Coast Tsimshian
Encyclopedia
- For the Tsimshian peoples see TsimshianTsimshianThe Tsimshian are an indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest Coast. Tsimshian translates to Inside the Skeena River. Their communities are in British Columbia and Alaska, around Terrace and Prince Rupert and the southernmost corner of Alaska on Annette Island. There are approximately 10,000...
, GitxsanGitxsanGitxsan are an indigenous people whose home territory comprises most of the area known as the Skeena Country in English...
, and Nisga'aNisga'aThe Nisga’a , often formerly spelled Nishga and spelled in the Nisga’a language as Nisga’a, are an Indigenous nation or First Nation in Canada. They live in the Nass River valley of northwestern British Columbia. Their name comes from a combination of two Nisga’a words: Nisk’-"top lip" and...
Coast Tsimshian, known by its speakers as Sm'algyax, is a Tsimshianic language spoken by the Tsimshian
Tsimshian
The Tsimshian are an indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest Coast. Tsimshian translates to Inside the Skeena River. Their communities are in British Columbia and Alaska, around Terrace and Prince Rupert and the southernmost corner of Alaska on Annette Island. There are approximately 10,000...
nation in northwestern British Columbia
British Columbia
British Columbia is the westernmost of Canada's provinces and is known for its natural beauty, as reflected in its Latin motto, Splendor sine occasu . Its name was chosen by Queen Victoria in 1858...
and southeastern Alaska
Alaska
Alaska is the largest state in the United States by area. It is situated in the northwest extremity of the North American continent, with Canada to the east, the Arctic Ocean to the north, and the Pacific Ocean to the west and south, with Russia further west across the Bering Strait...
. Sm'algyax means literally "real or true language."
Strictly speaking, Tsimshian is not a language indigenous to Alaska, but has been spoken there since missionary William Duncan
William Duncan (missionary)
William Duncan was an English-born Anglican missionary who founded the Tsimshian communities of Metlakatla, British Columbia, in Canada, and Metlakatla, Alaska, in the United States...
moved to Metlakatla
Metlakatla, Alaska
Metlakatla is a census-designated place on Annette Island in Prince of Wales-Hyder Census Area, Alaska, United States. At the 2000 census the population was 1,375.- History :...
on Annette Island
Annette Island
Annette Island, or Taak'w Aan, is an island in Gravina Islands of the Alexander Archipelago of the Pacific Ocean on the southeastern coast of the U.S. state of Alaska. It is at . It is about long and about wide. The land area is...
in 1887 and took some of the native Canadians with him. A few Tsimshian also live in Ketchikan
Ketchikan, Alaska
Ketchikan is a city in Ketchikan Gateway Borough, Alaska, United States, the southeasternmost sizable city in that state. With an estimated population of 7,368 in 2010 within the city limits, it is the fifth most populous city in the state....
.
There is much debate over which family the Tsimshianic languages belong to. Many scholars believe that they are part of the controversial Penutian language stock, which includes languages spoken throughout the Pacific Northwest
Pacific Northwest
The Pacific Northwest is a region in northwestern North America, bounded by the Pacific Ocean to the west and, loosely, by the Rocky Mountains on the east. Definitions of the region vary and there is no commonly agreed upon boundary, even among Pacific Northwesterners. A common concept of the...
and California
California
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
. Though probable, the existence of a Penutian stock has yet to be definitively proven. Some linguists still maintain that the Tsimshianic family is not closely related to any North American language.
The linguist Tonya Stebbins estimated the number of speakers of Coast Tsimshian in 2001 as around 400 and in 2003 as 200 or fewer (see references below). Whichever figure is more accurate, she added in 2003 that most speakers are over 70 in age and very few are under 50. About 50 of an ethnic population of 1,300 Tshimshian in Alaska speak the language.
Vowels
Next to transcriptions in the IPAInternational Phonetic Alphabet
The International Phonetic Alphabet "The acronym 'IPA' strictly refers [...] to the 'International Phonetic Association'. But it is now such a common practice to use the acronym also to refer to the alphabet itself that resistance seems pedantic...
are the conventional orthography in angle brackets.
| Short vowels | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Front Front vowel A front vowel is a type of vowel sound used in some spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a front vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far in front as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant. Front vowels are sometimes also... |
Back Back vowel A back vowel is a type of vowel sound used in spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a back vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far back as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant. Back vowels are sometimes also called dark... |
Unrounded Back Roundedness In phonetics, vowel roundedness refers to the amount of rounding in the lips during the articulation of a vowel. That is, it is vocalic labialization. When pronouncing a rounded vowel, the lips form a circular opening, while unrounded vowels are pronounced with the lips relaxed... |
|
| High | ɪ ⟨i⟩ | ʊ ⟨u⟩ | ɯ ⟨ü⟩ |
| Mid Mid vowel A mid vowel is a vowel sound used in some spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a mid vowel is that the tongue is positioned mid-way between an open vowel and a close vowel... |
ɛ ⟨e⟩ | ɔ ⟨o⟩ | ʌ ⟨a⟩ |
| Low | æ ⟨a⟩ |
| Long vowels | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Front Front vowel A front vowel is a type of vowel sound used in some spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a front vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far in front as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant. Front vowels are sometimes also... |
Back Back vowel A back vowel is a type of vowel sound used in spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a back vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far back as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant. Back vowels are sometimes also called dark... |
Unrounded Back Roundedness In phonetics, vowel roundedness refers to the amount of rounding in the lips during the articulation of a vowel. That is, it is vocalic labialization. When pronouncing a rounded vowel, the lips form a circular opening, while unrounded vowels are pronounced with the lips relaxed... |
|
| High | i ⟨ii⟩ | u ⟨uu⟩ | ɯː ⟨üü⟩ |
| Mid Mid vowel A mid vowel is a vowel sound used in some spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a mid vowel is that the tongue is positioned mid-way between an open vowel and a close vowel... |
e ⟨ee⟩ | ɔː ⟨oo⟩ | |
| Low | æː ⟨aa⟩ | ɒ ⟨a̰⟩ |
The low back vowel can either be the long [a] or the short and slightly raised [ʌ] depending on context. John Asher Dunn
John Asher Dunn
John Asher Dunn is an American linguist who created the first academic dictionary and grammar of the Tsimshian language, an American Indian language of northwestern British Columbia and southeast Alaska....
assumes this vowel as the schwa.
Underlining /a/ is optional for indicating the back long vowel, and fluent speakers will usually omit it.
Dunn's representation of the high back vowel seems to be slightly more forward than the IPA equivalent, since he uses the phonetic symbols [ɨ̈] or [ɪ̈].
Consonants
As in the Vowels section, symbols in boldface reflect the conventional orthography, and IPAInternational Phonetic Alphabet
The International Phonetic Alphabet "The acronym 'IPA' strictly refers [...] to the 'International Phonetic Association'. But it is now such a common practice to use the acronym also to refer to the alphabet itself that resistance seems pedantic...
equivalents are given in brackets. In the practical orthography, uvulars are indicated by underlining the velar symbols <ḵ g̲>, and the position of the apostrophe before or after the consonant letter distinguishes glottalization
Glottalization
Glottalization is the complete or partial closure of the glottis during the articulation of another sound. Glottalization of vowels and other sonorants is most often realized as creaky voice...
.
| Bilabial Bilabial consonant In phonetics, a bilabial consonant is a consonant articulated with both lips. The bilabial consonants identified by the International Phonetic Alphabet are:... |
Alveolar Alveolar consonant Alveolar consonants are articulated with the tongue against or close to the superior alveolar ridge, which is called that because it contains the alveoli of the superior teeth... |
Palatal Palatal consonant Palatal consonants are consonants articulated with the body of the tongue raised against the hard palate... |
Velar Velar consonant Velars are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue against the soft palate, the back part of the roof of the mouth, known also as the velum).... |
Uvular Uvular consonant Uvulars are consonants articulated with the back of the tongue against or near the uvula, that is, further back in the mouth than velar consonants. Uvulars may be plosives, fricatives, nasal stops, trills, or approximants, though the IPA does not provide a separate symbol for the approximant, and... |
Glottal Glottal consonant Glottal consonants, also called laryngeal consonants, are consonants articulated with the glottis. Many phoneticians consider them, or at least the so-called fricative, to be transitional states of the glottis without a point of articulation as other consonants have; in fact, some do not consider... |
||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| central Central consonant A central or medial consonant is a consonant sound that is produced when air flows across the center of the mouth over the tongue. The class contrasts with lateral consonants, in which air flows over the sides of the tongue rather than down its center.... |
lateral Lateral consonant A lateral is an el-like consonant, in which airstream proceeds along the sides of the tongue, but is blocked by the tongue from going through the middle of the mouth.... |
plain | labial | ||||||
| Stop Stop consonant In phonetics, a plosive, also known as an occlusive or an oral stop, is a stop consonant in which the vocal tract is blocked so that all airflow ceases. The occlusion may be done with the tongue , lips , and &... |
plain | p ⟨p⟩ | t ⟨t⟩ | kʲ ⟨ky⟩ | k ⟨k⟩ | kʷ ⟨kw⟩ | q ⟨ḵ⟩ | ʔ ⟨⟩ | |
| glottalized Glottalization Glottalization is the complete or partial closure of the glottis during the articulation of another sound. Glottalization of vowels and other sonorants is most often realized as creaky voice... |
pʼ ⟨'p⟩ | tʼ ⟨'t⟩ | kʼ ⟨'k⟩ | kʷʼ ⟨'kw⟩ | qʼ ⟨'ḵ⟩ | ||||
| voiced | b ⟨b⟩ | d ⟨d⟩ | ɡʲ ⟨gy⟩ | ɡ ⟨g⟩ | ɡʷ ⟨gw⟩ | ɢ ⟨g̲⟩ | |||
| Affricates Affricate consonant Affricates are consonants that begin as stops but release as a fricative rather than directly into the following vowel.- Samples :... |
plain | t͡s ⟨ts⟩ | |||||||
| glottalized Glottalization Glottalization is the complete or partial closure of the glottis during the articulation of another sound. Glottalization of vowels and other sonorants is most often realized as creaky voice... |
t͡sʼ ⟨'ts⟩ | ||||||||
| voiced | d͡z ⟨dz⟩ | ||||||||
| Fricative Fricative consonant Fricatives are consonants produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together. These may be the lower lip against the upper teeth, in the case of ; the back of the tongue against the soft palate, in the case of German , the final consonant of Bach; or... |
voiceless | s ⟨s⟩ | ɬ ⟨ɫ⟩ | χ ⟨x⟩ | h ⟨h⟩ | ||||
| Nasal Nasal consonant A nasal consonant is a type of consonant produced with a lowered velum in the mouth, allowing air to escape freely through the nose. Examples of nasal consonants in English are and , in words such as nose and mouth.- Definition :... |
plain | m ⟨m⟩ | n ⟨n⟩ | ||||||
| glottalized Glottalic consonant A glottalic consonant is a consonant produced with some important contribution of the glottis .... |
mˀ ⟨'m⟩ | nˀ ⟨'n⟩ | |||||||
| Approximant Approximant consonant Approximants are speech sounds that involve the articulators approaching each other but not narrowly enough or with enough articulatory precision to create turbulent airflow. Therefore, approximants fall between fricatives, which do produce a turbulent airstream, and vowels, which produce no... |
plain | l ⟨l⟩ | j ⟨y⟩ | ɰ ⟨ẅ⟩ | w ⟨w⟩ | ||||
| glottalized Glottalization Glottalization is the complete or partial closure of the glottis during the articulation of another sound. Glottalization of vowels and other sonorants is most often realized as creaky voice... |
lˀ ⟨'l⟩ | jˀ ⟨'y⟩ | wˀ ⟨'w⟩ | ||||||
Both John Asher Dunn
John Asher Dunn
John Asher Dunn is an American linguist who created the first academic dictionary and grammar of the Tsimshian language, an American Indian language of northwestern British Columbia and southeast Alaska....
and Franz Boas
Franz Boas
Franz Boas was a German-American anthropologist and a pioneer of modern anthropology who has been called the "Father of American Anthropology" and "the Father of Modern Anthropology." Like many such pioneers, he trained in other disciplines; he received his doctorate in physics, and did...
(as reported by A.C. Graf von der Schulenberg ) find that the fricative /s/ has two variants: [s] or [ʃ].
The velars /ky/ and /k'y/ are palatalized velars, with both sounds "pronounced simultaneously".
The velar glide /ẅ/ is a "w pronounced with lips unrounded".
The glottalization
Glottalization
Glottalization is the complete or partial closure of the glottis during the articulation of another sound. Glottalization of vowels and other sonorants is most often realized as creaky voice...
diacritic /'/ may be switched to the other side of a velar segment depending on whether it falls pre-, post- or intervocalically. In speech, glottalized segments before a vowel will result in simultaneous realization of both, [kʼ]. Glottalized segments that follow vowels produce the glottalization first, then the consonant closure, [ʼk]. Intervocalically, the glottalization depends on where the stress falls. [ʼk] is pronounced after a stressed syllable, and [kʼ] is pronounced before a stress.
Orthography
The Coast Tsimshian orthography in use today is based on that developed by Tsimshianicists since the 1960s. It originally stems from Bruce Rigsby's work on the Gitksan language and includes John A. DunnJohn Asher Dunn
John Asher Dunn is an American linguist who created the first academic dictionary and grammar of the Tsimshian language, an American Indian language of northwestern British Columbia and southeast Alaska....
's work on Coast Tsimshian and Marie-Lucie Tarpent
Marie-Lucie Tarpent
Marie-Lucie Tarpent is a Canadian linguist, Associate Professor of Linguistics and French at Mount Saint Vincent University [MSVU], Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada....
's work on Nisga'a
Nisga'a language
Nisga’a is a Tsimshianic language of the Nisga'a people of northwestern British Columbia. Nisga'a people, however, do not like the term Tshimshianic as they feel that it gives precedence to Coast Tsimshian. Nisga’a is very closely related to Gitksan...
and Southern Tsimshian
Southern Tsimshian language
Southern Tsimshian or Sgüüx̣s is the southern dialect of the Coast Tsimshian language, spoken by the Gitga'ata and Kitasoo Tsimshians in Klemtu, B.C..Today the language has just one fluent speaker....
. Dunn, Tarpent, and Susan Marsden substantially revised it for School District No. 52 (Prince Rupert) when preparing the Suwilaay'msga Na Ga'niiyatgm, Teachings of Our Grandfathers book series in the early 1990s, with the blessing of the Tsimshian hereditary chiefs. Since then, the orthography and the recording of the language have largely been conducted by the Tsimshian Sm'algyax Authority. The Living Legacy Talking Dictionary provides both written and spoken samples of the language.
Another orthography, used only in Alaska, is taught by a private organization called Dum Baal-dum.
Syllable Structure
Coast Tsimshian utilizes (C)CV or (C)CVC(C) syllableSyllable
A syllable is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds. For example, the word water is composed of two syllables: wa and ter. A syllable is typically made up of a syllable nucleus with optional initial and final margins .Syllables are often considered the phonological "building...
structures in which the vowels can occur long
Vowel length
In linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a vowel sound. Often the chroneme, or the "longness", acts like a consonant, and may etymologically be one, such as in Australian English. While not distinctive in most dialects of English, vowel length is an important phonemic factor in...
or short
Vowel length
In linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a vowel sound. Often the chroneme, or the "longness", acts like a consonant, and may etymologically be one, such as in Australian English. While not distinctive in most dialects of English, vowel length is an important phonemic factor in...
. Syllabic consonant
Syllabic consonant
A syllabic consonant is a consonant which either forms a syllable on its own, or is the nucleus of a syllable. The diacritic for this in the International Phonetic Alphabet is the under-stroke, ⟨⟩...
s are common and can technically occur anywhere within the word. The only consonants that qualify as syllabic (indicated optionally by underlining) are the sonorant
Sonorant
In phonetics and phonology, a sonorant is a speech sound that is produced without turbulent airflow in the vocal tract; fricatives and plosives are not sonorants. Vowels are sonorants, as are consonants like and . Other consonants, like or , restrict the airflow enough to cause turbulence, and...
s /m/, /n/ and /l/ (and their glottalized
Glottalization
Glottalization is the complete or partial closure of the glottis during the articulation of another sound. Glottalization of vowels and other sonorants is most often realized as creaky voice...
counterparts). (Some writers will follow the Gitksan orthographic practice of writing the syllabic sonorant
Sonorant
In phonetics and phonology, a sonorant is a speech sound that is produced without turbulent airflow in the vocal tract; fricatives and plosives are not sonorants. Vowels are sonorants, as are consonants like and . Other consonants, like or , restrict the airflow enough to cause turbulence, and...
s as /im/, /in/ and /il/.)
Examples:
- /hay.maa.dm/ "northeast wind"
- /n.lak/ "fireplace"
- /k'l.k'ool/ plural of intransitive verb "dull"
Consonant clusters are common. Schulenberg reports finding /pt, pts, ptl, kts, qp, qtk, qtsky, qsk, nts, tgy/ among many others, though only a smaller portion can occur in the rime
Syllable rime
In the study of phonology in linguistics, the rime or rhyme of a syllable consists of a nucleus and an optional coda. It is the part of the syllable used in poetic rhyme, and the part that is lengthened or stressed when a person elongates or stresses a word in speech.The rime is usually the...
. Note that these clusters do not contain syllabic consonants, but are only either in the onset or the coda
Syllable coda
In phonology, a syllable coda comprises the consonant sounds of a syllable that follow the nucleus, which is usually a vowel. The combination of a nucleus and a coda is called a rime. Some syllables consist only of a nucleus with no coda...
.
Clusters at the ends of words often have an epenthetic vowel
Epenthesis
In phonology, epenthesis is the addition of one or more sounds to a word, especially to the interior of a word. Epenthesis may be divided into two types: excrescence, for the addition of a consonant, and anaptyxis for the addition of a vowel....
inserted, which is usually /a/ [ʌ] but can also be either /i/ [ɪ] or /ü/ [ɯ].
Examples (with other phonological changes):
- /gyelḵ/ → /gyelag̲/ "outside"
- /aalks/ → /aaliks/ "servant"
- /a'ayaaẅx/ → /aayaawüx/ "Aurora Borealis, Northern Lights"
Vowel Pitch
The long vowelsVowel length
In linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a vowel sound. Often the chroneme, or the "longness", acts like a consonant, and may etymologically be one, such as in Australian English. While not distinctive in most dialects of English, vowel length is an important phonemic factor in...
of Coast Tsimshin must be pronounced in one of three distinct ways: with a sustained pitch /ee/ [eː]; a "falling pitch and offglide"/ée/ [˥eʌ˩], or with a glottal interruption /e'e/ [eʼe]. Once again, in every day writing, the diacritical marks may be left out, so that all three may look like /ee/--although it is most common to leave the glottal stop in.
Examples:
- (steady pitch) /kpiil/ "ten" (of abstract and round objects)
- (falling pitch) /nóosü/ "wolverine"
- (glottal interruption) /xba'ala/ "squall; storm from the south"
Stress
The primary stress generally falls on the last syllable of a word. In the case of a suffix or connective being added, then the stress falls on the penultimate syllable.Phonological Processes
There are a number of complex phonologicalPhonology
Phonology is, broadly speaking, the subdiscipline of linguistics concerned with the sounds of language. That is, it is the systematic use of sound to encode meaning in any spoken human language, or the field of linguistics studying this use...
processes that affect underlying segments. The following is just a sample of some of the changes that may occur.
- Short vowels followed by /l/ often become long vowels with /l/-deletion. /walp/---> /waap/ "house"
- Glottalized /k/ and /ḵ/ between vowels are often shortened to just a glottal stop. /sa̰'kaɫ/---> /sa̰'aɫ/ "divide, settle an estate"
- At the ends of words /ḵ/ may become /x/. /iimḵ/---> /iimx/ "beard"
- A short vowel may be lengthened if the primary stress falls on it. /xa/ ---> /xaa/ "male slave"
- /l/ and /n/ may alternate in reduplicationReduplicationReduplication in linguistics is a morphological process in which the root or stem of a word is repeated exactly or with a slight change....
. /k'yi'nam/---> /k'yilk'yi'nam/ "give" - Long vowels may become diphthongDiphthongA diphthong , also known as a gliding vowel, refers to two adjacent vowel sounds occurring within the same syllable. Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets: That is, the tongue moves during the pronunciation of the vowel...
s. /ɫool/---> /ɫoowl/ "push through the water"
(note: The existence of diphthongs is questionable. Schulenberg claims that Franz Boas "always heard the individual vowels pronounced separately." Dunn, however, seems to believe that younger speakers will realize a diphthong. There may have been a change in the pronunciation since Schulenberg's research in 1894 and Dunn's subsequent work starting in the 1968. In any event, diphthongs are rare.)
Morphology
Coast Tsimshian can be classified as a polysynthetic languagePolysynthetic language
In linguistic typology, polysynthetic languages are highly synthetic languages, i.e., languages in which words are composed of many morphemes. Whereas isolating languages have a low morpheme-to-word ratio, polysynthetic languages have extremely high morpheme-to-word ratios.Not all languages can be...
, although it is less so than other Native North American languages. Tense, for instance, is not marked with the verb, but always appears as a separate pre-verbal word. The verb stands out as the most important word in the sentence—much of the information can be expressed by affix
Affix
An affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word. Affixes may be derivational, like English -ness and pre-, or inflectional, like English plural -s and past tense -ed. They are bound morphemes by definition; prefixes and suffixes may be separable affixes...
ing onto it. Nouns, however, do have a number of clitic
Clitic
In morphology and syntax, a clitic is a morpheme that is grammatically independent, but phonologically dependent on another word or phrase. It is pronounced like an affix, but works at the phrase level...
s that may be attached. There are multiple connectors that are suffixed or prefixed onto adjacent words which can create long strings of lexical items.
Forming the Plural
ReduplicationReduplication
Reduplication in linguistics is a morphological process in which the root or stem of a word is repeated exactly or with a slight change....
Coast Tsimshian has an extensive system of reduplication
Reduplication
Reduplication in linguistics is a morphological process in which the root or stem of a word is repeated exactly or with a slight change....
, which is used in most cases to form the plural of both nouns and verbs. There is a complex set of phonological processes that affect both the vowel and the consonant in reduplication. Schulenberg records at least 12 different classes of reduplication but Dunn later condenses these to just five, depending on which part of the word is copied, and whether it is prefixed, suffixed or infixed. However, each class contains irregular forms.
- Class I: /CVk-/: /yexɫ/ "spit (verb)" → /yikyexɫ/ "spit (plural)"
- Class II: /CVx-/: /da'axɫk/ "able" → /daxda'axɫk/ "able (plural)"
- Class III: /CVC-/: /dal/ "fight"→ /dildal/ "fights"
- Class IV: /CV-/: /siipk/ "sick (verb)" → /sipsiipk/ "sick (plural)"
- Class V: /-V/ or /-VC/ → (can be infixed or suffixed after primary syllable) /yuutsk/ "necklace" → /yu'itsk/ "necklaces"
Distributives
Besides reduplication, plurals can also be formed by adding lexical clitics. Prefixing or infixing /g̲a/ acts as a distributive. It is best translated as "each one his/her own". The words that take this prefix usually have a specific relation to an individual, such as body parts, clothing and kin.
- /goot/ "heart"→ /g̲agoot/ "hearts"
- /agwinübiip/ "great uncle" → /agwig̲anübiip/ "great uncles"
Iteratives
The word /gyik/ "again" may be prefixed to form some plurals, especially those referring to time.
- /suunt/ "summer"→ /gyiksuunt/ "summers"
Intensives
The word for "very" /lu'kwil/ can be shortened to /lu-/ and pre- or infixed onto some words to form the plural. This process may result in extremely divergent forms, because of phonological processes.
- /hadiks/ "swim" → /la̰heediks/ "swim (plural)"
Isomorphics and Suppletives
Finally, some plural forms are the same as the singular (/lak/ "fire" → /lak/ "fires") and some words have suppletive plurals, where there is no morphological relationship between the two (/waa/ "name" → /uust/ "names").
Suffixes
Derivational SuffixesThere are ten suffixes that may be attached to words to derive
Derivation (linguistics)
In linguistics, derivation is the process of forming a new word on the basis of an existing word, e.g. happi-ness and un-happy from happy, or determination from determine...
words with meanings related in some way to the original morpheme . Theses suffixes can change either the grammatical relationship and/or the grammatical function. The names for the types listed below are shortened descriptions of those provided by Dunn.
- Consequential: /-x/ (sometimes /-ḵ/) The derived form is the consequence of or has been affected by the stem. /ḵ'o'a̰l/ "forget" → /ḵ'oolax/ "dull; warm one's back by the fire"
- Instrumental: /-t/ The derived form is a person or thing that uses the stem in some way. /gyemk/ "sun, moon" → /gyemga̰t/ "astronomer"
- Purposive: both /-l/ and /-n/ These two suffixes indicate that the stem is the goal or intention of a person, thing or action. /buu/ "blow, sound (of a whale)" → /buul/ "warn"
- Singularly Qualitative: /-k/ The derived form shares a single quality with the root. /gwisgwaas/ "bluejay" → /gwisgwaask/ "blue"
- Plurally Qualitative: /-s, -sk, -ts/ (sometimes /-k/) The derived form is in many respects similar to the root. /yuutk/ "carry around the neck" → /yuutsk/ "necklace"
- Metaphorical: /-tk/ The derived form has a metaphorical relationship with the stem. /ɫoo/ "drift, swim (fish)" → /ɫo'otk/ "clouds"
Lexical Suffixes
There are five lexically derived
Derivation (linguistics)
In linguistics, derivation is the process of forming a new word on the basis of an existing word, e.g. happi-ness and un-happy from happy, or determination from determine...
morphemes that can be attached to words to alter the meaning. The affixed morphemes can be extremely altered from their original forms, sometimes according to phonological rules, sometimes arbitrarily. Usually the suffix root is shortened to one syllable before it is attached.
- /aks/ "water" → /ts'ala̰ks/ "whirlpool" (/ts'al/ "eye")
- /g̲an/ "tree; wood; stick" → /batsgn/ "arrive in a boat" (/batsk/ "arrive")
- /gyet/ "man" → /gyitwaalgyit/ "raiders" (/gyitwaal/ "attack")
- /ban/ "belly" → /waaybn/ "pregnant (for dogs and disparagingly for women)" (/waay/ "paddle")
- /diilmx/ "respond" This suffix is used to describe languages, so the language of the Haida would be /haydmx/
Proclitics
Below is a sample list of some of the many proclitics in Coast Tsimshian. Attached to nouns and verbs, they may convey locative, aspectual, modal, case relational and lexical information. The following descriptions of the prefixes are intended to convey what sort of position the object or person is in. So /lax-/ can be used to express the top of the foot, because it has the properties of being "above" and "parallel", and /t'm-/ could be used for the backbone, because it has the properties of being "above" and "perpendicular". "Tangent" indicates that the object or action is taking place next to, or alongside of something. "Efferent" refers to going away from the action.Locative
Stative:
- /lax-/ tangent, above, parallel
- /t'm-/ tangent, above, perpendicular
- /lag̲ax/ tangent, not above, bilateral
- /ɫüü-, ɫüükɫi-, ɫüükwɫi-/ proximate, below
- /na̰k-/ proximate, not below
- /alo-, alu/ remote, below
Motional:
- /ksi-, ksa-, ksü-, xsa-/ internal source, efferent
- /g̲aɫdik-/ internal source, efferent, ascending
- /txa-/ internal source, efferent, descending
- /bax-/ tangent source, tangent goal, ascending, parageographic
- /dzag̲am-/ geographic, upstream
- /uks-/ geographic, out to sea
Aspect
Aspect
Aspect may be:*Aspect , a feature that is linked to many parts of a program, but which is not necessarily the primary function of the program...
ual
- /si-, sü-, su-/ beginning, inception
- /adigul-/ continual, enduring
- /huk-/ habitual
- /gwüldm/ beforehand
- /wil-/ subsequential
Modal
Mode
Mode may mean:* Transport mode, a means of transportation* Block cipher modes of operation, in cryptography* A technocomplex of stone tools...
- /ap-, a̰b-/ certain
- /kbi-, xbi-/ not really, half
- /liks-, lüks-/ different, strange
- /sis-, süs-/ play, pretend
- /sm-/ real genuine (as in /sm'algyax/ "true language")
Case
- /ha-/ instrumental
- /ha'ali-/ place or time for
- /sa̰-, si-, sü-, s-/ causative
- /xs-/ resemble
Lexical
Like the lexical suffixes, these proclitics derive from existing morphemes and can alter the stem meaning in various ways. Proclitics are much more common than suffixes; only a small list is provided.
- /aam/ "good" → /amadaalḵ/ "praise, worship" (/daalg̲/ "rebuke; scold")
- /gwa̰s/ "blanket" → /gwisg̲an/ "cedar bark mat coat; raincoat" (/g̲an/ "tree")
- /gyeɫk/ "to stab" → /gyiɫts'ax/ "nose-ring" (/ts'a̰ḵ/ "nose")
- /ts'usk/ "little" → /ts'übaa/ "lame (run a short distance)" (/baa/ "run")
- /'wiileeks/ "big" → /'wiiḵ'ooli/ "one with long hair" (/ḵ'ooli/ "scalp")
Syntax
Coast Tsimshian is an ergative–absolutive language. Although nominal and verbal marking allows syntax to be freer than English, word order is still an important aspect of the phrase. The basic word order for transitiveTransitive verb
In syntax, a transitive verb is a verb that requires both a direct subject and one or more objects. The term is used to contrast intransitive verbs, which do not have objects.-Examples:Some examples of sentences with transitive verbs:...
and intransitive
Intransitive verb
In grammar, an intransitive verb is a verb that has no object. This differs from a transitive verb, which takes one or more objects. Both classes of verb are related to the concept of the transitivity of a verb....
sentences is:
Intransitive: TEMPORAL MARKER, verb, absolutive.
- yagwa baas MeliTEMP run Mary"Mary is running."
Transitive: TEMPORAL MARKER, verb, ergative, absolutive, indirect object, instrumental/benefactive/locative.
- ɫadm ḵ'ag̲a 'yuuta liksoog̲ada haḵ'ag̲a TEMP open man door key.INSTRUMENTAL "A man is about to open a door with a key."
Inversions to this order are permitted. To place specific emphasis on the ergative noun (topicalization), it may be moved to the front of the phrase with the subsequent changes: temporal marker + /-t/ and /in-/ + verb. However, this order is only permitted if the topicalized ergative is a pronoun (independent, demonstrative, interrogative or relative). Proper nouns are never placed first in the sentence, except in a vocative sense. Any absolutive noun may be topicalized as well with the following changes: temporal marker + /t/ and verb + /da/. (Dunn has shown that the affixed particles on the temporal marker and the verb are falling out of use among the younger generation. It now is quite "formal" to use either in speech.)
Verb Phrase
The basic verb phraseVerb phrase
In linguistics, a verb phrase or VP is a syntactic unit composed of at least one verb and the dependents of that verb. One can distinguish between two types of VPs, finite VPs and non-finite VPs . While phrase structure grammars acknowledge both, dependency grammars reject the existence of a...
in Coast Tsimshian is ordered: TEMPORAL MARKER, verb. However, many of the noun phrases
Noun phrase
In grammar, a noun phrase, nominal phrase, or nominal group is a phrase based on a noun, pronoun, or other noun-like word optionally accompanied by modifiers such as adjectives....
in the sentence can be represented on both the verb and/or the temporal marker as pre-, in- or suffixes. There are five temporal markers which can combine to form various tenses or aspects.
- /nah/: (perfective) /nah dzap/ "already made"
- /dm/: (future/progressive) /dm dzap/ "will make", "is going to make", "is making"
- /ɫa/: (near to present) /ɫa dzap/ "just beginning to make"
- /wil/: (sequentially following) /wil dzap/ "and then made"
- /yagwa/: (present-only with action verbs) /yagwa dzap/ "be making right now," "is now making"
Some combined temporal expressions:
- /ɫa-dm dzap/: "just about to start making"
- /nah ɫa-wil dzap/ "and then just finished making"
- /dm ɫa-wil dzap/ "and now just about to start making"
Noun Phrase
The basic noun phrase is ordered as: NUMERICAL MARKER, adjective, noun, determinater, possessive. A numerical marker and a determiner cannot appear in the same phrase together.Numbers
Similar to classifiers
Classifier (linguistics)
A classifier, in linguistics, sometimes called a measure word, is a word or morpheme used in some languages to classify the referent of a countable noun according to its meaning. In languages that have classifiers, they are often used when the noun is being counted or specified...
in other languages, there are seven different counting systems depending on what is being counted. Abstract entities, flat objects and animals, round objects and units of time, human beings, long objects, canoes and lastly, measurements, all must be counted differently. The numeral gets an /-a/ connective if it ends in a stop, affricate or fricative.
- /gu'pl uwalp/ "two houses"
- /t'apxaada guksɫüüsk/ "two shirts"
- /t'apxaaduul hana'nax/ "two women"
- /guladaada hana'nax/ "two women aboard (some conveyance)"
- /g̲abeeltk g̲axsoo/ "two canoes"
Adjectives
Like numerals, adjectives appear before the noun they modify. They take an /-m/ connective as well as match the noun in number (singular or plural). If both a numeral and an adjective appear together, the numeral always precedes the adjective.
- /siipgm haasa/ "a sick dog"
- /txalpxdool al'alg̲m smgyigyet/ "four angry chiefs"
Determiners
Determiners follow the noun they modify and the noun gets a connective /-a/ suffix. There are six determinative words:
- /gwa'a/ "here, close to speaker"
- /gwasga/ "over there, that way"
- /doni/ "over there"
- /awaan/ "over there" (close to hearer)
- /gwi/ definite ("the")
- /ta'a/ for deceased kin only
Possessives
Possession is shown by placing the possessing noun after the object being possessed, which gets an /-a/ connective . If the object being possessed is not considered to be closely connected to the owner in some way (body parts, clothing, kin) then the object also gets a /na-/ prefix.
- /gyigyeda huwaap/ "The color of the houses"
- /nahoon 'yuuta/ "the man's fish"
Ergative
Ergative
The term ergative is used in grammar in three different meanings:* Ergative case* Ergative-absolutive language* Ergative verb...
s
If the verb is transitive then the agent of the verb is treated as an ergative and the object as an absolutive. In these cases, the temporal marker receives the suffix /-t/, the verb receives /-da/ and the ergative noun itself has an /-a/ suffix. (Proper nouns require variant suffixes.)
- yagwat niisda ts'uu'tsa laalt TEMP see bird worm"The bird sees the worm."
Transitive sentences in which the verb is closely related to the absolutive can actually allow the noun to be attached onto the verb, a process called incorporation
Incorporation
Incorporation may refer to:* Incorporation , the creation of a corporation* Incorporation of a place, creation of municipal corporation such as a city or county...
. A verbal connector /-m-/ is then used to suffix the noun onto the verb.
- ɫawil aadmhoonu TEMP seine(verb) CONNECTIVE fish(noun) I"And then I was just now seining for fish (fish-seining)."
Absolutives
When an intransitive verb is used, the agent of the verb is treated as an absolutive. If the absolutive directly follows the verb then the verb receives an /-a/ suffix. (Proper nouns again require different suffixes.)
- nah siipga hana'a TEMP sick woman "the woman was sick."
Pronominals
Much of the information appearing in a noun phraseNoun phrase
In grammar, a noun phrase, nominal phrase, or nominal group is a phrase based on a noun, pronoun, or other noun-like word optionally accompanied by modifiers such as adjectives....
can be expressed on the verb phrase as a pronominal
Pronominal
Pronominal can be used either to describe something related to a pronoun or to mean a phrase that acts as a pronoun in the context of nominal. An example of the second case is, "I want that kind". The phrase "that kind" stands in for a noun phrase, or nominal, that can be deduced from context, and...
. Ergative
Ergative
The term ergative is used in grammar in three different meanings:* Ergative case* Ergative-absolutive language* Ergative verb...
and absolutive phrases affix onto the verb phrase and take a different form depending on person and number. Below are the most common forms of absolutive suffixes, although depending on the tense, different suffixes are applicable.
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| First Person | -u | -m |
| Second Person | -n | -sm |
| Third Person | -t | -t |
- ɫadm baayu TEMP run.I "I'm about to run"
- ɫa ḵ'olt TEMP run(pl).they "They're just now running."
If there is an (unmarked) ergative noun in the sentence along with the absolutive pronoun, the temporal marker also gets a suffixed /-t/.
- ɫawilt niidzu ol TEMP see.me bear "And just now the bear has seen me."
Dunn has found that some temporal markers take a suffix and others do not. It seems to be "a matter of local and personal style".
Ergative pronominals appear before the verb on the temporal marker as infixes or suffixes. Some tense markers call for different affixes. With the perfective tense /nah/, for instance, the ergative suffixes are identical to the absolutive suffixes. Below is the most common form of ergative affix.
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| First Person | -n- | -dip- |
| Second Person | -m- | -m-sm- |
| Third Person | -t- | -t- |
- ɫadipwil lu'niidza ol awaan TEMP we TEMP see(pl) bear there.by.you "And just now we have seen those bears by you."
Both pronominals can occur in one sentence:
- ɫan dzagwat TEMP I kill(sg) it/him/her/they "I am about to kill it/him/her/them."
Linguists and other scholars who have worked on the Tsimshian language
- Margaret Seguin Anderson
- William BeynonWilliam BeynonWilliam Beynon was a hereditary chief from the Tsimshian nation and an oral historian who served as ethnographer, translator, and linguistic consultant to many anthropologists....
- Franz BoasFranz BoasFranz Boas was a German-American anthropologist and a pioneer of modern anthropology who has been called the "Father of American Anthropology" and "the Father of Modern Anthropology." Like many such pioneers, he trained in other disciplines; he received his doctorate in physics, and did...
- John A. DunnJohn Asher DunnJohn Asher Dunn is an American linguist who created the first academic dictionary and grammar of the Tsimshian language, an American Indian language of northwestern British Columbia and southeast Alaska....
- Susan Marsden
- Jean Mulder
- Odille MorisonOdille MorisonOdille Morison was a linguist, artifact collector, and community leader from the Tsimshian First Nation of northwestern British Columbia, Canada....
- Bishop William RidleyWilliam Ridley (bishop)William Ridley was an English missionary for the Church of England in Canada and served as Bishop of Caledonia.-Life:Ridley was from Brixham Devonshire, England, and was the son of a stonemason...
- Fumiko Sasama
- Tonya Stebbins
- Marie-Lucie TarpentMarie-Lucie TarpentMarie-Lucie Tarpent is a Canadian linguist, Associate Professor of Linguistics and French at Mount Saint Vincent University [MSVU], Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada....