 17th century. They defeated the White Mountain. The exiled ruler Afaq of the White Mountain asked the Dalai Lama for military assistance in 1677. By the request of the latter, Galdan overthrew the Naqshbandu Black Mountain and installed Afaq as his client ruler there. Galdan decreed that the Turkestanis would be judged by their own law except in cases affecting the Zunghar Empire. The Zunghars kept control over the Tarim Basin
until 1757.
In 1680 the Black Khirgizs raided Moghulistan
and occupied Yarkend. The inhabitants of Yarkend appealed to Galdan Khan for help. The Zunghars conquered Kashgar
and Yarkend; and Galdan had its ruler chosen by its inhabitants. Then he invaded the north of Tengeri Mountain in modern Kazakhstan
the next year; but failed to take Sairam city. Eventually, he could conquer Turfan and Hami the next year. In 1683 Galdan's armies under Tsewen Rabtan reached Tashkent
and the Syr Darya
and crushed two armies of the Kazakhs. After that Galdan subjugated the Black Khirgizs and ravaged the Fergana valley
.
From 1685 Galdan's forces aggressively pushed the Kazakhs. While his general Rabtan took Taraz city, and his main force forced the Kazakhs to immigrate westwards. In 1698 Galdan's successor Tsewen Rabtan reached Tengiz lake and Turkestan, and the Zunghars controlled Zhei-Su Tashkent until 1745.
To avenge the death of his brother and expand his influence over other Mongol areas, Galdan strategically prepared for a war with Khalkha. Galdan established a friendly relationship with the Russians who were at war with Tushiyetu Khan over territories near Lake Baikal
in northern Khalkha. Bonded by a common interest in defeating Khalkha, both Galdan and the Russians simultaneously attacked Khalkha and conquered most of the territories of Khalkha. Armed with superior firearms bought from Russians, Galdan attacked the land of the late Zasaghtu Khan, and advanced to the dominion of Chakhundorji. The Russian Cossacks
meanwhile attacked and defeated Khalkha's contingent of 10,000 near Lake Baikal. After two bloody battles with the Zunghars near Erdene Zuu Monastery
and Tomor, Chakhundorji and his son Galdandorji fled to the Ongi River.
The Zunghars occupied the Khalkha homeland, and forced Jibzundamba Zanabazar to flee. The Qing court strengthened its northern border garrisons, and advised the Khalkhas to resist Galdan. After being reinforced by fresh troops, the Tushiyetu Khan Chakhundorji counterattack
ed the Zunghars, and fought with them near Olgoi Lake on August 3, 1688. The Oirats won after a 3-day battle. Galdan's conquest of Khalkha Mongolia made Zanabazar and Chakhundorji submit to the Qing Dynasty
in September.
was unusually vigorous and warlike. In 1690 the Manchus and Zunghars fought a stalemate battle and Galdan withdrew to the north. (The battle was fought at Ulan Butong 350 kilometers directly north of Peking near the western headwaters of the Liao River
at the southern end of the Greater Khingan
Mountains). The problem with all of these nomad wars was that the Manchu could not maintain a permanent army on the steppe. If the Manchu sent an army the nomads would flee and come back when the Manchu ran out of supplies. In 1696 Galdan was on the upper Kerulen River east of Ulan Bator about 700 km northwest of Peking. Kangxi's plan was to personally lead an army northwest to Galdan while sending a second army north from the Ordos Region to block his escape. Kangxi reached the Kerulen, found Galdan gone and was forced to turn back due to lack of supplies. On the same day that Kangxi turned back (June 12) Galdan blundered into the western army and was disastrously defeated at Zuunmod
near the upper Tuul River
east of Ulan Bator. Galdan's wife, Anu
, was killed and the Manchus captured 20,000 cattle and 40,000 sheep. Galdan fled with his remaining 40 or 50 men. He gathered a few thousand followers who later deserted due to hunger. In 1697 he was in the Altai Mountains near Khovd with 300 men when he died suddenly under mysterious circumstances (April 4, 1697). He was succeeded by Tsewang Rabtan who had revolted against him.
The Zunghars led by Tsewang Rabtan
's brother Tsering Dondup invaded Tibet - which was then dominated by the Khoshut, another Oirad tribe - in 1717, deposed a pretender to the position of the Dalai Lama (who had been promoted by Lha-bzang Khan
, the titular King of Tibet). The Fifth Dalai Lama had encouraged Mongolian lamas to prevent any non-dGe-lugs-pa teaching among the Mongols
. The Zunghars soon began to loot Lhasa
, thus losing initial Tibetan goodwill towards them. Emperor Kangxi retaliated in 1718, but his military expedition was annihilated by the Zunghars not far from Lhasa.
Many Nyingmapa and Bonpos were executed and Tibetans visiting Zunghar officials were forced to stick their tongues out so the Zunghars could tell if the person recited constant mantras (which was said to make the tongue black or brown). This allowed them to pick the Nyingmapa and Bonpos, who recited many magic-mantras. This habit of sticking one's tongue out as a mark of respect on greeting someone has remained a Tibetan custom until recent times.
A second, larger, expedition sent by Kangxi expelled Tsewang Rabtan's force from Tibet
in 1720 and the troops were hailed as liberators. They brought Kälzang Gyatso with them from Kumbum to Lhasa and he was installed as the seventh Dalai Lama in 1721.
in 1745 the Zunghars appeared still strong. However, the sudden collapse of the Khanate stemmed from Galdan Tseren's sons. In 1749 Galden Tseren's son Lamdarjaa seized the throne from his younger brother. He was overthrown by his cousin Dawaachi and the Khoid noble Amursanaa. But they began to fight each other for succession. In 1753 Dawaachi's 3 relatives ruling the Dorbod surrendered to the Qing, and Amursanaa followed. In spring 1755, the Qing Dynasty
attacked Ghulja, and captured the Zunghar khan. Amursana requested to be declared Zunghar Khan, but Qianlong emperor
would only make him Khan of Khoit, one among four equal Khans. In summer, Amursana led a revolt against the Qing. Over the next two years, the Manchu and Mongol armies of the Qing Dynasty destroyed the remnants of the Zunghar khanate. Their last leader, Prince Amursanaa revolted against the Qing, and fled north to seek refuge with the Russians
. (Amursana died there of smallpox. In the spring of 1762 his frozen body was brought to Kyakhta
for the Manchu to see. The Russians then buried it, refusing the Manchu request that it be handed over for posthumous punishment.) To commemorate his military victory, Qianlong established the Puning Temple
Complex of Chengde
in 1755.
Qianlong
moved the remaining Zunghar people to the mainland and ordered the generals to kill all the men in Barkol or Suzhou
, and divided their wives and children to Qing soldiers. Qing scholar Wei Yuan
estimated the total population of Zunghars before the fall at 600,000 people, or 200,000 households. In a widely cited account of the war, Wei Yuan wrote that about 40% of the Zunghar households were killed by smallpox
, 20% fled to Russia
or Kazakh
tribes, and 30% were killed by the army, leaving no yurts
in an area of several thousands li except those of the surrendered. Based on this account, Wen-Djang Chu wrote that 80% of the 600,000 or more Zunghars were destroyed by a combination of disease and warfare, which Michael Clarke described as "the complete destruction of not only the Zunghar state but of the Zunghars as a people." Historian Peter Perdue attributed the decimation of the Dzungars to an explicit policy of extermination launched by Qianlong, but he also observed signs of a more lenient policy after mid-1757. Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide, has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence."
The Manchus filled in the depopulated area with immigrants from many parts of their empire, but a century later the Muslim Rebellion ravaged the same region.
Eurasian Steppe
The Eurasian Steppe is the vast steppe ecoregion of Eurasia in the Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands Biome. It stretches from Hungary to Mongolia...
. It covered the area called Dzungaria
Dzungaria
Dzungaria, also called Zungaria, is a geographical region in northwest China corresponding to the northern half of Xinjiang. It covers approximately , lying mostly within Xinjiang, and extending into western Mongolia and eastern Kazakhstan...
and stretched from the west end of the Great Wall of China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
to present-day eastern Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan , officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a transcontinental country in Central Asia and Eastern Europe. Ranked as the ninth largest country in the world, it is also the world's largest landlocked country; its territory of is greater than Western Europe...
, and from present-day northern Kyrgyzstan
Kyrgyzstan
Kyrgyzstan , officially the Kyrgyz Republic is one of the world's six independent Turkic states . Located in Central Asia, landlocked and mountainous, Kyrgyzstan is bordered by Kazakhstan to the north, Uzbekistan to the west, Tajikistan to the southwest and China to the east...
to southern Siberia
Siberia
Siberia is an extensive region constituting almost all of Northern Asia. Comprising the central and eastern portion of the Russian Federation, it was part of the Soviet Union from its beginning, as its predecessor states, the Tsardom of Russia and the Russian Empire, conquered it during the 16th...
(most of this area is part of Xinjiang
Xinjiang
Xinjiang is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China. It is the largest Chinese administrative division and spans over 1.6 million km2...
nowadays).
In 1678 Galdan received from the Dalai Lama
Dalai Lama
The Dalai Lama is a high lama in the Gelug or "Yellow Hat" branch of Tibetan Buddhism. The name is a combination of the Mongolian word далай meaning "Ocean" and the Tibetan word bla-ma meaning "teacher"...
the title Boshogtu Khan
Khan (title)
Khan is an originally Altaic and subsequently Central Asian title for a sovereign or military ruler, widely used by medieval nomadic Turko-Mongol tribes living to the north of China. 'Khan' is also seen as a title in the Xianbei confederation for their chief between 283 and 289...
. This confirmed the Zunghars as the new leading tribe of the Oirats
Oirats
Oirats are the westernmost group of the Mongols who unified several tribes origin whose ancestral home is in the Altai region of western Mongolia. Although the Oirats originated in the eastern parts of Central Asia, the most prominent group today is located in the Republic of Kalmykia, a federal...
. However, the Zunghar rulers bore title of Khong Tayiji
Khong Tayiji
Khong Tayiji is a title of the Mongols.Khong Tayiji derives from Chinese Huangtaizi . At first it also meant crown prince in Mongolian. It was originally given only to descendants of Genghis Khan...
(originally meaning crown prince from the Chinese word, Huang Taizi, which also means the same thing) while their state was often called Zunghar Khanate. After the deaths of Galdan Boshogtu Khan and Tsewang Rabtan
Tsewang Rabtan
Tsewang Rabtan was a Choros-Oirat prince and the Khong Tayiji of the Zunghar Khanate from 1697 until his death in 1727. He was married to Lha-bzang Khan's sister.Tsewang Rabtan married his daughter to Lha-bzang Khan's son in 1714...
, the Khanate began to decline; it was annexed by the Qing Dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
in 1756-59.
Etymology
The word "Dzungar" is a compound of jegün, meaning "left" or "east" and γar meaning "hand" or "wing". (In the Mongolian languageMongolian language
The Mongolian language is the official language of Mongolia and the best-known member of the Mongolic language family. The number of speakers across all its dialects may be 5.2 million, including the vast majority of the residents of Mongolia and many of the Mongolian residents of the Inner...
, "left" means "east" and "right" means "west") The region of Dzungaria
Dzungaria
Dzungaria, also called Zungaria, is a geographical region in northwest China corresponding to the northern half of Xinjiang. It covers approximately , lying mostly within Xinjiang, and extending into western Mongolia and eastern Kazakhstan...
derives its name from this confederation. Although the Dzungars were located west of the Eastern Mongols, the derivation of their name has been attributed to the fact that they represented the left wing of the Oirats
Oirats
Oirats are the westernmost group of the Mongols who unified several tribes origin whose ancestral home is in the Altai region of western Mongolia. Although the Oirats originated in the eastern parts of Central Asia, the most prominent group today is located in the Republic of Kalmykia, a federal...
.
Outline
The Zunghar Khanate is memorable because it was the last of the steppe nomadic empires and because of its influence on the westward expansion of China. About 1620 the OiratsOirats
Oirats are the westernmost group of the Mongols who unified several tribes origin whose ancestral home is in the Altai region of western Mongolia. Although the Oirats originated in the eastern parts of Central Asia, the most prominent group today is located in the Republic of Kalmykia, a federal...
or western Mongols became united in Dzungaria
Dzungaria
Dzungaria, also called Zungaria, is a geographical region in northwest China corresponding to the northern half of Xinjiang. It covers approximately , lying mostly within Xinjiang, and extending into western Mongolia and eastern Kazakhstan...
. By about 1680 they had conquered the Tarim Basin
Tarim Basin
The Tarim Basin is a large endorheic basin occupying an area of about . It is located in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in China's far west. Its northern boundary is the Tian Shan mountain range and its southern is the Kunlun Mountains on the northern edge of the Tibetan Plateau. The...
to the south. In 1688 Galdan defeated the Khalkhas or eastern Mongols, many of whom fled southeast to Inner Mongolia
Inner Mongolia
Inner Mongolia is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China, located in the northern region of the country. Inner Mongolia shares an international border with the countries of Mongolia and the Russian Federation...
where they became and remained Manchu subjects. In 1696, the Manchu defeated Galdan near Ulan Bator, chased him westward and gained control over Outer Mongolia
Outer Mongolia
Outer Mongolia was a territory of the Qing Dynasty = the Manchu Empire. Its area was roughly equivalent to that of the modern state of Mongolia, which is sometimes informally called "Outer Mongolia" today...
. In 1717 Tsewang Rabtan sent an army to Tibet
Tibet
Tibet is a plateau region in Asia, north-east of the Himalayas. It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people as well as some other ethnic groups such as Monpas, Qiang, and Lhobas, and is now also inhabited by considerable numbers of Han and Hui people...
. The Manchu drove the Dzunghars out and established a protectorate over Tibet. In 1750-57, the Manchu took advantage of a Zunghar civil war to conquer Dzungaria and killed a large part of the population. The Manchu turned south and annexed the Tarim Basin by 1759, thus completing the current western border of China.
Origin
The chiefs of the Zunghars were of the ChorosChoros
Choros was the ruling clan of the Zungars and Dorbets and once ruled the whole Four Oirats. They founded the Zunghar Empire in the 17th century. According to a myth, their chiefs reckoned their descent from a boy nourished by a sacred tree, a legend shared with the Uyghur royal family.In the late...
lineage and reckoned their descent from the Oirat taishis Toghoon (d.1438) and Esen
Esen Tayisi
Esen taishi was a powerful Oirat Khagan of the Northern Yuan Dynasty in Mongolia in the 15th century. He is best known for capturing the Zhengtong Emperor of the Ming Dynasty in 1450 after the Battle of Tumu Fortress and briefly reuniting the Mongols...
(r.1438-54). At the beginning of the 17th century, a young leader named Khara Khula
Khara Khula
Khara Khula was a Choros-Oirat prince and tayishi of the Choros tribe. He is best known for forming and leading a coalition of the Four Oirats in battle against Ubasi Khun Tayishi, the Khalkha prince who ruled the Altan Khanate in present-day northwest Mongolia.At the beginning of the 17th...
emerged to unite the Oirats to fight Sholui Ubashi Khong Tayiji, the first Altan Khan of the Khalkha
Altan Khan of the Khalkha
The Altan Khans ruled north-western Mongolia from about 1609 to 1691 at the latest. Altan Khan of Khalkha also known as Altan Khan of Khotogoid ruled over the Khotogoids in northwestern Mongolia and belonged to the Left Wing of the Khalkha Mongols...
, who few years earlier expelled the Oirats from their home in the Kobdo region in present-day northwest Mongolia
Mongolia
Mongolia is a landlocked country in East and Central Asia. It is bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south, east and west. Although Mongolia does not share a border with Kazakhstan, its western-most point is only from Kazakhstan's eastern tip. Ulan Bator, the capital and largest...
. Early in his reign, Khara Kula united the Choros, Dorbod and Khoid tribes, thus forming the Dzungar nation. In the 1620s wars against the Khalkha
Khalkha
Khalkha is the largest subgroup of Mongol people in Mongolia since 15th century. The Khalkha together with Tsahar, Ordos and Tumed, were directly ruled by the Altan Urag Khans until the 20th century; unlike the Oirat people who were ruled by the Dzungar nobles or the Khorchins who were ruled by...
, he could gain decisive victory over the Eastern Mongols. The Oirats homeland was under the dominion
Dominion
A dominion, often Dominion, refers to one of a group of autonomous polities that were nominally under British sovereignty, constituting the British Empire and British Commonwealth, beginning in the latter part of the 19th century. They have included Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Newfoundland,...
of Jasaghtu Khan
Jasaghtu Khan
Tümen Jasagtu Khan was a 16th century Mongol khan of the Northern Yuan Dynasty in Mongolia who reigned from 1558 to 1592. He was the successor of Darayisung Gödeng Khan and had direct rule over the Chahar. It was during his rule that the Mongols conquered Daur and Evenks...
of the Khalkha. In 1623 the Oirat confederation
Four Oirats
The Four Oirats or the Alliance of the Four Oirat tribes was the confederation of the Oirat tribes, which marked the rise of the Western Mongols in Mongolian history.Despite the universal currency of the term Four Oirats among Eastern Mongols and Oirats and numerous explanations by...
killed Ubashi Khong Tayiji, and secured their independence. At the time, only Torobaikhu
Güshi Khan
Güshi Khan , a Khoshut prince and leader of the Khoshut Khanate, who had supplanted the Tumed descendants of Altan Khan. His military assistance to the Gelug school enabled the 5th Dalai Lama to establish political control over Tibet...
, a leader of the Khoshud tribe could claim the title of Khan
Khan (title)
Khan is an originally Altaic and subsequently Central Asian title for a sovereign or military ruler, widely used by medieval nomadic Turko-Mongol tribes living to the north of China. 'Khan' is also seen as a title in the Xianbei confederation for their chief between 283 and 289...
while Baatur Dalai Taishi of the Dorbods was considered the most powerful Oirat chief. Even so, Khara Khula's son Baatur Khung Taiji
Erdeni Batur
Erdeni Batur was a Choros-Oirat prince and is generally considered the founder of a new Oirat state in Central Asia known as the Dzungar Khanate....
(d.1653) joined the 1636-42 expedition to Tibet
Tibet
Tibet is a plateau region in Asia, north-east of the Himalayas. It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people as well as some other ethnic groups such as Monpas, Qiang, and Lhobas, and is now also inhabited by considerable numbers of Han and Hui people...
led by Gushi Khan Torobaikhu. After Baatur returned to Dzungaria with the title Erdeni (given by Dalai Lama
Dalai Lama
The Dalai Lama is a high lama in the Gelug or "Yellow Hat" branch of Tibetan Buddhism. The name is a combination of the Mongolian word далай meaning "Ocean" and the Tibetan word bla-ma meaning "teacher"...
) and much booty, he made three expeditions against the Kazakhs
Kazakhs
The Kazakhs are a Turkic people of the northern parts of Central Asia ....
. With the migrations of the Torghuds, the Khoshuds and the Dorbods from 1630 to 1677, the Zunghars' relative power was increased in Zungaria.
In 1653 Sengge
Sengge
Sengge was a Choros-Oirat prince and the successor to his father Erdeni Batur as ruler of the Dzungar Khanate. Sengge ruled the Dzungar state from 1653 until his murder in 1671 by his two older half-brothers Tseten and Tsobda Batur...
succeeded his father Baatur Khung Taiji as Zungharian chief, but an internal strife with his half brother Chechen Tayiji involved the Khoshuud
Khoshuud
The Khoshut are one of the four major tribes of the Oirat people. Originally, Khoshuuds were one of the Khorchin tribes in southeastern Mongolia, but in mid 15th century they migrated to western Mongolia to become an ally of oirats to counter central Mongolian military power...
. From 1657 on, Amin-Dara's sons Sengge and Galdan
Galdan
Choros Erdeniin Galdan was a Dzungar-Oirat Khan of the Dzungar Khanate. He was the fourth son of Erdeni Baatur Hongtaiji, founder of the Zunghar Khanate, thus Galdan is a descendant of Esen taishi...
faced disafection from their half-brothers. With the support of Ochirtu Khan
Ochirtu Khan
Ochirtu Khan was a nephew of Güshi Khan and a leader of the Khoshut tribe of the Lake Zaisan area. Ochirtu Khan was killed in battle by the Dzungar forces of his son-in-law, Galdan Boshugtu Khan....
of the Khoshuud, this strife ended with Sengge's victory in 1661. In 1667 he captured Erinchin Lobsang Tayiji
Erinchin Lobsang Tayiji
Erinchin Lobsang Tayiji was a prince of the Khalkha federation in western Mongolia. See Altan Khan of Khalkha.In 1662 he attacked, captured and put to death his eastern neighbor, the Dzasagtu Khan. This led the senior Tushetu Khan to form a league and drive out the Altan-khan...
, the third and last Altan Khan. However, he himself was assassinated by his half brothers Chechen Tayiji and Zotov in a coup in 1670.
Sengge's younger brother Galdan immediately returned from Tibet to lay life and took revenge on Chechen. As a Buddhist priest, Galdan had been to Tibet at the age of thirteen and had trained under the fourth Panchen Lama
Panchen Lama
The Panchen Lama , or Bainqên Erdê'ni , is the highest ranking Lama after the Dalai Lama in the Gelugpa lineage of Tibetan Buddhism...
and then the Fifth Dalai Lama. Allied with Ochirtu Sechen of the Khoshuud, Galdan defeated Chechen, and drove Zotov out of Zungaria. However, Sengge's two sons Sonom Rabdan and Tsewang Rabtan
Tsewang Rabtan
Tsewang Rabtan was a Choros-Oirat prince and the Khong Tayiji of the Zunghar Khanate from 1697 until his death in 1727. He was married to Lha-bzang Khan's sister.Tsewang Rabtan married his daughter to Lha-bzang Khan's son in 1714...
revolted against him, but they were also crushed in the end. In 1671 The Dalai Lama bestowed the title of Khan on Galdan. Although, already married Anu-Dara
Queen Anu
Queen Anu or Lady Anu was grand-daughter of Ochirtu Secen Khan of Khoshuud and the spouse of first Sengge and then Galdan Boshughtu Khan of Dzungaria. She heroically died saving her husband from enemy encirclement during the battle at Zuunmod at the river Terelj in 1696.-Further reading:* Zlatkin,...
, granddaughter of Ochirtu, he came into conflict with his grandfather in law. Fearing of Galdan's popularity, Ochirtu supported his uncle and rival Choqur Ubashi who refused to recognize Galdan's title. The victory over Ochirtu in 1677 resulted in the establishment of hegemony over the Oirats. In the next year the Dalai Lama gave the highest title of Boshoghtu (or Boshughtu) Khan to him, Galdan thus united the entire Oirats in Zungaria and Western Mongolia.
Conquest of the Tarim Basin and war with the Central Asians
NaqshbandiNaqshbandi
Naqshbandi is one of the major Sufi spiritual orders of Sufi Islam. It is considered to be a "Potent" order.The Naqshbandi order is over 1,300 years old, and is active today...
Sufi Imam
Imam
An imam is an Islamic leadership position, often the worship leader of a mosque and the Muslim community. Similar to spiritual leaders, the imam is the one who leads Islamic worship services. More often, the community turns to the mosque imam if they have a religious question...
s had replaced the Chagatayid Khans in the early 17th century. They defeated the White Mountain. The exiled ruler Afaq of the White Mountain asked the Dalai Lama for military assistance in 1677. By the request of the latter, Galdan overthrew the Naqshbandu Black Mountain and installed Afaq as his client ruler there. Galdan decreed that the Turkestanis would be judged by their own law except in cases affecting the Zunghar Empire. The Zunghars kept control over the Tarim Basin
Tarim Basin
The Tarim Basin is a large endorheic basin occupying an area of about . It is located in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in China's far west. Its northern boundary is the Tian Shan mountain range and its southern is the Kunlun Mountains on the northern edge of the Tibetan Plateau. The...
until 1757.
In 1680 the Black Khirgizs raided Moghulistan
Moghulistan
Moghulistan or Mughalistan is a historical geographic unit in Central Asia that included parts of modern-day Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and the Chinese Autonomous Region of Xinjiang...
and occupied Yarkend. The inhabitants of Yarkend appealed to Galdan Khan for help. The Zunghars conquered Kashgar
Kashgar
Kashgar or Kashi is an oasis city with approximately 350,000 residents in the western part of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. Kashgar is the administrative centre of Kashgar Prefecture which has an area of 162,000 km² and a population of approximately...
and Yarkend; and Galdan had its ruler chosen by its inhabitants. Then he invaded the north of Tengeri Mountain in modern Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan , officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a transcontinental country in Central Asia and Eastern Europe. Ranked as the ninth largest country in the world, it is also the world's largest landlocked country; its territory of is greater than Western Europe...
the next year; but failed to take Sairam city. Eventually, he could conquer Turfan and Hami the next year. In 1683 Galdan's armies under Tsewen Rabtan reached Tashkent
Tashkent
Tashkent is the capital of Uzbekistan and of the Tashkent Province. The officially registered population of the city in 2008 was about 2.2 million. Unofficial sources estimate the actual population may be as much as 4.45 million.-Early Islamic History:...
and the Syr Darya
Syr Darya
The Syr Darya , also transliterated Syrdarya or Sirdaryo, is a river in Central Asia, sometimes known as the Jaxartes or Yaxartes from its Ancient Greek name . The Greek name is derived from Old Persian, Yakhsha Arta , a reference to the color of the river's water...
and crushed two armies of the Kazakhs. After that Galdan subjugated the Black Khirgizs and ravaged the Fergana valley
Fergana Valley
The Fergana Valley or Farghana Valley is a region in Central Asia spreading across eastern Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. Divided across three subdivisions of the former Soviet Union, the valley is ethnically diverse, and in the early 21st century was the scene of ethnic conflict...
.
From 1685 Galdan's forces aggressively pushed the Kazakhs. While his general Rabtan took Taraz city, and his main force forced the Kazakhs to immigrate westwards. In 1698 Galdan's successor Tsewen Rabtan reached Tengiz lake and Turkestan, and the Zunghars controlled Zhei-Su Tashkent until 1745.
Rivalry with Khalkha
At first the Khalkhas and Oirats were in league, bound by the provisions of the Mongol-Oirat code. In order to cement this union, Galdan attempted to ally with Zasaghtu Khan Shira who lost part of his subjects to Tushiyetu Khan Chakhundorji, and moved his ordo near the Altai Range. Tushiyetu Khan attacked the right wing of the Khalkhas and killed Shira in 1687. Galdan dispatched troops under his younger brother Dorji-jav against the Tushiyetu Khan the next year, but they were eventually defeated and Dorji-jav was killed in the ensuing battle. Chakhundorji murdered Degdeehei Mergen Ahai of the Zasaghtu Khan who was on the way to Galdan. The Qing court intervened and called off the Mongolian aristocrats to assemble a conference.To avenge the death of his brother and expand his influence over other Mongol areas, Galdan strategically prepared for a war with Khalkha. Galdan established a friendly relationship with the Russians who were at war with Tushiyetu Khan over territories near Lake Baikal
Lake Baikal
Lake Baikal is the world's oldest at 30 million years old and deepest lake with an average depth of 744.4 metres.Located in the south of the Russian region of Siberia, between Irkutsk Oblast to the northwest and the Buryat Republic to the southeast, it is the most voluminous freshwater lake in the...
in northern Khalkha. Bonded by a common interest in defeating Khalkha, both Galdan and the Russians simultaneously attacked Khalkha and conquered most of the territories of Khalkha. Armed with superior firearms bought from Russians, Galdan attacked the land of the late Zasaghtu Khan, and advanced to the dominion of Chakhundorji. The Russian Cossacks
Siberian Cossacks
Siberian Cossacks were Cossacks who settled in the Siberian region of Russia from the end of the 16th century, following the Yermak Timofeyevich's conquest of Siberia. In early Siberia practically the whole Russian population, especially the serving-men were called Cossacks, but only in the loose...
meanwhile attacked and defeated Khalkha's contingent of 10,000 near Lake Baikal. After two bloody battles with the Zunghars near Erdene Zuu Monastery
Erdene Zuu monastery
The Erdene Zuu Monastery is probably the most ancient surviving Buddhist monastery in Mongolia. It is in Övörkhangai Province, near the town of Kharkhorin and adjacent to the ancient city of Karakorum...
and Tomor, Chakhundorji and his son Galdandorji fled to the Ongi River.
The Zunghars occupied the Khalkha homeland, and forced Jibzundamba Zanabazar to flee. The Qing court strengthened its northern border garrisons, and advised the Khalkhas to resist Galdan. After being reinforced by fresh troops, the Tushiyetu Khan Chakhundorji counterattack
Counterattack
A counterattack is a tactic used in response against an attack. The term originates in military strategy. The general objective is to negate or thwart the advantage gained by the enemy in attack and the specific objectives are usually to regain lost ground or to destroy attacking enemy units.It is...
ed the Zunghars, and fought with them near Olgoi Lake on August 3, 1688. The Oirats won after a 3-day battle. Galdan's conquest of Khalkha Mongolia made Zanabazar and Chakhundorji submit to the Qing Dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
in September.
The first Oirat-Manchu war
By his victory in 1688, Galdan had driven the Khalkhas into the arms of the Qing and made himself a military threat to the Manchus. Unfortunately for Galdan, KangxiKangxi Emperor
The Kangxi Emperor ; Manchu: elhe taifin hūwangdi ; Mongolian: Энх-Амгалан хаан, 4 May 1654 –20 December 1722) was the fourth emperor of the Qing Dynasty, the first to be born on Chinese soil south of the Pass and the second Qing emperor to rule over China proper, from 1661 to 1722.Kangxi's...
was unusually vigorous and warlike. In 1690 the Manchus and Zunghars fought a stalemate battle and Galdan withdrew to the north. (The battle was fought at Ulan Butong 350 kilometers directly north of Peking near the western headwaters of the Liao River
Liao River
The Liao River is the principal river in northeast China . The province of Liaoning and the Liaodong Peninsula derive their names from the river....
at the southern end of the Greater Khingan
Greater Khingan
The Greater Khingan Range , also called the Greater Hing'an Range or Greater Hinggan Range, is a volcanic mountain range in the northeastern part of the People's Republic of China. The range extends roughly 1,200 km from north to south, narrowing towards the south...
Mountains). The problem with all of these nomad wars was that the Manchu could not maintain a permanent army on the steppe. If the Manchu sent an army the nomads would flee and come back when the Manchu ran out of supplies. In 1696 Galdan was on the upper Kerulen River east of Ulan Bator about 700 km northwest of Peking. Kangxi's plan was to personally lead an army northwest to Galdan while sending a second army north from the Ordos Region to block his escape. Kangxi reached the Kerulen, found Galdan gone and was forced to turn back due to lack of supplies. On the same day that Kangxi turned back (June 12) Galdan blundered into the western army and was disastrously defeated at Zuunmod
Zuunmod
Zuunmod is the center of Mongolia's Central Province , located 30 km south of Ulan Bator. It has a population of 14,660 inhabitants and an area of 19.18 square kilometres. Zuunmod is located at the southern side of Bogd Khan Uul, 43 km from the capital Ulaanbaatar.Zuunmod was established as the...
near the upper Tuul River
Tuul River
Tuul River is a river in central and northern Mongolia considered sacred by the Mongols. It is 704 km long and drains an area 49,840 square km. The river is called the "Duluo river" in the Suishu, a Chinese historical work completed in 636 AD...
east of Ulan Bator. Galdan's wife, Anu
Queen Anu
Queen Anu or Lady Anu was grand-daughter of Ochirtu Secen Khan of Khoshuud and the spouse of first Sengge and then Galdan Boshughtu Khan of Dzungaria. She heroically died saving her husband from enemy encirclement during the battle at Zuunmod at the river Terelj in 1696.-Further reading:* Zlatkin,...
, was killed and the Manchus captured 20,000 cattle and 40,000 sheep. Galdan fled with his remaining 40 or 50 men. He gathered a few thousand followers who later deserted due to hunger. In 1697 he was in the Altai Mountains near Khovd with 300 men when he died suddenly under mysterious circumstances (April 4, 1697). He was succeeded by Tsewang Rabtan who had revolted against him.
Intervention in Tibet
Tsewang Rabtan
Tsewang Rabtan was a Choros-Oirat prince and the Khong Tayiji of the Zunghar Khanate from 1697 until his death in 1727. He was married to Lha-bzang Khan's sister.Tsewang Rabtan married his daughter to Lha-bzang Khan's son in 1714...
's brother Tsering Dondup invaded Tibet - which was then dominated by the Khoshut, another Oirad tribe - in 1717, deposed a pretender to the position of the Dalai Lama (who had been promoted by Lha-bzang Khan
Lha-bzang Khan
Lha-bzang Khan was chief of the Khoshut tribe of the Oirat Mongols and the son of Dalai Khan and grandson of Güshi Khan and the last Khoshut-Oirat King of Tibet. He became Khan by poisoning his brother Vangjal . Since Güshi's time, the Khoshuts had lost real power in Lhasa to the Regent there...
, the titular King of Tibet). The Fifth Dalai Lama had encouraged Mongolian lamas to prevent any non-dGe-lugs-pa teaching among the Mongols
Mongols
Mongols ) are a Central-East Asian ethnic group that lives mainly in the countries of Mongolia, China, and Russia. In China, ethnic Mongols can be found mainly in the central north region of China such as Inner Mongolia...
. The Zunghars soon began to loot Lhasa
Lhasa
Lhasa is the administrative capital of the Tibet Autonomous Region in the People's Republic of China and the second most populous city on the Tibetan Plateau, after Xining. At an altitude of , Lhasa is one of the highest cities in the world...
, thus losing initial Tibetan goodwill towards them. Emperor Kangxi retaliated in 1718, but his military expedition was annihilated by the Zunghars not far from Lhasa.
Many Nyingmapa and Bonpos were executed and Tibetans visiting Zunghar officials were forced to stick their tongues out so the Zunghars could tell if the person recited constant mantras (which was said to make the tongue black or brown). This allowed them to pick the Nyingmapa and Bonpos, who recited many magic-mantras. This habit of sticking one's tongue out as a mark of respect on greeting someone has remained a Tibetan custom until recent times.
A second, larger, expedition sent by Kangxi expelled Tsewang Rabtan's force from Tibet
Tibet
Tibet is a plateau region in Asia, north-east of the Himalayas. It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people as well as some other ethnic groups such as Monpas, Qiang, and Lhobas, and is now also inhabited by considerable numbers of Han and Hui people...
in 1720 and the troops were hailed as liberators. They brought Kälzang Gyatso with them from Kumbum to Lhasa and he was installed as the seventh Dalai Lama in 1721.
Fall
At the death of Galdan TserenGaldan Tseren
Galdan Tseren was a Choros-Oirat prince and the Khun Tayishi of the Zunghar Khanate from 1727 until his death in 1745.Galdan was the oldest son of Tsewang Arabtan. After the assassination of his father by rival factions, a civil war followed between his sons of which Galdan emerged victorious and...
in 1745 the Zunghars appeared still strong. However, the sudden collapse of the Khanate stemmed from Galdan Tseren's sons. In 1749 Galden Tseren's son Lamdarjaa seized the throne from his younger brother. He was overthrown by his cousin Dawaachi and the Khoid noble Amursanaa. But they began to fight each other for succession. In 1753 Dawaachi's 3 relatives ruling the Dorbod surrendered to the Qing, and Amursanaa followed. In spring 1755, the Qing Dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
attacked Ghulja, and captured the Zunghar khan. Amursana requested to be declared Zunghar Khan, but Qianlong emperor
Qianlong Emperor
The Qianlong Emperor was the sixth emperor of the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty, and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. The fourth son of the Yongzheng Emperor, he reigned officially from 11 October 1735 to 8 February 1796...
would only make him Khan of Khoit, one among four equal Khans. In summer, Amursana led a revolt against the Qing. Over the next two years, the Manchu and Mongol armies of the Qing Dynasty destroyed the remnants of the Zunghar khanate. Their last leader, Prince Amursanaa revolted against the Qing, and fled north to seek refuge with the Russians
Russians
The Russian people are an East Slavic ethnic group native to Russia, speaking the Russian language and primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries....
. (Amursana died there of smallpox. In the spring of 1762 his frozen body was brought to Kyakhta
Kyakhta
Kyakhta is a town in the Republic of Buryatia, Russia, located on the Kyakhta River near the Russian-Mongolian border. Population: The town stands directly opposite the Mongolian border town of Altanbulag.-History:...
for the Manchu to see. The Russians then buried it, refusing the Manchu request that it be handed over for posthumous punishment.) To commemorate his military victory, Qianlong established the Puning Temple
Puning Temple
The Punning Temple , or Temple of Universal Peace of Chengde, Hebei province, China is a Qing Dynasty era Buddhist temple complex built in 1755, during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor to show the Qing's respect to the ethnic minorities...
Complex of Chengde
Chengde
Chengde , previously known as Jehol or Re He , is a prefecture-level city in Hebei province, People's Republic of China, situated northeast of Beijing. It is best known as the site of the Mountain Resort, a vast imperial garden and palace formerly used by the Qing emperors as summer residence...
in 1755.
Qianlong
Qianlong Emperor
The Qianlong Emperor was the sixth emperor of the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty, and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. The fourth son of the Yongzheng Emperor, he reigned officially from 11 October 1735 to 8 February 1796...
moved the remaining Zunghar people to the mainland and ordered the generals to kill all the men in Barkol or Suzhou
Suzhou District
The Suzhou District is an administrative district in Gansu, the People's Republic of China. It is one of 17 districts of Gansu.Suzhou District is part of the Jiuquan prefecture, and the seat of the prefecture government. Therefore, less-detailed modern maps typically mark Suzhou's location...
, and divided their wives and children to Qing soldiers. Qing scholar Wei Yuan
Wei Yuan
Wei Yuan , born Wei Yuanda , courtesy names Moshen and Hanshi , was a Chinese scholar from Shaoyang, Hunan. He moved to Yangzhou in 1831, where he remained for the rest of his life. Wei obtained the provincial degree in the Imperial examinations and subsequently worked in the secretariat of...
estimated the total population of Zunghars before the fall at 600,000 people, or 200,000 households. In a widely cited account of the war, Wei Yuan wrote that about 40% of the Zunghar households were killed by smallpox
Smallpox
Smallpox was an infectious disease unique to humans, caused by either of two virus variants, Variola major and Variola minor. The disease is also known by the Latin names Variola or Variola vera, which is a derivative of the Latin varius, meaning "spotted", or varus, meaning "pimple"...
, 20% fled to Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
or Kazakh
Kazakhs
The Kazakhs are a Turkic people of the northern parts of Central Asia ....
tribes, and 30% were killed by the army, leaving no yurts
Yurt
A yurt is a portable, bent wood-framed dwelling structure traditionally used by Turkic nomads in the steppes of Central Asia. The structure comprises a crown or compression wheel usually steam bent, supported by roof ribs which are bent down at the end where they meet the lattice wall...
in an area of several thousands li except those of the surrendered. Based on this account, Wen-Djang Chu wrote that 80% of the 600,000 or more Zunghars were destroyed by a combination of disease and warfare, which Michael Clarke described as "the complete destruction of not only the Zunghar state but of the Zunghars as a people." Historian Peter Perdue attributed the decimation of the Dzungars to an explicit policy of extermination launched by Qianlong, but he also observed signs of a more lenient policy after mid-1757. Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide, has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence."
The Manchus filled in the depopulated area with immigrants from many parts of their empire, but a century later the Muslim Rebellion ravaged the same region.
Leaders of the Zunghar Khanate
- Khara KhulaKhara KhulaKhara Khula was a Choros-Oirat prince and tayishi of the Choros tribe. He is best known for forming and leading a coalition of the Four Oirats in battle against Ubasi Khun Tayishi, the Khalkha prince who ruled the Altan Khanate in present-day northwest Mongolia.At the beginning of the 17th...
, title: Khong Tayiji - Erdeni BaturErdeni BaturErdeni Batur was a Choros-Oirat prince and is generally considered the founder of a new Oirat state in Central Asia known as the Dzungar Khanate....
, title: Khong Tayiji - SenggeSenggeSengge was a Choros-Oirat prince and the successor to his father Erdeni Batur as ruler of the Dzungar Khanate. Sengge ruled the Dzungar state from 1653 until his murder in 1671 by his two older half-brothers Tseten and Tsobda Batur...
, title: Khong Tayiji - GaldanGaldanChoros Erdeniin Galdan was a Dzungar-Oirat Khan of the Dzungar Khanate. He was the fourth son of Erdeni Baatur Hongtaiji, founder of the Zunghar Khanate, thus Galdan is a descendant of Esen taishi...
, titles: Khong Tayiji, Boshogtu Khan - Tsewang RabtanTsewang RabtanTsewang Rabtan was a Choros-Oirat prince and the Khong Tayiji of the Zunghar Khanate from 1697 until his death in 1727. He was married to Lha-bzang Khan's sister.Tsewang Rabtan married his daughter to Lha-bzang Khan's son in 1714...
, title: Khong Tayiji - Galdan TserenGaldan TserenGaldan Tseren was a Choros-Oirat prince and the Khun Tayishi of the Zunghar Khanate from 1727 until his death in 1745.Galdan was the oldest son of Tsewang Arabtan. After the assassination of his father by rival factions, a civil war followed between his sons of which Galdan emerged victorious and...
, title: Khan - Tsewang Dorji Namjal, title: Khong Tayiji
- Lama-Darjaa, title: Khong Tayiji
- Dawaachi, title: Khong Tayiji
- Amarsan-a