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East African Campaign (World War II)
Encyclopedia
The East African Campaign was a series of battles fought in East Africa
during World War II
by the British Empire
, the British Commonwealth of Nations
and several allies against the forces of Italy
from June 1940 to November 1941.
Under the leadership of the British Middle East Command
, British allied forces involved consisted not only of regular British troops, but also many recruits from British Commonwealth nations (Sudan
, British Somaliland
, British East Africa, the Indian Empire
, South Africa
, Northern Rhodesia
, Southern Rhodesia
, Nyasaland
, British West Africa
, as well as the British Mandate of Palestine). In addition to the British and Commonwealth forces, there were Ethiopia
n irregular forces, Free French
forces, and Free Belgian
forces. The Italian forces included Italian nationals, East African colonials (Eritrea
ns, Abyssinians
, and Somali Dubats
), and a small number of German
volunteers (the German Motorized Company
). The majority of the Italian forces were East African colonials led by Italian officers.
Fighting began with the Italian bombing of the Rhodesian air base at Wajir
in Kenya, and continued, pushing the Italian forces through Somaliland, Eritrea, and Ethiopia until the Italian surrender after the Battle of Gondar
in November 1941.
proclaimed his "Italian East African Empire
" (Africa Orientale Italiana, AOI). The empire was formed from the newly occupied Ethiopia and the Italian colonies of Eritrea and Italian Somaliland
. During the First Italo-Abyssinian War
from 1895 to 1896, Italy
was thwarted in its colonial ambitions when the forces of Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia soundly defeated the Italian Royal Army (Regio Esercito) at the Battle of Adowa. During the Second Italo-Abyssinian War
from 1935 to 1936, the Italians again invaded Ethiopia and, by using weapons like poison gas, were finally able to defeat the Ethiopians.
While the Kingdom of Egypt
remained neutral
during World War II, the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936
allowed the military forces of the United Kingdom
to occupy Egypt
in defence of the Suez Canal
. At this time, the Kingdom of Egypt included the Sudan
. However, the Sudan was a condominium
between Egypt and the United Kingdom known as the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
.
On 10 June 1940, when Mussolini led Italy into World War II against the British
and the French
, the Italian forces in Africa became a potential threat to British supply routes along the Red Sea
and through the Suez Canal
. While Egypt and the Suez Canal were Mussolini's obvious primary targets, an Italian invasion of either French Somaliland
or British Somaliland were reasonable choices too. But Mussolini initially looked past both of these small, isolated colonies and, instead, looked forward to propaganda triumphs in the Sudan and British East Africa (Kenya, Tanganyika
, and Uganda
).
However, the Italian Central Command (Comando Centrale) was planning for a war starting after 1942. In the summer of 1940, they were not prepared for a prolonged war or to occupy extensive areas of the African continent.
In the early part of the war, British General Archibald Wavell
, Commander-in-Chief of the Middle East Command
, had a total of 86,000 British and Commonwealth troops at his disposal to handle potential conflicts in Libya
, Iraq
, Syria
, Iran
, and East Africa. His forces were spread out in Egypt, Palestine, the Sudan, British Somaliland, Kenya, and several other locations. Faced with forces spaced out along the enemy frontiers at intervals of about eight men to the mile, Wavell resolved to fight the Italians with delaying actions at the main posts and hope for the best. The delaying actions, bolstered by aggressive raids into Italian territory, were fought with skill and spirit. British and Commonwealth reinforcements only started to appear in significant numbers from July 1940 onwards.
Short of men, Wavell needed all of the local support he could find. One answer was Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia. The deposed emperor had been living in England
ever since the Italians invaded his country in 1936 during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War
. On 13 June, only three days after Mussolini declared war against Britain and France
, a "Mr Strong" took off in a Short Sunderland
flying boat from Poole Harbour
on the south coast of England. Emperor Selassie, alias "Mr Strong", was headed home. On 25 June, Mr Strong arrived in Alexandria
, Egypt. Seven days later, as "Mr Smith," he flew to Khartoum
in the Sudan. In Khartoum, Mr Smith met Lieutenant-General William Platt
. Emperor Selassie and Platt discussed plans to free Ethiopia from Italian rule. In July, the British government recognised Emperor Selassie and promised to help him to reclaim his throne.
Because of the increasing Axis threat in the Middle East, at the end of October 1940 the British Foreign Secretary, Anthony Eden
, convened a conference in Khartoum. In attendance were Emperor Selassie, South African General Jan Smuts
(who held an advisory brief for the region with Winston Churchill
), the Commander-in-Chief of the Middle East Command, Archibald Wavell, and the senior military commanders in East Africa including Lieutenant-General Platt and Lieutenant-General Cunningham. The general plan of attack, including the use of Ethiopian irregular forces, was agreed upon at this conference.
In November 1940, the British and Commonwealth forces gained an intelligence advantage when the government code and cypher school at Bletchley Park
broke the high grade cypher of the Italian Royal Army (Regio Esercito) in East Africa. Later, that same month, the replacement cypher for the Italian Royal Air Force (Regia Aeronautica
) was broken by the Combined Bureau, Middle East (CBME). From this point on, the commanders-in-chief in Cairo
knew Italian plans as soon as they were issued.
was the Viceroy
and Governor-General
of Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana, or AOI). He had between 250,000 and 280,000 Italian troops available to him. On 10 June 1940, the Italians were organized in four command sectors: the Northern Sector (the area near Asmara
, Eritrea), the Southern Sector (Jimma
, Ethiopia), the Eastern Sector (near the border with French Somaliland
and British Somaliland), and the Giuba Sector (southern Somalia
near Kismayo, Italian Somaliland). Lieutenant-General Luigi Frusci
commanded the Northern Sector, General Pietro Gazzera
commanded the Southern Sector, General Guglielmo Nasi
commanded the Eastern Sector, and Lieutenant-General Carlo De Simone
commanded the Giuba Sector. The Duke of Aosta commanded from Addis Ababa
in Ethiopia.
The Duke of Aosta's command included two Italian infantry divisions: The 40 Infantry Division "Hunters of Africa"
(Cacciatori d'Africa) and the 65 Infantry Division "Grenadiers of Savoy"
(Granatieri di Savoia). The Italians also had one battalion of elite mountain troops (Alpini
), one battalion of highly mobile infantry (Bersaglieri
), numerous Fascist paramilitary
Blackshirts
(Camicie Nere) battalions, Security Volunteer Militia (Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale or MVSN), Colonial Militia
, and other smaller units.
Most of the Italian troops in East Africa (about 70%) were local East African askari
s. While the askaris of the regular Eritrean battalions of the "Royal Corps of Colonial Troops" (Regio Corpo Truppe Coloniali) were amongst the best Italian units in East Africa, the majority of the colonial troops in Italian East Africa were recruited, trained, and equipped to do no more than maintain order in the colony. The Somali Dubats
recruited from border tribesmen provided useful light infantry and skirmishers but the irregular bande
were much less effective. Ethiopian askaris and irregulars, recruited during the brief Italian occupation, deserted in large numbers after the outbreak of war. The Royal Corps of Colonial Troops included horse-mounted Eritrean cavalry known as "Falcon Feathers" (Penne di Falco). On one occasion a squadron of these horsemen charged British and Commonwealth troops throwing small hand grenades from the saddle.
Equipment for the Italian ground forces in East Africa was a mixed bag. The forces were equipped with about 3,300 machine guns, 24 M11/39 medium tanks, a large number of L3/35
light tanks, 126 armored cars and 813 pieces of assorted artillery. The most common Italian rifle in East Africa was the Carcano Mod. 91
. The Italians faced problems due to the isolation of East Africa from Mediterranean supply lines, with very little opportunity for reinforcements or resupply, leading to problems especially with ammunition.
Another problem that afflicted the Italian forces was the lack of medicine for diseases endemic to the Horn of Africa
area, especially malaria
. It is estimated that nearly one-quarter of the Italians troops defending Amba Alagi
in April 1941 had malaria during the siege. The Italians at Amba Alagi had no medicine for malaria, the Italian medicine at the time being all but gone during the last months of fighting in 1941. Even the commander of Amba Alagi, the Duke of Aosta, was himself afflicted with malaria during the siege. He died of tuberculosis and malaria on 3 March 1942, a few months after his surrender.
in British East Africa, and Lieutenant-Colonel Arthur Reginald Chater
in British Somaliland. The British and Commonwealth forces were slightly better equipped than the Italians, and had access to resupply and reinforcements. However, they were vastly outnumbered by the Italian forces available in Italian East Africa. Also, the Italians had at least another 208,000 men (fourteen divisions) available in Libya.
On 10 June 1940, in all of the Sudan, prior to the arrival of the 4th Indian Infantry Division and 5th Indian Infantry Division, Platt had only three regular British infantry battalions (which were absorbed into the under-strength 5th Indian Division when it arrived) and the 21 companies (4,500 men in total) of the Sudan Defence Force
of which five (later six) were organised as small mobile machine gun companies. The three battalions were the 1st Battalion Worcestershire Regiment
, the 1st Battalion Essex Regiment
and the 2nd Battalion West Yorkshire Regiment which in mid-September became part of 29th
, 10th
and 9th Indian Infantry Brigade
s respectively. Platt had no artillery though the Sudan Horse was in the process of conversion into a 3.7 inch howitzer battery.
In Kenya
, the King's African Rifles
(KAR) was composed of two brigade-strength units organized as a "Northern Brigade" and a "Southern Brigade". In 1938, the combined strength of both units amounted to 94 officers, 60 non-commissioned officers, and 2,821 African other ranks. After the outbreak of war, these units provided the trained nucleus for the rapid expansion of the KAR. By March 1940, the strength of the KAR had reached 883 officers, 1,374 non-commissioned officers, and 20,026 African other ranks. The size of a KAR battalion was established at 36 officers, 44 non-commissioned officers and other ranks, and 1,050 African other ranks.
Initially, the KAR deployed as the 1st East African Infantry Brigade and the 2nd East African Infantry Brigade. The first brigade was responsible for coastal defence and the second was responsible for the defence of the interior. By the end of July, two additional East African brigades were formed, the 3rd East African Infantry Brigade and the 6th East African Infantry Brigade. Initially, a Coastal Division and a Northern Frontier District Division were planned. But, instead, the 11th African Division and the 12th African Division were formed.
On 1 June, the first South African unit arrived in Mombasa
, Kenya. By the end of July, the 1st South African Infantry Brigade Group joined the first unit. On 13 August, the 1st South African Division was formed. This division included the 1st, 2nd, and 5th Infantry Brigade Groups. By the end of the year, approximately 27,000 South Africans were serving in East Africa. The South Africans were either in the 1st South African Division, the 11th African Division, or 12th African Division. Each South African brigade group consisted of three rifle battalions, an armoured car company, and supporting signal, engineer, and medical units.
By July, under the terms of a war contingency plan, two brigades were provided on rotation for service in Kenya by the "Royal West African Frontier Force
". One brigade was from the Gold Coast
the 2nd (West Africa) Infantry Brigade
, (Ghana
) and one brigade the 1st (West Africa) Infantry Brigade
was from Nigeria
. The Nigerian brigade, together with two East African brigades (the KAR brigades) and some South Africans, formed 11th African Division. The 12th African Division had a similar formation with the Ghanaian brigade taking the place of the Nigerian brigade.
In British Somaliland, Chater commanded the Somaliland Camel Corps
and the re-inforcements that were trickling in. At the outbreak of hostilities, the camel corps had a total of 1,475 men to defend the colony. This number also includes a battalion of the Northern Rhodesia
n Regiment.
The British and Commonwealth forces employed a relatively small number of armoured vehicles in East Africa. For the most part, an assortment of armoured cars was used. However, B Squadron 4th Royal Tank Regiment
did include small number of Matilda infantry tank
s.
referred to by the British as "patriots
" (or Arbegnoch). Wavell expected that these forces would be able to tie down large numbers of Italian units throughout the occupied territories, although Platt in Khartoum did not believe that Hailie Selassie had the support of the majority of the people and was lukewarm towards providing support to the patriot groups. In August 1940, “Mission 101” under Colonel Daniel Sandford began operating successfully in Gojjam province. Its role was to send "Operational Centres" - small groups of officers and NCOs - to supply arms and training to the Ethiopian patriots and coordinate attacks on Italian forces. Sandford, after serving with distinction in World War I, had spent the rest of his career in Ethiopia and the Sudan and had become a close friend and adviser to Hailie Selassie.
Hailie Selassie, with the encouragement of Sandford, had arrived in Khartoum on 3 July 1940 to a cold reception from Platt. However, Anthony Eden's Khartoum conference in October agreed to boost supplies and support to the Ethiopian irregular forces. Part of the increased support saw the posting in early November of Major Orde Wingate (who had spent five inter-war years with the Sudan Defence Force
and was later to gain fame in Burma with the Chindits
) to Khartoum as a staff officer with the brief of liaising between Platt, Mission 101 and the Emperor. Here he impressed Hailie Selassie with his drive and enthusiasm.
However, Platt's poor opinion of Hailie Selassie, Sandford, and Wingate meant that he paid little attention to the operation and the resulting lack of clear areas of responsibility and chains of command (together with Wingate's naturally abrasive manner) meant that for the whole campaign there was friction and animosity between Wingate and the other commanders.
Wingate formulated a plan for action in Ethiopia and presented it to Wavell and senior staff in Cairo in early December 1940. The plan included the formation of a small regular force under Wingate to act as a spearhead for military operations in Gojjam. He argued that:
This force was named Gideon Force
, after the biblical judge Gideon
, and was composed of the Frontier battalion from the Sudan Defence Force
and the 2nd Ethiopian Battalion. These forces were equipped with four, 3-inch mortars (in place of artillery) and 15,000 camels to provide transport and carry supplies. Although he did not formally take command until 6 February 1941, Wingate set off with Gideon Force into Gojjam in January 1941.
Gideon Force was able to travel relatively freely throughout the countryside. At any time during its brief history, the Italian East African Empire was only nominally under Italian control. It is estimated that as much as one third of Ethiopia remained under the control of Ethiopian nobles.
The Italians had not endeared themselves to the Ethiopians. On 22 May 1936, when General Rodolfo Graziani
was made Viceroy of Ethiopia, the Italians may have possibly chosen the man least likely to pacify the country. On 6 June, Mussolini cabled Graziani and indicated: "All rebels captured are to be shot." This gave the new Viceroy, infamous for his pacification of Libya
, all the power he needed. Soon, Graziani's reputation for brutal repression earned him the title: "the Butcher of Ethiopia". The Duke of Aosta replaced Graziani as Viceroy in 1937. It was generally conceded that he was a vast improvement over Graziani. But he was unable to undo much of the damage Graziani's brutality had already done.
For their part, the Ethiopian patriots gave the Italian troops every reason to fear losing to them, as the Ethiopians did not often take prisoners.
Very important to the success of the operations in northwest Ethiopia, Emperor Haile Selassie I crossed the border from Sudan to join the force of Ethiopian patriots. Sizeable patriot forces were already concentrated in the provinces of Gojjam
, Shoa
, Gimma
, Galla-Sidama
, and Harage.
) in East Africa had between two-hundred and three-hundred combat ready aircraft (see Italian East Africa Air Command). While some of these aircraft were outdated, in relative terms these were some of the best aircraft available to either side in East Africa in 1940. The Italians had Savoia-Marchetti SM.79
and Savoia-Marchetti SM.81
bombers and Fiat CR-42 fighters. In addition, the Italian aircraft were often based at better airfields than their British and Commonwealth counterparts. When the war began, Italian pilots were relatively well trained and confident of their abilities. But, cut off from Italy as they were, problems with lack of fuel, munitions, spare parts, and replacements eventually wore down the Italian air capability.
(RAF) bomber squadrons (Nos. 14, 47 and 223) equipped with obsolete Vickers Wellesley
aircraft. A flight of Vickers Vincent biplanes formed from No. 47 squadron performed Army Co-operation duties and these squadrons were later reinforced from Egypt by No. 45 squadron (flying Bristol Blenheim
aircraft). In Port Sudan there were six Gloster Gladiator
biplane fighters. The air force's role in Sudan covered shipping protection in the Red Sea (including anti-submarine patrols), air defence of Port Sudan, Atbara and Khartoum as well as close support for land forces. The No. 1 (Fighter) Squadron of the South African Air Force
(SAAF) (equipped with Gladiators) arrived in Khartoum as reinforcement in August.
In the south (Kenya) were No. 12 Bomber Squadron SAAF (equipped with Junkers Ju 86
bombers), No. 11 Bomber Squadron of the SAAF (equipped with Fairey Battle
s), No. 40 Army Co-operation Squadron SAAF
(equipped with Hawker Hart
ebees), No. 2 Fighter Squadron
, SAAF (equipped with Hawker Furies
), and No. 237 (Southern Rhodesian
) Army Co-operation Squadron (equipped with Hawker Hardys).
Unlike the Italians, the aircraft available to the British and Commonwealth forces improved with time. But, as can be seen above, much of the equipment initially available tended to be older and slower. Even so, the British and Commonwealth forces managed to make do with what they had. The South Africans even pressed an old Valencia biplane into service as a bomber.
) maintained presence in the Red Sea
region with its "Red Sea Flotilla
". Most vessels were stationed in the port of Massawa
in the Italian colony of Eritrea. However, lesser port facilities existed at Mogadishu
in Italian Somaliland and also at Assab
in Eritrea. The Red Sea Flotilla included seven destroyers organized into two squadrons, five motor torpedo boats (MTB, or in Italian; Motoscafo Armato Silurante, MAS) organized into one squadron together with eight submarines organized into two squadrons.
The Italian naval squadrons were viewed by the British as a threat to Allied convoys heading from the Gulf of Aden
to the Red Sea. But, as Italian fuel supplies in Massawa dwindled, so did the Italian fleet's opportunity for offensive action in the Red Sea.
The Red Sea Flotilla and its home port of Massawa
did however represent a link between Axis occupied Europe and the naval facilities located in the Italian concession zone
in Tientsin
in China
.
had been considered a "British lake". The Indian Ocean was ringed by significant British and Commonwealth possessions. Much of the strategic supplies needed by the United Kingdom in both peace and war had to pass across the Indian Ocean. These included: Persian oil, Malayan
rubber, Indian tea, and Australia
n and New Zealand
foodstuffs. In war, Britain relied upon the loyalty and manpower of Australia and New Zealand and these had to be transported. Safe passage for British cargo ships was critical.
Despite this, the Royal Navy
had tended to station its older ships in the east and used the China Station
and the Far East Station as sources of reinforcements for other theatres. Even when gravely threatened, the Eastern Fleet largely consisted of older capital ship
s that had been deemed too slow or too vulnerable to be of use in the Atlantic Ocean
or the Mediterranean Sea
.
On 13 June, early in the morning, three Italian Caproni
bombers appeared and bombed the Rhodesia
n air base at the fort located at Wajir
in Kenya. The Rhodesian aircraft were still warming up and preparing to take-off on a dawn patrol. The Capronis bombed the fort, the landing-ground, and nearby housing. The King's African Rifles
(KAR), then garrisoning the fort, lost four killed and eleven wounded. Two Rhodesian aircraft were badly damaged and a large dump of aviation fuel was set on fire. Following this, the air base at Wajir received regular visits from the Italians every second or third day and the Rhodesian pilots were made to realize the significant shortcomings in speed and fire-power of the Hawker Hardys they themselves flew.
At dawn on 17 June, the Rhodesians struck back and supported a successful raid by the KAR on the Italian desert outpost of El Wak
in Italian Somaliland, some ninety miles northeast of Wajir. The Rhodesians bombed and set alight the thatched mud huts and generally harassed the enemy troops. But, since the main fighting at that time was centered on Italian advances towards Moyale
in Kenya, the Rhodesians concentrated on that town. In conjunction with the South African Air Force
, the Rhodesians undertook the task of reconnaissance and bombing in that disputed area.
to withdraw. The defenders lost 10 men, the attackers 117.
The Italians also seized the small British fort at Gallabat
, just over the border from Metemma
, some 200 miles (321.9 km) to the south of Kassala. Even the villages of Qaysān
, Kurmuk
and Dumbode on the Blue Nile
were conquered. Having taken Kassala and Gallabat, however, the Italians decided to venture no further in the Sudan—because of lack of fuel—and they proceeded to fortify Kassala with anti-tank defences, machine-gun posts, and strong-points. The Italians were also disappointed to find the native population of not harboring any anti-British sentiments. Ultimately, the Italians established a brigade-strong garrison at Kassala.
In Kenya, after heavy fighting, the Italians occupied Fort Harrington in Moyale
. At the end of July, Italian forces reached Dabel and Buna
. These small villages, nearly one-hundred kilometers from the Ethiopian-Kenyan border, were to be the deepest points inside Kenya reached by the Italian army. Any further expansion was impossible because of the poor supply situation.
In the first days of August, an Italian force of irregular Eritreans raided Port Sudan
as a prelude to the Italian campaign to conquer British Somaliland
.
Mussolini had laid claims to Kenya, but Hitler planned the dissection of the colony, with the southern part and the capital Nairobi
forming a territory of the German Mittelafrika
. Italy was also to replace the British administration in Sudan: Italian-Egyptian Sudan
was to link Italian North Africa
with Italian East Africa
.
, the major French base in French Somaliland
(modern Djibouti
). The French commander, Brigadier-General Paul Legentilhomme
, had some 7,000 men in seven battalions of Senegalese and Somali infantry. Legentilhomme also had three batteries of field guns, four batteries of anti-aircraft guns, a company of light tanks, four companies of militia and irregulars, two platoons of camel corps, and an assortment of aircraft. But, after the fall of France in June 1940, the Vichy French
government's neutrality allowed the Italians to shift their focus to the more lightly defended British Somaliland.
On 18 June 1940, Legentilhomme left French Somaliland and joined the Free French. But French Somaliland, the colony Legentilhomme once commanded, remained loyal to the Vichy government until the British seized in after a conducting a siege after a 101 day blockade in October of 1941.
On 3 August 1940, approximately 25,000 Italian troops invaded British Somaliland. The Italians were commanded by General Guglielmo Nasi
.
The Italian force attacking British Somaliland in August included five colonial brigades, three Blackshirt battalions, and three bands (banda
) of native troops. The Italians had armoured vehicles (a small number of both light
and medium tanks), artillery, and, for the moment, superior air support.
The Italians were opposed by a British contingent, commanded by Brigadier Arthur Reginald Chater
, of about four-thousand men consisting of the lightly armed Somaliland Camel Corps
, the 2nd (Nyasaland
) Battalion King's African Rifles
(KAR), the 1st Battalion Northern Rhodesia
n Regiment, the 3rd Battalion 15th Punjab Regiment
and 1st East African Light Battery (four 3.7 inch howitzers). They were joined from Aden on 7 August by the 1st Battalion 2nd Punjab Regiment
and 8 August by 2nd Battalion Black Watch
. Chaters' force was not only critically short of artillery but it had no tanks or armoured cars nor did it have any anti-tank weapons to oppose the Italian medium and light tanks.
The Italians advanced in three columns, with the western column advancing towards Zeila
, the central column towards Hargeisa
, and the eastern column towards Odweina in the south. Lieutenant-General Carlo De Simone
commanded the main central column. Chater used his Camel Corps to skirmish with and screen against the advancing Italians as the other British and Commonwealth forces pulled back towards Tug Argan, to form defensive positions in the rugged Assa Hills overlooking the main road to the capital, Berbera.
At the end of the first week in August the British and Commonwealth forces in British Somaliland received reinforcements with the arrival of the 1st Battalion 2nd Punjab Regiment
. and 2nd Battalion The Black Watch. On 11 August, a new, more senior, commander, Major-General Reade Godwin-Austen
, reached Berbera.
The Italians commenced their attacks at Tug Argan on 11 August but, early on 15 August, Godwin-Austen concluded that further resistance to the Italians would be futile as his troops were close to being cut off. He contacted the British Middle East Command
headquarters in Cairo
, Egypt
. Godwin-Austen requested and received permission to withdraw his forces from British Somaliland. The determined effort of the Black Watch
battalion, which covered the retreat, allowed the entire British and Commonwealth contingent to withdraw to Berbera with almost no losses. By 17 August, most of the contingent was successfully evacuated from Berbera to Aden
. Rather than evacuate, the Somaliland Camel Corps
was disbanded.
.
British and Commonwealth losses in the short campaign were relatively low:
By contrast, the Italians losses were over ten times that of the British:
The British Prime Minister, Sir Winston Churchill
, criticized General Archibald Wavell concerning the loss of British Somaliland. It was Wavell's Middle East Command
which was responsible for the loss of the colony. Because of the low casualty rate, Churchill fretted that the British had abandoned the colony without enough of a fight.
In response to this criticism, Wavell claimed that Somaliland was a textbook withdrawal in the face of superior numbers. He pointed out to Churchill that "A bloody butcher’s bill is not the sign of a good tactician." According to Churchill's staff, Wavell's retort moved Churchill to greater fury than they had ever seen before.
The conquest of the British Somaliland was the only campaign in which Italy achieved victory without the support of other Axis
troops during World War II.
The main insights from this campaign are the following:
saw early action as they attempted to make their presence known. But they introduced themselves at a high cost. In mid to late June, four of the eight submarines based in Massawa
were lost.
tanker
James Stove approximately 12 miles (19.3 km) south of Aden. On 18 June, the Galileo Galilei captured the Yugoslav steamship Dravo but, in the end, released it. On 19 June, the Galileo Galilei was on patrol off of Aden and encountered the armed trawler
Moonstone. During a gun duel, the commander of the Galileo Galilei was killed, and the submarine was then captured by the armed trawler. The submarine was subsequently used by the British as HMS X2.
off French Somaliland
, the Italian Brin class submarine
Evangelista Torricelli was sunk by the British destroyers HMS Kandahar
and Kingston
with assistance from the sloop
Shoreham. Several hours afterwards, the British destroyer Khartoum
suffered an internal explosion following a fire and sank in shallow water off Perim Island. The British destroyer was a total loss.
. However, on 24 June, the Luigi Galvani was sunk by the sloop Falmouth
in the Gulf of Oman
.
and the Allied counter-offensive, much attention shifted to the naval sphere and to the activities of the Italian Red Sea Flotilla
. Fuel and parts shortages continued to hamper the ability of the Italian flotilla to interfere with either convoys or even individual vessels of the British Eastern Fleet.
On 13 August, the Italian submarine Gauleo Ferraras tried to intercept the British battleship Royal Sovereign
in the Red Sea
. Royal Sovereign, coming from Suez
, escaped the Italian ambush and made it safely to Aden.
On 6 September, the Italian submarine Guglielmo waited for prey south of the Farasan Islands
. The Guglielmo succeeded in torpedoing and sinking only one ship, the oil tanker Atlas.
Between 20 October and 21 October, the Italian submarines Guglielmo and Gauleo Ferraras tried to intercept a large British Red Sea convoy coming from the Indian Ocean and sailing to Port Sudan
and Suez. The BN7 convoy included 31 cargo vessels escorted by the New Zealand
cruiser Leander
, the British destroyer Kimberley
and five sloops. The convoy also had an air escort provided by 50 fighters and bombers based in Aden. The Guglielmo and Gauleo Ferraras did not succeed in intercepting the convoy. On 21 November, the same convoy was attacked by the Italian destroyers Pantera, Leone and Francesco Nullo. The convoy escorts drove the Italian destroyers off. Two of the convoy escorts, the New Zealand cruiser Leander and the British destroyer Kimberley drove the Italian destroyer Francesco Nullo ashore with their combined gunfire. The Francesco Nullo was destroyed the next day by Royal Air Force
(RAF) Blenheim
light bombers.
were placed on the Red Sea coast to protect Port Sudan, the 9th Indian Infantry Brigade
were positioned southwest of Kassala and the 10th Indian Infantry Brigade
were sent to Gedaref, accompanying the divisional headquarters. On 6 November a surprise attack was staged to take back Gallabat
. The attacking force comprised William "Bill" Slim's
10th Indian Infantry Brigade. Slim was accompanied by a squadron of 12 medium and light tanks, a field regiment of artillery, and supported by the RAF. The attack began at 5:30 am and Gallabat
was captured by 8:00 am. The planned follow-on assault on Metemma
, on the other side of the ravine forming the border, had to be delayed because by this time nine of the tanks were out of action.
, acting Governor of Eritrea
and commander of the Italian forces there, was not prepared to relinquish the Italian-held positions in the Sudan. The Italian defenders occupied strong prepared positions with barbed-wire defences which could only be broken by tanks. As Slim paused while his tanks were repaired, General Martini, the Italian commander at Gondar, sent a fierce onslaught from the counter-attacking Italian Royal Air Force (Regia Aeronautica
). Italian aircraft appeared in great strength. The Italian airmen shot down seven RAF Gloster Gladiator
biplane fighters whilst losing five Fiat CR-42s and, for forty-eight hours, proceeded to methodically bomb the 1st Battalion Essex Regiment
and the 3rd Battalion 18th Royal Garwhal Rifles. The Italians did this until the British and Commonwealth troops were compelled to withdraw from the positions they had just won. The 10th Indian Brigade re-occupied the ridge west of Gallabat three days later but the operation against Metemma was not continued.
For the next two months, the 10th Indian Brigade and, after them, the 9th Indian Brigade (who relieved the 10th Brigade in December) simulated the activities of a full division. The brigades blazed lines of communication east from Gedaref and created dummy airfields and stores depots. The British forces did this to convince Italian Intelligence that Platt's main thrust would be towards Gondar rather than Kassala
.
as a mobile reconnaissance and fighting force. It comprised three motor machine-gun companies from the Sudan Defence Force
, the 1st Duke of York's Own Skinner's Horse (the reconnaissance regiment from the 5th Indian Infantry Division), and some mobile artillery. Gazelle Force was commanded by Colonel Frank Messervy
.
Throughout November, December, and early January, Lieutenant-General William Platt continued to apply constant pressure on the Italians all along the border with the Sudan by continually patrolling and raiding with both his ground troops and his air force. During this time, better British aircraft started to replace some of the older models. The British and Commonwealth air forces were now starting to get Hawker Hurricane
s and more Gloster Gladiator
s. The Hurricanes were superior to the Italian Fiat CR-42 fighters and the Gladiators were at least their equal. Both the Hurricanes and the Gladiators were capable of playing havoc with Italian Savoia-Marchetti
bombers.
On 6 December, a large concentration of Italian motor transport was bombed and strafed by Commonwealth aircraft a few miles north of Kassala
. The same aircraft then proceeded to machine-gun from low level the nearby positions of the Italian Blackshirts and colonial infantry. A few days later, the same aircraft bombed the Italian base at Keru
, fifty miles east of Kassala. The Commonwealth pilots had the satisfaction of seeing supply dumps, stores, and transport enveloped in flame and smoke as they flew away.
One morning in mid-December, a force of Italian fighters paid a visit to a Rhodesian landing-strip near Kassala. The Italians strafed some Hawker Hardys caught on the ground. As a result of the Italian attack, several aircraft were destroyed. However, while successful, the attack resulted in no casualties.
, in the Western Desert
, in the skies over Britain
, and on the Albanian border with Greece
prompted the new Italian Chief of the General Staff in Rome
, General Ugo Cavallero
, to adopt a new course of action in East Africa
. In December 1940, Cavallero argued to the Italian High Command (Commando Supremo) that the Italian forces in East Africa should abandon offensive actions against the Sudan and against the Suez Canal
. Instead, Cavallero argued that Italy should focus on defending the Italian East African Empire
.
Amedeo, Duke of Aosta
, also requested permission to withdraw from the Sudanese frontier. In response to Cavallero and the Duke of Aosta, the Italian Supreme Command (Commando Supremo) in Rome issued orders for the Italian forces in East Africa to withdraw to better defensive positions.
Orders were sent to Lieutenant-General Luigi Frusci
for him to withdraw his forces from Kassala
and Metemma
in the lowlands along the Sudanese border with Eritrea. Instead, Frusci was ordered to hold the more easily defended mountain passes on the roads running eastward from Kassala to Agordat
and from Metemma to Gondar. However, Frusci chose not to withdraw from the lowland. He argued that withdrawal would involve too great a loss of prestige. Furthermore, Kassala was an important railway junction. By holding it, the Italians prevented the British from using the railway to carry supplies from Port Sudan
on the Red Sea coast to the base at Gedaref.
Information of the Italian withdrawal was quickly decrypted by the British and, knowing the Italian plans, Lieutenant-General William Platt
was able to start his offensive into Eritrea on 18 January 1941, three weeks ahead of schedule.
who had taken over the East African Force at the start of November 1940. A third front would be created by the forces which re-took British Somaliland by sea.
Wavell planned for Platt to advance southward from the Sudan, through Eritrea, and into Ethiopia and for Cunningham to advance northwards from Kenya, through Italian Somaliland, and into Ethiopia. While Platt advanced from the north and Cunningham from the south, Wavell planned for a third force to be landed in British Somaliland in an amphibious assault and to then re-take that colony prior to advancing into Ethiopia. According to the plan, all three forces were to ultimately join forces at the capital of Italian East Africa, Addis Ababa.
The capture of Italian East Africa would remove land-based threats to supplies and reinforcements coming from Australia, New Zealand, India, South Africa, and British East Africa and passing through the Suez Canal
for the campaign in North Africa and open the overland route from Cape Town
to Cairo
.
which was already in Ethiopia. The standard of the Lion of Judah
was raised again.
The crossing was made some 450 miles (724.2 km) northwest of Addis Ababa
, the capital Emperor Selassie had been forced to flee when the Italian General Pietro Badoglio
captured the city from the Ethiopians on 5 May 1936 during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War
.
where they initially faced opposing forces of about 25,000 men. Emperor Selassie and Gideon Force rallied Ethiopian patriots wherever they went using powerful loudspeakers which had been supplied to the patriot forces to announce the presence of the emperor and inducing local tribal leaders and Italian askari
s to desert the Italian cause. Using surprise and bluff, this relatively small force disrupted Italian supply lines and provided important intelligence to the more conventional British and Commonwealth forces.
In March, there was a furious clash between Colonel Sandford and Wingate. Sandford maintained in a signal to headquarters in Khartoum
that the resources being absorbed by Wingate for the "comparatively slow advance of [his] conventional forces" was "paralysing Patriot activities by diverting rifles, ammunition and pack saddles exclusively to Wingate's force, instead of giving equal priority to the Patriots" which would have a greater impact through swift and dispersed action not just in Gojjam but with the assistance of Sandford's Mission 101, in other provinces as well. This was followed by a signal of rebuttal from Wingate to Platt who had to rebuke them both. The dispute overflowed into Wingate's formations leading to the mutiny of the 2nd Ethiopian Battalion at the start of April. Wingate had to leave his sick-bed (he was suffering from an attack of malaria) to dismiss the battalion's commander, after which it rallied to its new leader and performed well for the rest of the campaign.
. From 27 February to 3 March Gideon Force harried the well-sited defensive forts at Bure while propagandists yelling through their megaphones fostered the Italian belief that they were being attacked by a substantial force and provoked many desertions. Finally on 4 March, fearing his line of communication to Debre Marqos
was threatened, Colonel Natale, not knowing that the attacking force counted only 450 men, pulled out of Bure and headed for Dembacha on the road to Debre Marqos. Harried from behind by the Frontier Battalion, Natale's column met the 2nd Ethiopian Battalion head-on just west of Dembacha. The Ethiopian battalion put up a stiff resistance but were overwhelmed. However, Natale had been shaken by recent events and abandoned Dembacha on 8 March and pulled all the garrisons back to Debre Marqos.
The American United Press Agency reported: "The East African war has turned into a race to Addis Ababa between the army of Abyssinian volunteers and the mechanised South African troops who stand in such remarkable contrast to each other. The South African troops are advancing from Mogadishu toward Harar, which lies about 30 miles (48.3 km) from the Djibouti-Addis Ababa railway line."
In less than three months, Gideon Force (less the 2nd Ethiopian Battalion which was no longer a combatant force after the engagement at Dembacha) and an ever-growing army of Ethiopian patriots were advancing on the Italian fortifications at Debre Marqos, the capital of Gojjam. Lieutenant-Colonel Bousted, commanding the Frontier Battalion, embarked on a guerrilla campaign which involved small parties of 50 or so men silently infiltrating to within 10 yards (9 m) of an enemy position in the middle of the night and then attacking with grenades and bayonets to clear the defenders. By early April the defenders had been forced back to the inner defensive ring at Debre Marqos. Because of the critical situation to the south, the Duke of Aosta ordered the withdrawal from Debre Marqos and on 4 April 12,000 people (including 4,000 women) under their commander, Colonel Maraventano, began the 200 miles (321.9 km) trek to Safartak and then beyond to Dessie
. On 6 April Hailie Selassie entered Debre Marqos and was formally greeted by Wingate, Gideon Force and Ras Hailu, the powerful local patriot leader.
consolidated themselves around Addis Ababa in preparation for Emperor Selassie's return. In response to the rapidly advancing British and Commonwealth forces and to the general uprising of Ethiopian patriots, the Italians in Ethiopia retreated to the mountain fortresses of Gondar, Amba Alagi
, Dessie
, and Gimma
.
From Debra Marqos, Wingate followed the retreating Italians and undertook a series of harrying actions. In early May most of Gideon Force had to break off in order to provide a suitable escort for Hailie Selassie's formal entry into Addis Ababa. Following the ceremonials Wingate returned to Safforce, the main Mission 101 force which was harassing Maraventano's column. By 18 May the column was dug in at Agibor.
Facing Maraventano was a force of about 2,000 including only 160 trained soldiers (100 from the Frontier Battalion and 60 from the re-formed 2nd Ethiopian Battalion). Both sides by this time were short of food, ammunition, water and medical supplies. Wingate sent a message to Maraventano falsely telling of very substantial forces about to join him and playing on the likely imminent withdrawal of British troops leaving the Italian column at the mercy of the Patriots. By 21 May, having referred the matter to higher authority in Gondar which had left the decision to him, Maraventano indicated an intention to surrender with the formal honours taking place on 23 May. Wingate accepted the surrender of 1,100 Italian and 5,000 colonial troops, 2,000 women and children and 1,000 mule men and camp followers. By this time his force contained only 36 regular soldiers to make the formal guard of honour at the surrender, the rest of his force being patriots.
On 18 May, a small part of Gideon Force led by the explorer Wilfred Thesiger
blocked a force of 2,500 retreating Italians. On 24 May, thinking he faced superior numbers, the Italian commander agreed to surrender to Thesiger.
. The Italian force at Keren soon included three colonial brigades and the Savoy Grenadiers. The Savoy Grenadiers included one battalion of highly mobile infantry (Bersaglieri
) and the Uork Amba Battalion, the one battalion of elite mountain troops (Alpini
) in East Africa.
Lieutenant-General Platt's attack from the Sudan to take Eritrea could only begin once re-inforcements arrived from Egypt, in the meantime he continued to conduct harrying raids on Italian positions. The arrival of an Australian division in Egypt allowed General Wavell to release the 4th Indian Infantry Division from Operation Compass
in the Western Desert
. Further reinforcements in the form of a battery of 6-inch howitzers and a company of I tanks
were also forthcoming.
The arrival of the 4th Indian Infantry Division (which commenced on 7 January), together with intelligence concerning the Italian plans, greatly aided Platt's plans. The main British attack on Eritrea, originally scheduled to start on February 8 with an attack against the railway junction at Kassala, was brought forward to January 18. However, the aggressive skirmishing in the previous month had prompted the Italians in late December to withdraw from their northern flank back to Keru and Wachai. Finally, on 17 January Frusci acceded to the orders from Rome and withdrew from Kassala and Tessenei to concentrate in the Keru - Biscia - Aicota triangle where the mountains began.
and the 5th Indian Infantry Division, commanded by Major-General Lewis Heath
, entered Kassala making for the heavily fortified town of Agordat to the east. On that first day, as the British and Commonwealth troops passed through Kassala and entered Sabdaret and Tessenei, the Italians were already dug in among the jagged foothills of the Eritrean Plateau on the approaches to Agordat.
— two battalions from Briggs's own 7th Indian Infantry Brigade
(from the 4th Indian Infantry Division), together with two battalions from the French "Brigade of the East" (Brigade d'Orient) — one Senegalese colonial battalion and one Free French battalion.
After capturing Italian positions near Karora, Briggs Force fought its way to the northern defences of Keren and linked up with the main force in March.
towards Agordat, the 4th Indian Division, still with only one under-strength brigade available (11th Indian Infantry Brigade
) but with Gazelle Force under command, took the northern road via Wachai and Keru
. Meanwhile the two brigades of 5th Indian Infantry Division (a third brigade, 9th Indian Infantry Brigade
, had remained to cover the Gallabat position) took the southern road via Tessenei, Aicota and Barentu
. Both roads were mined and sown with spikes placing a heavy burden on the engineers to maintain the momentum of the advance.
On 21 January 5th Indian Division had occupied Aicota without opposition and Gazelle Force had reached the strongly defended position at the Keru Gorge held by five Italian battalions. The Italian position at Keru was undone by a bold move by Major-General Heath who sent the 2nd Battalion Highland Light Infantry and the 2nd Motor Machine Gun Battalion from 10th Indian Brigade northeast along a track from Aicota to the rear of the Italian position at Keru. On 22 January when 4th Indian Division put in their attack, the 5th Indian Division detachment were across the Italians' rear line of communication. The Italian position, which should have been held for weeks, became untenable and while some elements of the Italian 41st Brigade managed to escape across country in the night, General Fongoli with his staff and guns and 1200 men were taken prisoner.
By 25 January the lateral line of communication between Agordat and Barentu had been cut leaving these two strong points isolated from each other. Agordat was defended by four infantry brigades supported by 76 guns and a company each of medium and light tanks all under the command of General Lorenzini. 4th Indian Division's second brigade (5th Indian Infantry Brigade
) had by now concentrated from Egypt and Beresford-Pierse therefore paused to allow it together with the first four I tanks to move into the front line. On the evening of 28 January he sent 11th Indian Brigade's 3/14th Punjab Regiment
on a flanking move into the Cochen hills to the south. On 29 January they were joined by a second battalion, 1/6th Rajputana Rifles
. On 30 January they were counter attacked by five Italian colonial battalions with mountain artillery in support. The Indian battalions came under intense pressure and were forced to give way but counter attacked on the morning of 31 January and regained the lost ground. With Lorenzini's attention fully occupied by the events in the Cochen, Beresford-Pierse launched 5th Indian Brigade in his main attack on the plain below supported by the four I tanks. The tanks proved decisive and by the evening the road to Keren had been cut and the Italian defenders isolated. Once again the Italian forces attempted to get away in the hours of darkness but 1,000 prisoners were taken and 43 guns captured.
Meanwhile 5th Indian Division had attacked Barentu and despite facing 8,000 defenders and 32 guns settled in prepared defences, they had prevailed without help from I tanks and occupied the town on 2 February.
Within nine days, the forces of Beresford-Peirse and Heath had advanced 100 miles (160 kilometres) and broken through the Italian positions in the foothills to capture Agordat
on February 1. In total 6,000 prisoners had been taken and 80 guns, 26 tanks and 400 trucks captured.
On 21 January, during the advance of the 5th Indian Division, Brigadier William "Bill" Slim was wounded by aerial strafing. Slim's command of 10th Indian Infantry Brigade
was assumed temporarily by Lieutenant-Colonel Bernard Fletcher
, commander of the brigade's 2nd Highland Light Infantry
battalion, until March when Brigadier Thomas "Pete" Rees
took over.
in northern Ethiopia, having been under increasing pressure for three weeks and realising that Platt's main thrust would not be coming from the Gallabat direction withdrew towards Gondar
. This withdrawal allowed the 9th Indian Infantry Brigade
of the 5th Indian Infantry Division to occupy Metemma. Brigadier Mosley Mayne
, 9th Brigade's commander, sent units along the road towards Wahni to harry the retreating Italian forces fighting lively engagements 20 miles (32.2 km) and 45 miles (72.4 km) east of Metemma. Progress on the road was difficult because of the thickly laid minefields and it was during this period that 2nd Lieutenant Premindra Singh Bhagat
of the Royal Bombay Sappers and Miners won the first Victoria Cross
for the British Indian Army in World War II for a "...continuous feat of sheer cold courage" clearing 15 minefields and 55 miles (88.5 km) of roads in 48 hours of unbroken effort.
By 31 January, the Duke of Aosta reported that the Italian military forces in East Africa were down to 67 operational aircraft with limited fuel.
Following the fall of Agordat Gazelle Force set off in pursuit only to be delayed at the Baraka River where the bridge had been blown and the banks and dried bed mined. The eight hour delay gave time for the Italians to consolidate their remaining Eritrean forces together with strategic reserves (which had travelled for three days without stopping from Addis Abbaba) at Keren and then blow the cliff into the gorge which provided the only road access to the Keren plateau from the west.
The key action on the northern front then took place at Keren
in Eritrea, 60 miles (96.6 km) further east of Agordat towards the Red Sea. While General Frusci
was in overall command of the Italian forces in Eritrea, the Italians at Keren were commanded by General Nicolangelo Carnimeo
. On 5 February, the Battle of Keren
began. The battle started with assaults by elements of 4th Indian Infantry Division (Gazelle Force and 11th Indian Brigade) on the Italian positions in the mountains leading to Keren. Initially the resolute Italian defenders prevailed with heavy casualties on both sides. Further heavy attacks took place over the next ten days, but the Italians held and there was no break through.
Platt decided to regroup and concentrate his forces before attacking again. Planning for a set-piece battle he disbanded Gazelle Force (with Messervy taking over 9th Indian Brigade) and brought 5th Indian Infantry Division (which had been mopping up at Agordat) to the front. On 1 March, his command was expanded by the arrival of Briggs Force from the north. Although it lacked the artillery for a major offensive, Briggs Force drew off a significant part of the Keren garrison. This aided Platt's main offensive which was being launched from the south west. Briggs Force also posed a threat to Massawa
to the east. This threat obliged the Italians to maintain a reserve on the coast.
On 14 March, by the time the next assault on Keren commenced, Platt's force of about 13,000 men faced a re-inforced Italian defence of about 23,000 men. Once again, both sides fought with determination and both sides suffered heavy losses. According to Winston Churchill
, both sides were evenly matched at Keren, both on the ground and in the air. However, Churchill points out that the arrival of Hurricane
fighters gave the British the upper hand in the air.
It took until 27 March for Keren to fall. In the account of the battle written in Eastern Epic, an official history of the British Indian Army
in World War II, Compton Mackenzie wrote:
Casualties at Keren were relatively high for both sides. The British and Commonwealth forces had more than 4,000 men killed, wounded or missing including 3,000 casualties from 4th Indian Division. The Italians suffered about 3,000 men killed and several thousand men wounded, injured, or sick. Much of the Italian garrison was captured.
Keren was decisive in terms of the strategic objectives of the Allied forces (to the extent that when Wavell was created an earl
he chose as his second title the viscount
y of Keren and of Winchester). While hard fighting lay ahead before the campaign would come to an end, the fall of Keren broke the resistance of the Italian forces and led to the almost immediate capture of Massawa on the coast. This made it possible for the Allies to safely use the Red Sea for ships bringing munitions and supplies to the North African theatre.
set off eastwards in pursuit of the retreating Italians and towards the Eritrean capital of Asmara
, some 50 miles (80.5 km) away. They left the Indian 4th Infantry Division
behind to mop up in Keren. After mopping up, the Indian 4th Infantry Division returned to Egypt (leaving behind for a little longer the formations it had detached to Briggs Force).
The retreating Italians fought minor skirmishes but mounted no major stand. A new defensive position was formed at Ad Teclesan, in a narrow valley on the route from Keren to Asmara. The 80th Colonial Division was brought from Gondar and the remaining two battalions of the Savoia Grenadiers from Addis Ababa. However, the Keren defeat had shattered the morale of the Italian forces and when Heath's attack came early on 31 March there was little fighting. On 1 April, Asmara was declared an open town and 5th Indian Division entered the town to take 5,000 more prisoners and capture the entire equipment reserve of the Italian East African armies including 1,500,000 shells and 3,000,000 rounds of small arms ammunition. Three days later, after resupply along the lengthening road to the Kassala railway junction on the Sudanese border, 10th Infantry Brigade of Indian 5th Infantry Division set off east again towards Massawa
. Massawa was some 50 miles (80.5 km) away, 7000 feet (2,133.6 m) lower, and on the coast. On 10th Brigade's left flank was Briggs Force which had advanced cross-country from Keren and were approaching Massawa from the north along the coast.
and the commander of the garrison at Massawa, had been ordered by Benito Mussolini
to defend the town to the last man. The Italians had 10,000 troops and 100 assorted tanks and armoured cars to defend Massawa. About 1,000 of the defenders at Massawa were veterans from Keren and another bloody battle seemed likely.
On 20 February 1941, the armed merchant cruiser
Ramb I broke out of Massawa with the colonial ship Eritrea and the armed merchant cruiser Ramb II
The Ramb I and Ramb II were known as auxiliary cruisers or merchant raider
s, armed ships which disguised themselves as noncombatant merchant vessels. Ramb I and Ramb II were relatively modern and fast. They had been transformed into auxiliary cruisers with the installation of four 120 mm guns and some 13.2 mm anti-aircraft machine guns. The Eritrea was similar in concept, but, while older and slower, was able to carry more cargo. The Eritrea was armed with four 120 mm guns, two 40 mm guns, and two 13.2 mm machine guns. On 27 February 1941, the Ramb I was located off of the Maldive Islands in the Indian Ocean
by the New Zealand cruiser Leander and was sunk
. Both the Eritrea and the Ramb II evaded detection and reached Kobe
, Japan
.
From 1 March to 4 March, the remaining Italian submarines at Massawa escaped destruction by sailing south. The Guglielmo, the Gauleo Ferraras, the Perla and the Archimede planned to break out, sail south, navigate past the Cape of Good Hope
, turn north, and sail north to Bordeaux
, France
, via the west coast of Africa. On 29 March, the Perla was refueled by the German auxiliary cruiser Atlantis
in the Indian Ocean. The other submarines were refueled by the German fleet tanker Nordmark in the South Atlantic between 16 April and 17 April. All four Italian submarines arrived at Bordeaux between 7 May and 20 May.
Elements of 5th Indian Division coming from Asmara and Briggs Force, cutting across country from Keren, converged on Massawa. After some initial strong opposition, the Italian ground forces defending Massawa, lacking fuel, ammunition, and food, crumpled and resistance collapsed. French units from Briggs Force took Montecullo and Fort Umberto on April 7 and the Allies pressed into Massawa on 8 April. Colonel Ralph Monclar of the 13th French Foreign Legion Demi-Brigade
captured the Italian admiralty building and accepted the surrender of 10,000 Italian naval personnel, bringing the unit's tally to 14,000 Italian prisoners.
The harbour facilities themselves were a prize the British were hoping to use in order to ease the maintenance backlog of naval ships needing repair in Alexandria
. When Asmara was captured, Bonnetti had been told by the British using the undamaged telephone line to Massawa that they would not be responsible for the feeding of the 40,000 Italian civilians in Asmara if the port installations were damaged. On referring the matter to Rome, Bonnetti was told to proceed and destroy the port. In the week preceding capture, Massawa harbour was thoroughly wrecked by Italian sabotage of machinery in shore facilities, the sinking of two large floating dry docks, and the calculated scuttling
of sixteen large ships in the mouths of the north Naval Harbour, the central Commercial Harbour and the main South Harbour, blocking access in and out. Scuttled, too, was a large floating crane. The harbour was rendered useless until repairs and salvage
efforts could clear it thirteen months later.
On 11 April, Major-General Lewis Heath
was promoted to command the Indian III Corps
in the Far East. Command of the Indian 5th Infantry Division
was assumed by Mosley Mayne
who had previously commanded the division's 9th Brigade. Bernard Fletcher
, who had for two months until March had temporary command of 10th Brigade, was promoted and given command of the 9th Brigade.
Before Massawa fell, Bonnetti had ordered the remaining seven Italian destroyers and the remaining motor torpedo boat (the other four boats were no longer operational) to put to sea from Massawa on "do or die" missions. In late March, three destroyers were to attack Port Suez but when one ran aground outside Massawa and had to be sunk by its sisters, this operation was abandoned and the two survivors joined the remaining division in their mission. Four, now six, destroyers had been ordered to attack the fuel tanks at Port Sudan
, in early April. Two of these destroyers, Daniele Manin and Nazario Sauro, were sunk by shore-based Swordfish
airplanes (of the Fleet Air Arm
) from the carrier Eagle
. Two more destroyers were damaged and scuttled on the coast near Jeddah
, Saudi Arabia. The seventh destroyer suffered engine problems and remained in Massawa to be scuttled during the port demolitions. Before being scuttled by its crew, the Italian motor torpedo boat (MTB) MAS-213 torpedoed and damaged the cruiser Capetown
. The cruiser was escorting a convoy off Massawa.
The remaining Italian port facilities at Assab
, within easy striking distance of British aircraft based in Aden, held out for several weeks after the fall of Massawa.
, two battalions from the Indian Army
and one Somali commando detachment were landed on both sides of Berbera
by British naval "Force D" (cruisers HMS Glasgow
and Caledon
, destroyers HMS Kandahar and Kipling, auxiliary cruisers Chakdina and Chantala, Indian trawlers Netavati and Parvati, two transports and ML 109). The two Sikh
battalions (which had been part of the defending force evacuated in August 1940), made the first successful Allied
landing on an enemy-held beach during World War II. The 1st Battalion 2nd Punjab Regiment
and the 3rd Battalion 15th Punjab Regiment
re-captured British Somaliland
from its Italian occupiers.
When the Sikhs landed, an Italian colonel (suffering from malaria together with half of his troops) waited with the 60 men who constituted the Berbera garrison. The garrison had been low on food and water for weeks. The Italians stood in formation on the beach and waited to surrender to the arriving British force. The British promptly "secured" Berbera. A British officer present at the Italian surrender later wrote: "War can be very embarrassing".
On 20 March, Hargeisa
was captured. The British and Commonwealth forces in British Somaliland spent the next months clearing the colony of the last remnants of its former invaders. The Somaliland Camel Corps
was re-founded in mid-April and, in addition to looking for Italians, re-acquired its job of rounding up local bandits.
From British Somaliland, British and Commonwealth forces advanced westward into eastern Ethiopia. In late March, they linked up with advancing forces from the Southern Front around Harar
and Diredawa in Ethiopia. The link-up meant that Cunningham's forces could be re-supplied more efficiently through the port of Berbera as they advanced into Ethiopia.
Some Italians, under the orders of Colonel Di Marco, started a guerrilla war
in the Ogaden
area that is reported to have lasted until the summer of 1942.
n, Nigeria
n, and Ghana
ian troops under British or South African officers). The South African division was led by Major-General George Brink
. The 11th African Division was commanded by Major-General H. E. de R. Wetherall
. The 12th African Division was commanded by Major-General Reade Godwin-Austen
.
In January 1941, Cunningham decided to launch his first attacks across the Kenyan border directly into southern Ethiopia. Although he realised that the approaching wet season would preclude a direct advance this way to Addis Ababa, he hoped that this action would cause Ethiopians in southern Ethiopia to rise up in rebellion against the Italians. It was also anticipated that this action would pin Italian forces in the area and prevent them being sent as reinforcements when the main offensive was started in Jubaland
Cunningham sent the South African 1st Division (composed of 2nd and 5th South African and 21st East African brigades) and an independent East African brigade into the Galla-Sidamo Province. From 16 January to 18 January 1941, they captured El Yibo and on 19 January, an advance force of the South African division captured Jumbo. From 24 January to 25 January, Cunningham's troops fought on the Turbi Road. His hopes that the Ethiopians would rise up, however, were not realized.
The southern Ethiopia attack ground to a halt in mid-February as heavy rains made further movement and maintenance of the force very difficult. From 1 February, they captured Gorai and El Gumu. On 2 February, they took Hobok. From 8 February to 9 February, Banno was captured. On 15 February, the fighting was on the Yavello Road. The two South African Brigades then launched a double flanking movement on Mega. After a three day battle in which many of the South Africans, equipped for tropical conditions, suffered from exposure because of the heavy rains and near freezing temperatures, they captured Mega
on 18 February. Moyale, 70 miles southeast of Mega on the border with Kenya, was occupied on 22 February by a patrol of Abyssinian irregular troops which had been attached to the South African Division.
Against an expected six brigades and "six groups of native levies" holding the Juba for the Italians, Cunningham launched Operation Canvas with four brigade group
s. Little resistance was expected and little was encountered. On 14 February, the first objective, the port of Kismayu
, was captured. North of Kismayu and beyond the river was the main Italian position, Jelib. On 22 February, Jelib was attacked on both flanks and from the rear. The Italians were completely routed and 30,000 were either killed, captured, or dispersed into the bush. Italian aircraft took no part in the defense having been roughly handled by South African aircraft. There was nothing that now hindered Cunningham's advance of 200 miles to take the capital and major seaport of Italian Somaliland, Mogadishu
.
.
On 1 March, the 11th African Division began a fighting pursuit of the retreating Italian forces north from Mogadishu. The division pursued the Italians towards the Ogaden Plateau
. By 17 March, the 11th African Division completed a seventeen day dash along the Italian built "Imperial Road" (Strada Imperiale) from Mogadishu to Jijiga
in eastern Ethiopia,
By early March Cunningham's forces had captured most of Italian Somaliland and were advancing through Ethiopia towards the ultimate objective, Addis Ababa. On 26 March, Harar
was captured. On 29 March, Dire Dawa
fell. During this time there was a link-up with the forces advancing from British Somaliland and Cunningham's supply route became much improved.
was liberated by Cunningham's force. In 53 days, Cunningham had advanced 1725 miles (2,776.1 km) from Kenya to reach the Ethiopian capital. The highly disciplined Police of Italian Africa
(Polizia dell'Africa Italiana
) stayed in the city to maintain order and keep the peace.
Emperor Haile Selassie made a formal entry to the city on 5 May. This was five years after being forced to flee when the Italians captured his capital on 5 May 1936 during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War
. Since then, 5 May has been observed in Ethiopia as Liberation Day
, a national holiday.
On 13 April, Cunningham sent a force under Brigadier Dan Pienaar
comprising 1st South African Brigade and Campbell's Scouts (Ethiopian irregulars led by a British officer) to continue the northward advance and link up with Platt's forces advancing south.
On April 20, after a rough battle, Pienaar's force captured Dessie
on the main road north from Addis Ababa to Asmara. Pienaar was some 200 miles (321.9 km) south of Platt's forces gathering at Amba Alagi.
, a 12000 feet (3,657.6 m) high mountain between Asmara and Addis Ababa.
The Italians decided to defend the area around Amba Alagi in force. They drove galleries into the solid rock to protect their troops and to hold ample ammunition and stores. In this mountain fortress, the defenders, under command of the Duke of Aosta, thought themselves to be impregnable.
Platt gave newly promoted Major-General Mosley Mayne
and the Indian 5th Infantry Division
the task of taking Amba Alagi. Mayne was only able to deploy a single expanded brigade, the Indian 29th Infantry Brigade, for this action. His attacking force was therefore inferior in numbers to the Italian defending force. Mayne's limited deployment was due to the demands on the British for internal security and for protecting their lines of communication. The supply route to Amba Alagi extended nearly 250 miles (402.3 km) south of Asmara and some 400 miles (643.7 km) from the main rail head at Kassala.
On 3 May 1941, Mayne sent in a feint attack from the east while, in the early hours of 4 May, the main attack was made from the northwest over the hills. The hills were fiercely defended by the Italians. On 11 May, Pienaar's brigade group arrived from the south and was put under Mayne's command. By 14 May Amba Alagi was surrounded. With the arrival of Pienaar, the 7000 Italian troops of the Duke of Aosta were directly attacked by 9000 British troops and more than 20000 Ethiopian irregulars.
A final assault was planned for 15 May, but a fortuitous artillery shell hit an Italian fuel dump and ruptured a vessel containing oil. This caused oil to flow into the remaining drinking water of the Italian defenders. The lack of drinkable water then forced the Italians to surrender.
On 18 May, the Duke of Aosta surrendered his embattled forces at Amba Alagi. General Mayne agreed to a surrender with "full military honors" (allowing the troops to march off the battlefield in formation and then surrender their arms) in exchange for the Duke's agreement to hand over the battlefield 'clean'. This put the Duke on his honour to identify all mines and booby-traps to the troops taking over the area and included his agreement that the Italians' remaining equipment and stores should not be sabotaged or destroyed. Mayne later wrote While the Duke of Aosta faced defeat in East Africa, his brother, the Duke of Spoleto
was being made the King of Croatia after the successful invasion of Yugoslavia
.
The Duke of Aosta had endured the last months of fighting while suffering a severe attack of malaria
(and died of malaria and Tuberculosis
a few months later).
The campaign in Italian East Africa
was all but over.
and the strongholds of Gondar
and Jimma
remained under Italian control. Both Gondar and Jimma started with garrisons of roughly 40,000 men.
was landed at Assab, the last Italian-held harbour on the Red Sea
. By 11 June, Assab had fallen. On 13 June, two days after the fall, the Indian trawler "Parvati" became the last naval casualty of the campaign when it struck a magnetic mine near Assab.
, the Governor of Galla-Sidama
and the new acting Viceroy and Governor-General of Italian East Africa, continued to resist at Jimma in southwest Ethiopia. Gazzera had replaced the Duke of Aosta as Viceroy and Governor-General of Italian East Africa.
However, even before Cunningham moved against him, Gazzera was faced with a growing irregular force of Ethiopian patriots (or Arbegnoch). Many of his units started to melt away. His colonial troops were especially prone to defection. On 21 June 1941, Gazzera abandoned Jimma where about 15,000 of what was left of his command surrendered. On July 3, Gazzera and his last 7,000 men surrendered when they were cut off by Belgian Major-General Auguste-Éduard Gilliaert
, the commander of the Free Belgian Forces
in East Africa.
On 28 September, the 3000 man garrison of Wolchefit Pass surrendered to the King's African Rifles
.
, the acting Governor of Amhara, held out for almost seven months. Gondar was the capital of Begemder
Province in northwest Ethiopia, about 120 miles (193.1 km) west of Amba Alagi. After General Gazzera surrendered, Nasi became the new acting Viceroy and Governor-General of Italian East Africa. But, like Gazzera, Nasi faced not just conventional forces (from Platt's command), but also an ever increasing force of Ethiopian patriots.
While the Italian Royal Air Force (Regia Aeronautica
) in East Africa had been worn down quickly by a lop-sided war of attrition, the Italian pilots held on to the bitter end. On 24 October 1941, the last Italian aircraft of the campaign was shot down.
On 27 November 1941 General Nasi and his last 23,500 men surrendered Gondar to a combined force of British and Commonwealth troops and a force of Ethiopians. The Italians received full military honors.
and Gulf of Aden
coastlines cleared of Axis forces, U.S. President
Franklin D. Roosevelt
was able to declare that these areas were no longer combat zones. As a result, ships of the United States
were able to proceed to the Suez Canal
. This helped to relieve the enormous strain on the shipping resources of the United Kingdom
. It was only at the end of 1941, once the US entered the war against the Axis powers, that the combat zone requirement lost its significance.
until 1944. In January 1942, with the final official surrender of the Italians, the British, under pressure from the American administration, signed an interim Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement
with Emperor
Haile Selassie I
acknowledging Ethiopian sovereignty. Makonnen Endelkachew
was named as Prime Minister
. On December 19, 1944, the final Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement
was signed. Selassie reigned until 1974 when the monarchy was abolished by the Derg
. Since about 1994, the country has been known as the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia.
was placed under British military administration for the remainder of World War II. In 1950, Eritrea was made part of Ethiopia. The unification of Eritrea and Ethiopia proved to be unacceptable to the Eritreans and led to the Eritrean War of Independence
. The unification ended in the early 1990s. Eritrea became independent on a de facto
basis in 1991. Eritrea was recognized as being independent de jure
in 1993.
was placed under British military administration for the remainder of the war. In 1948, it was decided that the Ogaden
border region would be awarded to Ethiopia. In 1949, the United Nations
brought the Italians back to administer Somalia for ten years. In 1960, what had been Italian Somaliland became independent. Days after becoming independent, Italian Somaliland joined with what had been British Somaliland to create the independent state known as the Somali Republic
.
were isolated. Instead of blockading the port, the Royal Navy scrupulously allowed Vichy ships to supply Djibouti's garrison, ensuring the area remain in passive obedience to Vichy, but also forestalling, to Free French consternation, a spontaneous rallying of the isolated garrison to de Gaulle's forces. The Vichy French continued to hold the colony after the Italian collapse until in October of 1941, after a 101-day British blockade, French Somaliland fell. Free French and Allied forces then occupied the French colony.
A local battalion from French Somaliland participated in the liberation of France
in 1944.
In 1977, French Somaliland became independent as the Republic of Djibouti
.
Amedeo Guillet
was one of the Italian officers who fought with the Italian guerrillas in Ethiopia
. Other Italian officers were Captain Francesco De Martini
in Eritrea, Colonel Calderari in western Ethiopia/Somalia, Colonel Di Marco in Ogaden/British Somaliland, "blackshirt centurion" De Varda in Somalia/Ethiopia and Major Lucchetti in Ethiopia.
The Italian guerrilla war was even waged by civilians. In August 1942, Dr. Rosa Dainelli
successfully sabotaged the main British ammunition dump in Addis Ababa
.
Hostilities in East Africa officially ceased on September 9, 1943 when the Italian government signed an Armistice with the Allies
, but even then some Italian soldiers continued their guerrilla war until October 1943, being unaware of the Italian armistice.
(VC) during this campaign:
Issue #37645 on 10 July 1946
East Africa
East Africa or Eastern Africa is the easterly region of the African continent, variably defined by geography or geopolitics. In the UN scheme of geographic regions, 19 territories constitute Eastern Africa:...
during World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
by the British Empire
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the...
, the British Commonwealth of Nations
Commonwealth of Nations
The Commonwealth of Nations, normally referred to as the Commonwealth and formerly known as the British Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of fifty-four independent member states...
and several allies against the forces of Italy
Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)
The Kingdom of Italy was a state forged in 1861 by the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which was its legal predecessor state...
from June 1940 to November 1941.
Under the leadership of the British Middle East Command
Middle East Command
The Middle East Command was a British Army Command established prior to the Second World War in Egypt. Its primary role was to command British land forces and co-ordinate with the relevant naval and air commands to defend British interests in the Middle East and eastern Mediterranean region.The...
, British allied forces involved consisted not only of regular British troops, but also many recruits from British Commonwealth nations (Sudan
Sudan
Sudan , officially the Republic of the Sudan , is a country in North Africa, sometimes considered part of the Middle East politically. It is bordered by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the northeast, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east, South Sudan to the south, the Central African Republic to the...
, British Somaliland
British Somaliland
British Somaliland was a British protectorate in the northern part of present-day Somalia. For much of its existence, British Somaliland was bordered by French Somaliland, Ethiopia, and Italian Somaliland. From 1940 to 1941, it was occupied by the Italians and was part of Italian East Africa...
, British East Africa, the Indian Empire
British Raj
British Raj was the British rule in the Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947; The term can also refer to the period of dominion...
, South Africa
South Africa
The Republic of South Africa is a country in southern Africa. Located at the southern tip of Africa, it is divided into nine provinces, with of coastline on the Atlantic and Indian oceans...
, Northern Rhodesia
Northern Rhodesia
Northern Rhodesia was a territory in south central Africa, formed in 1911. It became independent in 1964 as Zambia.It was initially administered under charter by the British South Africa Company and formed by it in 1911 by amalgamating North-Western Rhodesia and North-Eastern Rhodesia...
, Southern Rhodesia
Southern Rhodesia
Southern Rhodesia was the name of the British colony situated north of the Limpopo River and the Union of South Africa. From its independence in 1965 until its extinction in 1980, it was known as Rhodesia...
, Nyasaland
Nyasaland
Nyasaland or the Nyasaland Protectorate, was a British protectorate located in Africa, which was established in 1907 when the former British Central Africa Protectorate changed its name. Since 1964, it has been known as Malawi....
, British West Africa
British West Africa
British West Africa was the collective name for British colonies in West Africa during the colonial period, either in the general geographical sense or more specifically those comprised in a formal colonial administrative entity...
, as well as the British Mandate of Palestine). In addition to the British and Commonwealth forces, there were Ethiopia
Ethiopia
Ethiopia , officially known as the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It is the second-most populous nation in Africa, with over 82 million inhabitants, and the tenth-largest by area, occupying 1,100,000 km2...
n irregular forces, Free French
Free French Forces
The Free French Forces were French partisans in World War II who decided to continue fighting against the forces of the Axis powers after the surrender of France and subsequent German occupation and, in the case of Vichy France, collaboration with the Germans.-Definition:In many sources, Free...
forces, and Free Belgian
Free Belgian Forces
The Free Belgian Forces were members of the Belgian armed forces in World War II who continued fighting against the Axis after the surrender of Belgium and its subsequent occupation by the Germans...
forces. The Italian forces included Italian nationals, East African colonials (Eritrea
Eritrea
Eritrea , officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in the Horn of Africa. Eritrea derives it's name from the Greek word Erethria, meaning 'red land'. The capital is Asmara. It is bordered by Sudan in the west, Ethiopia in the south, and Djibouti in the southeast...
ns, Abyssinians
Ethiopia
Ethiopia , officially known as the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It is the second-most populous nation in Africa, with over 82 million inhabitants, and the tenth-largest by area, occupying 1,100,000 km2...
, and Somali Dubats
Dubats
Dubats was the designation given to armed irregular bands employed by the Italian Regio Corpo Truppe Coloniali in Italian Somaliland from 1924 to 1941...
), and a small number of German
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
volunteers (the German Motorized Company
German Motorized Company
The German Motorized Company was a light infantry company formed by the Italians during the East African Campaign during World War II.- Service history :...
). The majority of the Italian forces were East African colonials led by Italian officers.
Fighting began with the Italian bombing of the Rhodesian air base at Wajir
Wajir
Wajir is a town in the North Eastern Province of Kenya. It is the capital of Wajir County.-History:A cluster of cairns near Wajir are generally ascribed by the local inhabitants to the Madanle, a semi-legendary people of high stature, who are associated with the Somali Ajuuraan. A. T...
in Kenya, and continued, pushing the Italian forces through Somaliland, Eritrea, and Ethiopia until the Italian surrender after the Battle of Gondar
Battle of Gondar
The Battle of Gondar was the last stand of the Italian forces in Italian East Africa during the Second World War. The battle took place in November 1941, during the East African Campaign...
in November 1941.
Background and political situation
On 9 May 1936, Italian dictator Benito MussoliniBenito Mussolini
Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini was an Italian politician who led the National Fascist Party and is credited with being one of the key figures in the creation of Fascism....
proclaimed his "Italian East African Empire
Italian East Africa
Italian East Africa was an Italian colonial administrative subdivision established in 1936, resulting from the merger of the Ethiopian Empire with the old colonies of Italian Somaliland and Italian Eritrea. In August 1940, British Somaliland was conquered and annexed to Italian East Africa...
" (Africa Orientale Italiana, AOI). The empire was formed from the newly occupied Ethiopia and the Italian colonies of Eritrea and Italian Somaliland
Italian Somaliland
Italian Somaliland , also known as Italian Somalia, was a colony of the Kingdom of Italy from the 1880s until 1936 in the region of modern-day Somalia. Ruled in the 19th century by the Somali Sultanate of Hobyo and the Majeerteen Sultanate, the territory was later acquired by Italy through various...
. During the First Italo-Abyssinian War
First Italo-Abyssinian War
The First Italo-Ethiopian War was fought between Italy and Ethiopia from 1895 to 1896. Ethiopia's military victory over Italy secured it the distinction of being the only African nation to successfully resist European colonialism with a decisive show of force.-Background:On March 25, 1889, the...
from 1895 to 1896, Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
was thwarted in its colonial ambitions when the forces of Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia soundly defeated the Italian Royal Army (Regio Esercito) at the Battle of Adowa. During the Second Italo-Abyssinian War
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
The Second Italo–Abyssinian War was a colonial war that started in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war was fought between the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy and the armed forces of the Ethiopian Empire...
from 1935 to 1936, the Italians again invaded Ethiopia and, by using weapons like poison gas, were finally able to defeat the Ethiopians.
While the Kingdom of Egypt
Kingdom of Egypt
The Kingdom of Egypt was the first modern Egyptian state, lasting from 1922 to 1953. The Kingdom was created in 1922 when the British government unilaterally ended its protectorate over Egypt, in place since 1914. Sultan Fuad I became the first king of the new state...
remained neutral
Neutrality (international relations)
A neutral power in a particular war is a sovereign state which declares itself to be neutral towards the belligerents. A non-belligerent state does not need to be neutral. The rights and duties of a neutral power are defined in Sections 5 and 13 of the Hague Convention of 1907...
during World War II, the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936
Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936
The Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 was a treaty signed between the United Kingdom and the Kingdom of Egypt; it is officially known as The Treaty of Alliance Between His Majesty, in Respect of the United Kingdom, and His Majesty, the King of Egypt...
allowed the military forces of the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
to occupy Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
in defence of the Suez Canal
Suez Canal
The Suez Canal , also known by the nickname "The Highway to India", is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows water transportation between Europe and Asia without navigation...
. At this time, the Kingdom of Egypt included the Sudan
Sudan
Sudan , officially the Republic of the Sudan , is a country in North Africa, sometimes considered part of the Middle East politically. It is bordered by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the northeast, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east, South Sudan to the south, the Central African Republic to the...
. However, the Sudan was a condominium
Condominium (international law)
In international law, a condominium is a political territory in or over which two or more sovereign powers formally agree to share equally dominium and exercise their rights jointly, without dividing it up into 'national' zones.Although a condominium has always been...
between Egypt and the United Kingdom known as the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan referred to the manner by which Sudan was administered between 1899 and 1956, when it was a condominium of Egypt and the United Kingdom.-Union with Egypt:...
.
On 10 June 1940, when Mussolini led Italy into World War II against the British
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
and the French
French Third Republic
The French Third Republic was the republican government of France from 1870, when the Second French Empire collapsed due to the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, to 1940, when France was overrun by Nazi Germany during World War II, resulting in the German and Italian occupations of France...
, the Italian forces in Africa became a potential threat to British supply routes along the Red Sea
Red Sea
The Red Sea is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait and the Gulf of Aden. In the north, there is the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez...
and through the Suez Canal
Suez Canal
The Suez Canal , also known by the nickname "The Highway to India", is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows water transportation between Europe and Asia without navigation...
. While Egypt and the Suez Canal were Mussolini's obvious primary targets, an Italian invasion of either French Somaliland
French Somaliland
French Somaliland was a French colony in the Horn of Africa. Established after the French signed various treaties between 1883 and 1887 with the then ruling Somali Sultans, the colony lasted from 1896 until 1946, when it became an overseas territory of France....
or British Somaliland were reasonable choices too. But Mussolini initially looked past both of these small, isolated colonies and, instead, looked forward to propaganda triumphs in the Sudan and British East Africa (Kenya, Tanganyika
Tanganyika
Tanganyika , later formally the Republic of Tanganyika, was a sovereign state in East Africa from 1961 to 1964. It was situated between the Indian Ocean and the African Great Lakes of Lake Victoria, Lake Malawi and Lake Tanganyika...
, and Uganda
Uganda
Uganda , officially the Republic of Uganda, is a landlocked country in East Africa. Uganda is also known as the "Pearl of Africa". It is bordered on the east by Kenya, on the north by South Sudan, on the west by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, on the southwest by Rwanda, and on the south by...
).
However, the Italian Central Command (Comando Centrale) was planning for a war starting after 1942. In the summer of 1940, they were not prepared for a prolonged war or to occupy extensive areas of the African continent.
In the early part of the war, British General Archibald Wavell
Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell
Field Marshal Archibald Percival Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell GCB, GCSI, GCIE, CMG, MC, PC was a British field marshal and the commander of British Army forces in the Middle East during the Second World War. He led British forces to victory over the Italians, only to be defeated by the German army...
, Commander-in-Chief of the Middle East Command
Middle East Command
The Middle East Command was a British Army Command established prior to the Second World War in Egypt. Its primary role was to command British land forces and co-ordinate with the relevant naval and air commands to defend British interests in the Middle East and eastern Mediterranean region.The...
, had a total of 86,000 British and Commonwealth troops at his disposal to handle potential conflicts in Libya
Libya
Libya is an African country in the Maghreb region of North Africa bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad and Niger to the south, and Algeria and Tunisia to the west....
, Iraq
Iraq
Iraq ; officially the Republic of Iraq is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert....
, Syria
Syria
Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....
, Iran
Iran
Iran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran , is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran" has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia...
, and East Africa. His forces were spread out in Egypt, Palestine, the Sudan, British Somaliland, Kenya, and several other locations. Faced with forces spaced out along the enemy frontiers at intervals of about eight men to the mile, Wavell resolved to fight the Italians with delaying actions at the main posts and hope for the best. The delaying actions, bolstered by aggressive raids into Italian territory, were fought with skill and spirit. British and Commonwealth reinforcements only started to appear in significant numbers from July 1940 onwards.
Short of men, Wavell needed all of the local support he could find. One answer was Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia. The deposed emperor had been living in England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
ever since the Italians invaded his country in 1936 during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
The Second Italo–Abyssinian War was a colonial war that started in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war was fought between the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy and the armed forces of the Ethiopian Empire...
. On 13 June, only three days after Mussolini declared war against Britain and France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, a "Mr Strong" took off in a Short Sunderland
Short Sunderland
The Short S.25 Sunderland was a British flying boat patrol bomber developed for the Royal Air Force by Short Brothers. It took its service name from the town and port of Sunderland in northeast England....
flying boat from Poole Harbour
Poole Harbour
Poole Harbour is a large natural harbour in Dorset, southern England, with the town of Poole on its shores. The harbour is a drowned valley formed at the end of the last ice age and is the estuary of several rivers, the largest being the Frome. The harbour has a long history of human settlement...
on the south coast of England. Emperor Selassie, alias "Mr Strong", was headed home. On 25 June, Mr Strong arrived in Alexandria
Alexandria
Alexandria is the second-largest city of Egypt, with a population of 4.1 million, extending about along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the north central part of the country; it is also the largest city lying directly on the Mediterranean coast. It is Egypt's largest seaport, serving...
, Egypt. Seven days later, as "Mr Smith," he flew to Khartoum
Khartoum
Khartoum is the capital and largest city of Sudan and of Khartoum State. It is located at the confluence of the White Nile flowing north from Lake Victoria, and the Blue Nile flowing west from Ethiopia. The location where the two Niles meet is known as "al-Mogran"...
in the Sudan. In Khartoum, Mr Smith met Lieutenant-General William Platt
William Platt
General Sir William Platt GBE, KCB, DSO was an officer in the British Army, the Australian Army, and the New Zealand Army during World War I and World War II.-Early years:...
. Emperor Selassie and Platt discussed plans to free Ethiopia from Italian rule. In July, the British government recognised Emperor Selassie and promised to help him to reclaim his throne.
Because of the increasing Axis threat in the Middle East, at the end of October 1940 the British Foreign Secretary, Anthony Eden
Anthony Eden
Robert Anthony Eden, 1st Earl of Avon, KG, MC, PC was a British Conservative politician, who was Prime Minister from 1955 to 1957...
, convened a conference in Khartoum. In attendance were Emperor Selassie, South African General Jan Smuts
Jan Smuts
Jan Christiaan Smuts, OM, CH, ED, KC, FRS, PC was a prominent South African and British Commonwealth statesman, military leader and philosopher. In addition to holding various cabinet posts, he served as Prime Minister of the Union of South Africa from 1919 until 1924 and from 1939 until 1948...
(who held an advisory brief for the region with Winston Churchill
Winston Churchill
Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, was a predominantly Conservative British politician and statesman known for his leadership of the United Kingdom during the Second World War. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest wartime leaders of the century and served as Prime Minister twice...
), the Commander-in-Chief of the Middle East Command, Archibald Wavell, and the senior military commanders in East Africa including Lieutenant-General Platt and Lieutenant-General Cunningham. The general plan of attack, including the use of Ethiopian irregular forces, was agreed upon at this conference.
In November 1940, the British and Commonwealth forces gained an intelligence advantage when the government code and cypher school at Bletchley Park
Bletchley Park
Bletchley Park is an estate located in the town of Bletchley, in Buckinghamshire, England, which currently houses the National Museum of Computing...
broke the high grade cypher of the Italian Royal Army (Regio Esercito) in East Africa. Later, that same month, the replacement cypher for the Italian Royal Air Force (Regia Aeronautica
Regia Aeronautica
The Italian Royal Air Force was the name of the air force of the Kingdom of Italy. It was established as a service independent of the Royal Italian Army from 1923 until 1946...
) was broken by the Combined Bureau, Middle East (CBME). From this point on, the commanders-in-chief in Cairo
Cairo
Cairo , is the capital of Egypt and the largest city in the Arab world and Africa, and the 16th largest metropolitan area in the world. Nicknamed "The City of a Thousand Minarets" for its preponderance of Islamic architecture, Cairo has long been a centre of the region's political and cultural life...
knew Italian plans as soon as they were issued.
Italian ground forces
Amedeo, Duke of AostaAmedeo, 3rd Duke of Aosta
Prince Amedeo of Savoy-Aosta was the third Duke of Aosta and a first cousin, once removed of the King of Italy, Victor Emmanuel III. His baptismal name was Amedeo Umberto Isabella Luigi Filippo Maria Giuseppe Giovanni di Savoia-Aosta...
was the Viceroy
Viceroy
A viceroy is a royal official who runs a country, colony, or province in the name of and as representative of the monarch. The term derives from the Latin prefix vice-, meaning "in the place of" and the French word roi, meaning king. A viceroy's province or larger territory is called a viceroyalty...
and Governor-General
Governor-General
A Governor-General, is a vice-regal person of a monarch in an independent realm or a major colonial circonscription. Depending on the political arrangement of the territory, a Governor General can be a governor of high rank, or a principal governor ranking above "ordinary" governors.- Current uses...
of Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana, or AOI). He had between 250,000 and 280,000 Italian troops available to him. On 10 June 1940, the Italians were organized in four command sectors: the Northern Sector (the area near Asmara
Asmara
Asmara is the capital city and largest settlement in Eritrea, home to a population of around 579,000 people...
, Eritrea), the Southern Sector (Jimma
Jimma
Jimma, also Jima, is the largest city in southwestern Ethiopia. Located in the Jimma Zone of the Oromia Region, it has a latitude and longitude of . The town was the capital of Kaffa Province until the province was dissolved. Prior to the 2007 census, Jimma was reorganized administratively as a...
, Ethiopia), the Eastern Sector (near the border with French Somaliland
French Somaliland
French Somaliland was a French colony in the Horn of Africa. Established after the French signed various treaties between 1883 and 1887 with the then ruling Somali Sultans, the colony lasted from 1896 until 1946, when it became an overseas territory of France....
and British Somaliland), and the Giuba Sector (southern Somalia
Somalia
Somalia , officially the Somali Republic and formerly known as the Somali Democratic Republic under Socialist rule, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. Since the outbreak of the Somali Civil War in 1991 there has been no central government control over most of the country's territory...
near Kismayo, Italian Somaliland). Lieutenant-General Luigi Frusci
Luigi Frusci
Luigi Frusci was an officer in the Italian Royal Army during World War II.Frusci fought on the southern front for General Rodolfo Graziani during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War...
commanded the Northern Sector, General Pietro Gazzera
Pietro Gazzera
Pietro Gazzera was an officer in the Italian Royal Army during World War II, as well as a prewar Italian politician....
commanded the Southern Sector, General Guglielmo Nasi
Guglielmo Nasi
Guglielmo Ciro Nasi was an Italian General who fought in Italian East Africa during World War II.-Biography:Nasi was born in Civitavecchia, Latium...
commanded the Eastern Sector, and Lieutenant-General Carlo De Simone
Carlo De Simone
Carlo De Simone was an officer in the Italian Army during World War II.During most of the East African Campaign, Lieutenant-General De Simone commanded Italian forces in southern Italian Somaliland. However, during the Italian invasion of British Somaliland, De Simone commanded General Guglielmo...
commanded the Giuba Sector. The Duke of Aosta commanded from Addis Ababa
Addis Ababa
Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia...
in Ethiopia.
The Duke of Aosta's command included two Italian infantry divisions: The 40 Infantry Division "Hunters of Africa"
40 Infantry Division Cacciatori d'Africa
The 40 Infantry Division "Hunters of Africa" was an infantry division of the Italian Royal Army during World War II.-History:...
(Cacciatori d'Africa) and the 65 Infantry Division "Grenadiers of Savoy"
65 Infantry Division Granatieri di Savoia
The 65 Infantry Division "Grenadiers of Savoy" was an infantry division of the Italian Royal Army during World War II.-East African Campaign:...
(Granatieri di Savoia). The Italians also had one battalion of elite mountain troops (Alpini
Alpini
The Alpini, , are the elite mountain warfare soldiers of the Italian Army. They are currently organized in two operational brigades, which are subordinated to the Alpini Corps Command. The singular is Alpino ....
), one battalion of highly mobile infantry (Bersaglieri
Bersaglieri
The Bersaglieri are a corps of the Italian Army originally created by General Alessandro La Marmora on 18 June 1836 to serve in the Piedmontese Army, later to become the Royal Italian Army...
), numerous Fascist paramilitary
Paramilitary
A paramilitary is a force whose function and organization are similar to those of a professional military, but which is not considered part of a state's formal armed forces....
Blackshirts
Blackshirts
The Blackshirts were Fascist paramilitary groups in Italy during the period immediately following World War I and until the end of World War II...
(Camicie Nere) battalions, Security Volunteer Militia (Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale or MVSN), Colonial Militia
MVSN Colonial Militia
MVSN Colonial Militia were colonial military units of the Italian Fascist MVSN organization based in the Italian African colonial possessions of Italian North Africa , and in Italian East Africa...
, and other smaller units.
Most of the Italian troops in East Africa (about 70%) were local East African askari
Askari
Askari is an Arabic, Bosnian, Urdu, Turkish, Somali, Persian, Amharic and Swahili word meaning "soldier" . It was normally used to describe local troops in East Africa, Northeast Africa, and Central Africa serving in the armies of European colonial powers...
s. While the askaris of the regular Eritrean battalions of the "Royal Corps of Colonial Troops" (Regio Corpo Truppe Coloniali) were amongst the best Italian units in East Africa, the majority of the colonial troops in Italian East Africa were recruited, trained, and equipped to do no more than maintain order in the colony. The Somali Dubats
Dubats
Dubats was the designation given to armed irregular bands employed by the Italian Regio Corpo Truppe Coloniali in Italian Somaliland from 1924 to 1941...
recruited from border tribesmen provided useful light infantry and skirmishers but the irregular bande
Bands (Italian Army irregulars)
Bande was in Italian military terminology the name used to designate irregular forces, composed normally of foreigners or colonial natives, with some Italian officers and NCOs in command. These units were employed by the Italian Army as auxiliaries to the regular national and colonial military...
were much less effective. Ethiopian askaris and irregulars, recruited during the brief Italian occupation, deserted in large numbers after the outbreak of war. The Royal Corps of Colonial Troops included horse-mounted Eritrean cavalry known as "Falcon Feathers" (Penne di Falco). On one occasion a squadron of these horsemen charged British and Commonwealth troops throwing small hand grenades from the saddle.
L3/35
The L3/35 or Carro Veloce CV-35 was an Italian tank used before and during World War II. Although designated a light tank by the Italian Army, its turretless configuration, weight and firepower make it closer to contemporary tankettes....
light tanks, 126 armored cars and 813 pieces of assorted artillery. The most common Italian rifle in East Africa was the Carcano Mod. 91
Carcano
Carcano is the frequently used name for a series of Italian bolt-action military rifles and carbines. Introduced in 1891, this rifle was chambered for the rimless 6.5x52mm Mannlicher-Carcano Cartuccia Modello 1895 cartridge. It was developed by the chief technician Salvatore Carcano at the Turin...
. The Italians faced problems due to the isolation of East Africa from Mediterranean supply lines, with very little opportunity for reinforcements or resupply, leading to problems especially with ammunition.
Another problem that afflicted the Italian forces was the lack of medicine for diseases endemic to the Horn of Africa
Horn of Africa
The Horn of Africa is a peninsula in East Africa that juts hundreds of kilometers into the Arabian Sea and lies along the southern side of the Gulf of Aden. It is the easternmost projection of the African continent...
area, especially malaria
Malaria
Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease of humans and other animals caused by eukaryotic protists of the genus Plasmodium. The disease results from the multiplication of Plasmodium parasites within red blood cells, causing symptoms that typically include fever and headache, in severe cases...
. It is estimated that nearly one-quarter of the Italians troops defending Amba Alagi
Amba Alagi
Amba Alagi is a mountain, or an amba, in northern Ethiopia. Located in the Debubawi Zone of the Tigray Region, Amba Alagi dominates the roadway that runs past it from the city of Mek'ele south to Maychew. Because of its strategic location, Amba Alagi has been the location of several battles...
in April 1941 had malaria during the siege. The Italians at Amba Alagi had no medicine for malaria, the Italian medicine at the time being all but gone during the last months of fighting in 1941. Even the commander of Amba Alagi, the Duke of Aosta, was himself afflicted with malaria during the siege. He died of tuberculosis and malaria on 3 March 1942, a few months after his surrender.
British and Commonwealth ground forces
Initially, the British and Commonwealth forces in East Africa amounted to about 30,000 men under Major-General William Platt in the Sudan, Major-General Douglas DickinsonDouglas Dickinson
Lieutenant General Douglas Povah Dickinson CB DSO OBE MC was a British Army officer who commanded the East Africa Force at the start of World War II.-Military career:...
in British East Africa, and Lieutenant-Colonel Arthur Reginald Chater
Arthur Reginald Chater
Major-General Arthur Reginald Chater CB, CVO, DSO, OBE, Croix de Guerre was an officer in the Royal Marines during World War I, the interwar years, and World War II....
in British Somaliland. The British and Commonwealth forces were slightly better equipped than the Italians, and had access to resupply and reinforcements. However, they were vastly outnumbered by the Italian forces available in Italian East Africa. Also, the Italians had at least another 208,000 men (fourteen divisions) available in Libya.
On 10 June 1940, in all of the Sudan, prior to the arrival of the 4th Indian Infantry Division and 5th Indian Infantry Division, Platt had only three regular British infantry battalions (which were absorbed into the under-strength 5th Indian Division when it arrived) and the 21 companies (4,500 men in total) of the Sudan Defence Force
Sudan Defence Force
The Sudan Defence Force was a Sudanese military unit formed in 1925, as its name indicates, to maintain the borders of the Sudan under the British administration...
of which five (later six) were organised as small mobile machine gun companies. The three battalions were the 1st Battalion Worcestershire Regiment
Worcestershire Regiment
The Worcestershire Regiment was an infantry regiment of the line in the British Army, formed in 1881 by the amalgamation of the 29th Regiment of Foot and the 36th Regiment of Foot....
, the 1st Battalion Essex Regiment
Essex Regiment
The Essex Regiment was an infantry regiment of the British Army that saw active service from 1881 to 1958. Members of the regiment were recruited from across Essex county. Its lineage is continued by the Royal Anglian Regiment.-Origins:...
and the 2nd Battalion West Yorkshire Regiment which in mid-September became part of 29th
29th Indian Infantry Brigade
The 29th Indian Infantry Brigade was an Infantry formation of the Indian Army during World War II. It was formed in October 1940, by the renumbering of the 21st Indian Infantry Brigade. It was assigned to the 5th Indian Infantry Division...
, 10th
10th Indian Infantry Brigade
The 10th Indian Infantry Brigade was an Infantry formation of the Indian Army during World War II. It was formed in September 1939. In June 1940 it was assigned to the 5th Indian Infantry Division and in September 1940, sailed for East Africa...
and 9th Indian Infantry Brigade
9th Indian Infantry Brigade
The 9th Indian Infantry Brigade was an Infantry formation of the Indian Army during World War II. It was formed in India and converted to the 5th Indian Infantry Brigade and a new 9th Brigade was then formed all in September 1939. The brigade was assigned to the 5th Indian Infantry Division in June...
s respectively. Platt had no artillery though the Sudan Horse was in the process of conversion into a 3.7 inch howitzer battery.
In Kenya
Kenya
Kenya , officially known as the Republic of Kenya, is a country in East Africa that lies on the equator, with the Indian Ocean to its south-east...
, the King's African Rifles
King's African Rifles
The King's African Rifles was a multi-battalion British colonial regiment raised from the various British possessions in East Africa from 1902 until independence in the 1960s. It performed both military and internal security functions within the East African colonies as well as external service as...
(KAR) was composed of two brigade-strength units organized as a "Northern Brigade" and a "Southern Brigade". In 1938, the combined strength of both units amounted to 94 officers, 60 non-commissioned officers, and 2,821 African other ranks. After the outbreak of war, these units provided the trained nucleus for the rapid expansion of the KAR. By March 1940, the strength of the KAR had reached 883 officers, 1,374 non-commissioned officers, and 20,026 African other ranks. The size of a KAR battalion was established at 36 officers, 44 non-commissioned officers and other ranks, and 1,050 African other ranks.
Initially, the KAR deployed as the 1st East African Infantry Brigade and the 2nd East African Infantry Brigade. The first brigade was responsible for coastal defence and the second was responsible for the defence of the interior. By the end of July, two additional East African brigades were formed, the 3rd East African Infantry Brigade and the 6th East African Infantry Brigade. Initially, a Coastal Division and a Northern Frontier District Division were planned. But, instead, the 11th African Division and the 12th African Division were formed.
On 1 June, the first South African unit arrived in Mombasa
Mombasa
Mombasa is the second-largest city in Kenya. Lying next to the Indian Ocean, it has a major port and an international airport. The city also serves as the centre of the coastal tourism industry....
, Kenya. By the end of July, the 1st South African Infantry Brigade Group joined the first unit. On 13 August, the 1st South African Division was formed. This division included the 1st, 2nd, and 5th Infantry Brigade Groups. By the end of the year, approximately 27,000 South Africans were serving in East Africa. The South Africans were either in the 1st South African Division, the 11th African Division, or 12th African Division. Each South African brigade group consisted of three rifle battalions, an armoured car company, and supporting signal, engineer, and medical units.
By July, under the terms of a war contingency plan, two brigades were provided on rotation for service in Kenya by the "Royal West African Frontier Force
Royal West African Frontier Force
The West African Frontier Force was a multi-battalion field force, formed by the British Colonial Office in 1900 to garrison the West African colonies of Nigeria, Gold Coast, Sierra Leone and Gambia. The decision to raise this force was taken in 1897 because of concern at French colonial...
". One brigade was from the Gold Coast
Gold Coast (British colony)
The Gold Coast was a British colony on the Gulf of Guinea in west Africa that became the independent nation of Ghana in 1957.-Overview:The first Europeans to arrive at the coast were the Portuguese in 1471. They encountered a variety of African kingdoms, some of which controlled substantial...
the 2nd (West Africa) Infantry Brigade
2nd (West Africa) Infantry Brigade
The 2nd Infantry Brigade was a World War II unit of the British Army it was formed from battalions of the Royal West African Frontier Force in 1940...
, (Ghana
Ghana
Ghana , officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country located in West Africa. It is bordered by Côte d'Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, Togo to the east, and the Gulf of Guinea to the south...
) and one brigade the 1st (West Africa) Infantry Brigade
1st (West Africa) Infantry Brigade
The 1st Infantry Brigade was an infantry formation of the British Army during World War II. It was formed in 1940 from battalions of the Royal West African Frontier Force and served in the East African campaign against the Italians and against the Japanese in Burma.-History:The 1st Infantry...
was from Nigeria
Nigeria
Nigeria , officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal constitutional republic comprising 36 states and its Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. The country is located in West Africa and shares land borders with the Republic of Benin in the west, Chad and Cameroon in the east, and Niger in...
. The Nigerian brigade, together with two East African brigades (the KAR brigades) and some South Africans, formed 11th African Division. The 12th African Division had a similar formation with the Ghanaian brigade taking the place of the Nigerian brigade.
In British Somaliland, Chater commanded the Somaliland Camel Corps
Somaliland Camel Corps
The Somaliland Camel Corps was a unit of the British Army based in British Somaliland from the early 20th century until the 1960s.Camels are a necessity in East Africa, being as important as ponies are in Mongolia...
and the re-inforcements that were trickling in. At the outbreak of hostilities, the camel corps had a total of 1,475 men to defend the colony. This number also includes a battalion of the Northern Rhodesia
Northern Rhodesia
Northern Rhodesia was a territory in south central Africa, formed in 1911. It became independent in 1964 as Zambia.It was initially administered under charter by the British South Africa Company and formed by it in 1911 by amalgamating North-Western Rhodesia and North-Eastern Rhodesia...
n Regiment.
The British and Commonwealth forces employed a relatively small number of armoured vehicles in East Africa. For the most part, an assortment of armoured cars was used. However, B Squadron 4th Royal Tank Regiment
4th Royal Tank Regiment
The 4th Royal Tank Regiment was an armoured regiment of the British Army until 1993. It was part of the Royal Tank Regiment, itself part of the Royal Armoured Corps...
did include small number of Matilda infantry tank
Infantry tank
The infantry tank was a concept developed by the British and French in the years leading up to World War II. Infantry tanks were tanks designed to support the infantry in the attack. To achieve this they were generally heavily armoured compared to the cruiser tanks, to allow them to operate in...
s.
Ethiopian irregular forces
An aspect of the Allied campaign to retake Ethiopia was Ethiopian irregular forcesIrregular military
Irregular military refers to any non-standard military. Being defined by exclusion, there is significant variance in what comes under the term. It can refer to the type of military organization, or to the type of tactics used....
referred to by the British as "patriots
Patriotism
Patriotism is a devotion to one's country, excluding differences caused by the dependencies of the term's meaning upon context, geography and philosophy...
" (or Arbegnoch). Wavell expected that these forces would be able to tie down large numbers of Italian units throughout the occupied territories, although Platt in Khartoum did not believe that Hailie Selassie had the support of the majority of the people and was lukewarm towards providing support to the patriot groups. In August 1940, “Mission 101” under Colonel Daniel Sandford began operating successfully in Gojjam province. Its role was to send "Operational Centres" - small groups of officers and NCOs - to supply arms and training to the Ethiopian patriots and coordinate attacks on Italian forces. Sandford, after serving with distinction in World War I, had spent the rest of his career in Ethiopia and the Sudan and had become a close friend and adviser to Hailie Selassie.
Hailie Selassie, with the encouragement of Sandford, had arrived in Khartoum on 3 July 1940 to a cold reception from Platt. However, Anthony Eden's Khartoum conference in October agreed to boost supplies and support to the Ethiopian irregular forces. Part of the increased support saw the posting in early November of Major Orde Wingate (who had spent five inter-war years with the Sudan Defence Force
Sudan Defence Force
The Sudan Defence Force was a Sudanese military unit formed in 1925, as its name indicates, to maintain the borders of the Sudan under the British administration...
and was later to gain fame in Burma with the Chindits
Chindits
The Chindits were a British India "Special Force" that served in Burma and India in 1943 and 1944 during the Burma Campaign in World War II. They were formed into long range penetration groups trained to operate deep behind Japanese lines...
) to Khartoum as a staff officer with the brief of liaising between Platt, Mission 101 and the Emperor. Here he impressed Hailie Selassie with his drive and enthusiasm.
However, Platt's poor opinion of Hailie Selassie, Sandford, and Wingate meant that he paid little attention to the operation and the resulting lack of clear areas of responsibility and chains of command (together with Wingate's naturally abrasive manner) meant that for the whole campaign there was friction and animosity between Wingate and the other commanders.
Wingate formulated a plan for action in Ethiopia and presented it to Wavell and senior staff in Cairo in early December 1940. The plan included the formation of a small regular force under Wingate to act as a spearhead for military operations in Gojjam. He argued that:
This force was named Gideon Force
Gideon Force
The Gideon Force was a small British-led African regular force which acted as a Corps d'Elite amongst the irregular Ethiopian forces fighting the Italian occupation forces in Ethiopia during the East African Campaign of World War II...
, after the biblical judge Gideon
Gideon (Judges)
Gideon or Gedeon , which means "Destroyer," "Mighty warrior," or "Feller " was judge of the Hebrews. His story is recorded in chapters 6 to 8 of the Book of Judges in the Hebrew Bible....
, and was composed of the Frontier battalion from the Sudan Defence Force
Sudan Defence Force
The Sudan Defence Force was a Sudanese military unit formed in 1925, as its name indicates, to maintain the borders of the Sudan under the British administration...
and the 2nd Ethiopian Battalion. These forces were equipped with four, 3-inch mortars (in place of artillery) and 15,000 camels to provide transport and carry supplies. Although he did not formally take command until 6 February 1941, Wingate set off with Gideon Force into Gojjam in January 1941.
Gideon Force was able to travel relatively freely throughout the countryside. At any time during its brief history, the Italian East African Empire was only nominally under Italian control. It is estimated that as much as one third of Ethiopia remained under the control of Ethiopian nobles.
The Italians had not endeared themselves to the Ethiopians. On 22 May 1936, when General Rodolfo Graziani
Rodolfo Graziani
Rodolfo Graziani, 1st Marquis of Neghelli , was an officer in the Italian Regio Esercito who led military expeditions in Africa before and during World War II.-Rise to prominence:...
was made Viceroy of Ethiopia, the Italians may have possibly chosen the man least likely to pacify the country. On 6 June, Mussolini cabled Graziani and indicated: "All rebels captured are to be shot." This gave the new Viceroy, infamous for his pacification of Libya
Libya
Libya is an African country in the Maghreb region of North Africa bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad and Niger to the south, and Algeria and Tunisia to the west....
, all the power he needed. Soon, Graziani's reputation for brutal repression earned him the title: "the Butcher of Ethiopia". The Duke of Aosta replaced Graziani as Viceroy in 1937. It was generally conceded that he was a vast improvement over Graziani. But he was unable to undo much of the damage Graziani's brutality had already done.
For their part, the Ethiopian patriots gave the Italian troops every reason to fear losing to them, as the Ethiopians did not often take prisoners.
Very important to the success of the operations in northwest Ethiopia, Emperor Haile Selassie I crossed the border from Sudan to join the force of Ethiopian patriots. Sizeable patriot forces were already concentrated in the provinces of Gojjam
Gojjam
Gojjam was a kingdom in the north-western part of Ethiopia, with its capital city at Debre Marqos. This region is distinctive for lying entirely within the bend of the Abbay River from its outflow from Lake Tana to the Sudan...
, Shoa
Shewa
Shewa is a historical region of Ethiopia, formerly an autonomous kingdom within the Ethiopian Empire...
, Gimma
Jimma
Jimma, also Jima, is the largest city in southwestern Ethiopia. Located in the Jimma Zone of the Oromia Region, it has a latitude and longitude of . The town was the capital of Kaffa Province until the province was dissolved. Prior to the 2007 census, Jimma was reorganized administratively as a...
, Galla-Sidama
Sidamo Province
Sidamo was a province in the southern part of Ethiopia, with its capital city at Irgalem, and after 1978 at Awasa. It was named after an ethnic group native to Ethiopia, called the Sidamo, or more particularly, Sidama, who are located in the south-central part of that country...
, and Harage.
Italian air power
In June 1940, the Italian Royal Air Force (Regia Aeronautica ItaliaRegia Aeronautica
The Italian Royal Air Force was the name of the air force of the Kingdom of Italy. It was established as a service independent of the Royal Italian Army from 1923 until 1946...
) in East Africa had between two-hundred and three-hundred combat ready aircraft (see Italian East Africa Air Command). While some of these aircraft were outdated, in relative terms these were some of the best aircraft available to either side in East Africa in 1940. The Italians had Savoia-Marchetti SM.79
Savoia-Marchetti SM.79
The Savoia-Marchetti SM.79 Sparviero was a three-engined Italian medium bomber with a wood and metal structure. Originally designed as a fast passenger aircraft, this low-wing monoplane, in the years 1937–39, set 26 world records that qualified it for some time as the fastest medium bomber in the...
and Savoia-Marchetti SM.81
Savoia-Marchetti SM.81
The Savoia-Marchetti SM.81 Pipistrello was a three-engine bomber/transport aircraft serving in the Italian Regia Aeronautica during World War II...
bombers and Fiat CR-42 fighters. In addition, the Italian aircraft were often based at better airfields than their British and Commonwealth counterparts. When the war began, Italian pilots were relatively well trained and confident of their abilities. But, cut off from Italy as they were, problems with lack of fuel, munitions, spare parts, and replacements eventually wore down the Italian air capability.
British Empire air power
The roughly one-hundred aircraft available to the British Empire forces in June 1940 were dispersed as follows: In the north (Sudan) were three Royal Air ForceRoyal Air Force
The Royal Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Formed on 1 April 1918, it is the oldest independent air force in the world...
(RAF) bomber squadrons (Nos. 14, 47 and 223) equipped with obsolete Vickers Wellesley
Vickers Wellesley
The Vickers Wellesley was a British 1930s light bomber built by Vickers-Armstrongs at Brooklands near Weybridge, Surrey, for the Royal Air Force...
aircraft. A flight of Vickers Vincent biplanes formed from No. 47 squadron performed Army Co-operation duties and these squadrons were later reinforced from Egypt by No. 45 squadron (flying Bristol Blenheim
Bristol Blenheim
The Bristol Blenheim was a British light bomber aircraft designed and built by the Bristol Aeroplane Company that was used extensively in the early days of the Second World War. It was adapted as an interim long-range and night fighter, pending the availability of the Beaufighter...
aircraft). In Port Sudan there were six Gloster Gladiator
Gloster Gladiator
The Gloster Gladiator was a British-built biplane fighter. It was used by the Royal Air Force and the Royal Navy and was exported to a number of other air forces during the late 1930s. It was the RAF's last biplane fighter aircraft and was rendered obsolete by newer monoplane designs even as it...
biplane fighters. The air force's role in Sudan covered shipping protection in the Red Sea (including anti-submarine patrols), air defence of Port Sudan, Atbara and Khartoum as well as close support for land forces. The No. 1 (Fighter) Squadron of the South African Air Force
South African Air Force
The South African Air Force is the air force of South Africa, with headquarters in Pretoria. It is the world's second oldest independent air force, and its motto is Per Aspera Ad Astra...
(SAAF) (equipped with Gladiators) arrived in Khartoum as reinforcement in August.
In the south (Kenya) were No. 12 Bomber Squadron SAAF (equipped with Junkers Ju 86
Junkers Ju 86
The Junkers Ju 86 was a German monoplane bomber and civilian airliner designed in the early 1930s, and employed by both sides during World War II. The civilian model Ju 86B could carry 10 passengers. Two were delivered to Swissair and five to Luft Hansa...
bombers), No. 11 Bomber Squadron of the SAAF (equipped with Fairey Battle
Fairey Battle
The Fairey Battle was a British single-engine light bomber built by the Fairey Aviation Company in the late 1930s for the Royal Air Force. The Battle was powered by the same Rolls-Royce Merlin piston engine that gave contemporary British fighters high performance; however, the Battle was weighed...
s), No. 40 Army Co-operation Squadron SAAF
40 Squadron SAAF
40 Squadron SAAF existed as a combat unit from early 1940 through to late 1945. It served in the East African Campaign, Western Desert, Tunisia, and Italy, reaching Austria by the end of World War II...
(equipped with Hawker Hart
Hawker Hart
The Hawker Hart was a British two-seater biplane light bomber of the Royal Air Force , which had a prominent role during the RAF's inter-war period. The Hart was designed during the 1920s by Sydney Camm and built by Hawker Aircraft...
ebees), No. 2 Fighter Squadron
2 Squadron SAAF
-Background:2 Squadron is currently the premier squadron in the South African Air Force, and has a long history, having been involved in every single combat action in which the SAAF has taken part...
, SAAF (equipped with Hawker Furies
Hawker Fury
The Hawker Fury was a British biplane fighter aircraft used by the Royal Air Force in the 1930s. It was originally named the Hornet and was the counterpart to the Hawker Hart light bomber.-Design and development:...
), and No. 237 (Southern Rhodesian
Royal Rhodesian Air Force
The Rhodesian Air Force was the air arm of the British colonial state of Rhodesia. It existed between 1935 and 1980 under various names, and is now the Air Force of Zimbabwe.-History:...
) Army Co-operation Squadron (equipped with Hawker Hardys).
Unlike the Italians, the aircraft available to the British and Commonwealth forces improved with time. But, as can be seen above, much of the equipment initially available tended to be older and slower. Even so, the British and Commonwealth forces managed to make do with what they had. The South Africans even pressed an old Valencia biplane into service as a bomber.
Italian Red Sea Flotilla
The Italian Royal Navy (Regia Marina ItaliaRegia Marina
The Regia Marina dates from the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861 after Italian unification...
) maintained presence in the Red Sea
Red Sea
The Red Sea is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait and the Gulf of Aden. In the north, there is the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez...
region with its "Red Sea Flotilla
Red Sea Flotilla
The Red Sea Flotilla was a unit of the Italian Royal Navy based in Massawa, Eritrea, when Massawa was part of Italian East Africa...
". Most vessels were stationed in the port of Massawa
Massawa
Massawa, also known as Mitsiwa Massawa, also known as Mitsiwa Massawa, also known as Mitsiwa (Ge'ez ምጽዋዕ , formerly ባጽዕ is a city on the Red Sea coast of Eritrea. An important port for many centuries, it was ruled by a succession of polities, including the Axumite Empire, the Umayyad Caliphate,...
in the Italian colony of Eritrea. However, lesser port facilities existed at Mogadishu
Mogadishu
Mogadishu , popularly known as Xamar, is the largest city in Somalia and the nation's capital. Located in the coastal Benadir region on the Indian Ocean, the city has served as an important port for centuries....
in Italian Somaliland and also at Assab
Assab
Assab is a port city in the Southern Red Sea Region of Eritrea on the west coast of the Red Sea. In 1989, it had a population of 39,600. Assab possesses an oil refinery, which was shut down in 1997 for economic reasons...
in Eritrea. The Red Sea Flotilla included seven destroyers organized into two squadrons, five motor torpedo boats (MTB, or in Italian; Motoscafo Armato Silurante, MAS) organized into one squadron together with eight submarines organized into two squadrons.
The Italian naval squadrons were viewed by the British as a threat to Allied convoys heading from the Gulf of Aden
Gulf of Aden
The Gulf of Aden is located in the Arabian Sea between Yemen, on the south coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and Somalia in the Horn of Africa. In the northwest, it connects with the Red Sea through the Bab-el-Mandeb strait, which is about 20 miles wide....
to the Red Sea. But, as Italian fuel supplies in Massawa dwindled, so did the Italian fleet's opportunity for offensive action in the Red Sea.
The Red Sea Flotilla and its home port of Massawa
Massawa
Massawa, also known as Mitsiwa Massawa, also known as Mitsiwa Massawa, also known as Mitsiwa (Ge'ez ምጽዋዕ , formerly ባጽዕ is a city on the Red Sea coast of Eritrea. An important port for many centuries, it was ruled by a succession of polities, including the Axumite Empire, the Umayyad Caliphate,...
did however represent a link between Axis occupied Europe and the naval facilities located in the Italian concession zone
Concession (territory)
In international law, a concession is a territory within a country that is administered by an entity other than the state which holds sovereignty over it. This is usually a colonizing power, or at least mandated by one, as in the case of colonial chartered companies.Usually, it is conceded, that...
in Tientsin
Tianjin
' is a metropolis in northern China and one of the five national central cities of the People's Republic of China. It is governed as a direct-controlled municipality, one of four such designations, and is, thus, under direct administration of the central government...
in China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
.
British Eastern Fleet
The British Eastern Fleet faced the Italian Red Sea Flotilla. Until World War II, the Indian OceanIndian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's oceanic divisions, covering approximately 20% of the water on the Earth's surface. It is bounded on the north by the Indian Subcontinent and Arabian Peninsula ; on the west by eastern Africa; on the east by Indochina, the Sunda Islands, and...
had been considered a "British lake". The Indian Ocean was ringed by significant British and Commonwealth possessions. Much of the strategic supplies needed by the United Kingdom in both peace and war had to pass across the Indian Ocean. These included: Persian oil, Malayan
Malay Peninsula
The Malay Peninsula or Thai-Malay Peninsula is a peninsula in Southeast Asia. The land mass runs approximately north-south and, at its terminus, is the southern-most point of the Asian mainland...
rubber, Indian tea, and Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
n and New Zealand
New Zealand
New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses and numerous smaller islands. The country is situated some east of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and roughly south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga...
foodstuffs. In war, Britain relied upon the loyalty and manpower of Australia and New Zealand and these had to be transported. Safe passage for British cargo ships was critical.
Despite this, the Royal Navy
Royal Navy
The Royal Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Founded in the 16th century, it is the oldest service branch and is known as the Senior Service...
had tended to station its older ships in the east and used the China Station
China Station
The China Station was a historical formation of the British Royal Navy. It was formally the units and establishments responsible to the Commander-in-Chief, China....
and the Far East Station as sources of reinforcements for other theatres. Even when gravely threatened, the Eastern Fleet largely consisted of older capital ship
Capital ship
The capital ships of a navy are its most important warships; they generally possess the heaviest firepower and armor and are traditionally much larger than other naval vessels...
s that had been deemed too slow or too vulnerable to be of use in the Atlantic Ocean
Atlantic Ocean
The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's oceanic divisions. With a total area of about , it covers approximately 20% of the Earth's surface and about 26% of its water surface area...
or the Mediterranean Sea
Mediterranean Sea
The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean surrounded by the Mediterranean region and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Anatolia and Europe, on the south by North Africa, and on the east by the Levant...
.
Opening moves
Starting in June 1940, the Italians tested the resolve of the British and Commonwealth forces along the borders of the Sudan and Kenya and in the shipping lanes of the Red Sea.On 13 June, early in the morning, three Italian Caproni
Caproni
thumb|right|300px|[[Caproni Ca.316]] seaplane at its moorings.Caproni was an Italian aircraft manufacturer founded in 1908 by Giovanni Battista "Gianni" Caproni....
bombers appeared and bombed the Rhodesia
Rhodesia
Rhodesia , officially the Republic of Rhodesia from 1970, was an unrecognised state located in southern Africa that existed between 1965 and 1979 following its Unilateral Declaration of Independence from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965...
n air base at the fort located at Wajir
Wajir
Wajir is a town in the North Eastern Province of Kenya. It is the capital of Wajir County.-History:A cluster of cairns near Wajir are generally ascribed by the local inhabitants to the Madanle, a semi-legendary people of high stature, who are associated with the Somali Ajuuraan. A. T...
in Kenya. The Rhodesian aircraft were still warming up and preparing to take-off on a dawn patrol. The Capronis bombed the fort, the landing-ground, and nearby housing. The King's African Rifles
King's African Rifles
The King's African Rifles was a multi-battalion British colonial regiment raised from the various British possessions in East Africa from 1902 until independence in the 1960s. It performed both military and internal security functions within the East African colonies as well as external service as...
(KAR), then garrisoning the fort, lost four killed and eleven wounded. Two Rhodesian aircraft were badly damaged and a large dump of aviation fuel was set on fire. Following this, the air base at Wajir received regular visits from the Italians every second or third day and the Rhodesian pilots were made to realize the significant shortcomings in speed and fire-power of the Hawker Hardys they themselves flew.
At dawn on 17 June, the Rhodesians struck back and supported a successful raid by the KAR on the Italian desert outpost of El Wak
El Wak
El Wak is a small city on the Somalia-Kenya border. The Kenyan portion is located in Mandera District....
in Italian Somaliland, some ninety miles northeast of Wajir. The Rhodesians bombed and set alight the thatched mud huts and generally harassed the enemy troops. But, since the main fighting at that time was centered on Italian advances towards Moyale
Moyale
Moyale is a market town on the border of Ethiopia and Kenya, which is split between the two countries: the larger portion is in Ethiopia , and the smaller is in Kenya . There are four disputed locations within the Moyale district between the Somali and Oromo regions...
in Kenya, the Rhodesians concentrated on that town. In conjunction with the South African Air Force
South African Air Force
The South African Air Force is the air force of South Africa, with headquarters in Pretoria. It is the world's second oldest independent air force, and its motto is Per Aspera Ad Astra...
, the Rhodesians undertook the task of reconnaissance and bombing in that disputed area.
Italian seizure of Sudanese and Kenyan border towns
On July 4, 1940, Italian forces in Eritrea crossed the Sudanese border and forced the small British garrison holding the railway junction at KassalaKassala
Kassala is the capital of the state of Kassala in eastern Sudan. Its 2008 population was recorded to be 419,030. It is a market town and is famous for its fruit gardens. It was formerly a railroad hub, however, as of 2006 there was no operational railway station in Kassala and much of the track...
to withdraw. The defenders lost 10 men, the attackers 117.
The Italians also seized the small British fort at Gallabat
Gallabat
Gallabat is a village in the Sudanese state of Al Qadarif. It lies at one of the country's border crossing points with Ethiopia; on the other side of the border is Ethiopia's corresponding border village Metemma.-History:...
, just over the border from Metemma
Metemma
Metemma is a town in northwestern Ethiopia, on the border with Sudan. Located in the Semien Gondar Zone of the Amhara Region, Metemma has a latitude and longitude of with an elevation of 685 meters above sea level. Across the border is the corresponding Sudanese village of Gallabat...
, some 200 miles (321.9 km) to the south of Kassala. Even the villages of Qaysān
Qaysan, Qessan
Qaysān or Qeissan or Qēssan is a town in Blue Nile State, south-eastern Sudan on the border with Ethiopia....
, Kurmuk
Kurmuk
Kurmuk is a town in south-eastern Sudan near the border with Ethiopia.Kurmuk is inhabited by the Uduk and Berta peoples and is controlled by the SPLM....
and Dumbode on the Blue Nile
Blue Nile
The Blue Nile is a river originating at Lake Tana in Ethiopia. With the White Nile, the river is one of the two major tributaries of the Nile...
were conquered. Having taken Kassala and Gallabat, however, the Italians decided to venture no further in the Sudan—because of lack of fuel—and they proceeded to fortify Kassala with anti-tank defences, machine-gun posts, and strong-points. The Italians were also disappointed to find the native population of not harboring any anti-British sentiments. Ultimately, the Italians established a brigade-strong garrison at Kassala.
In Kenya, after heavy fighting, the Italians occupied Fort Harrington in Moyale
Moyale
Moyale is a market town on the border of Ethiopia and Kenya, which is split between the two countries: the larger portion is in Ethiopia , and the smaller is in Kenya . There are four disputed locations within the Moyale district between the Somali and Oromo regions...
. At the end of July, Italian forces reached Dabel and Buna
Buna
Buna may refer to the official Mbum language of Cameroon, as well as:People:*Buna Lawrie, an Australian Aboriginal musician.Places:*Buna village, a small Bosnia and Herzegovina village at the confluence of the Buna and Neretva rivers...
. These small villages, nearly one-hundred kilometers from the Ethiopian-Kenyan border, were to be the deepest points inside Kenya reached by the Italian army. Any further expansion was impossible because of the poor supply situation.
In the first days of August, an Italian force of irregular Eritreans raided Port Sudan
Port Sudan
Port Sudan is the capital of Red Sea State, Sudan; it has 489,725 residents . Located on the Red Sea, it is the Republic of Sudan's main port city.-History:...
as a prelude to the Italian campaign to conquer British Somaliland
British Somaliland
British Somaliland was a British protectorate in the northern part of present-day Somalia. For much of its existence, British Somaliland was bordered by French Somaliland, Ethiopia, and Italian Somaliland. From 1940 to 1941, it was occupied by the Italians and was part of Italian East Africa...
.
Mussolini had laid claims to Kenya, but Hitler planned the dissection of the colony, with the southern part and the capital Nairobi
Nairobi
Nairobi is the capital and largest city of Kenya. The city and its surrounding area also forms the Nairobi County. The name "Nairobi" comes from the Maasai phrase Enkare Nyirobi, which translates to "the place of cool waters". However, it is popularly known as the "Green City in the Sun" and is...
forming a territory of the German Mittelafrika
Mittelafrika
Mittelafrika is the name created for a geostrategic region in central and east Africa. Much like Mitteleuropa, it articulated Germany's foreign policy aim, prior to World War I, of bringing the region under German domination...
. Italy was also to replace the British administration in Sudan: Italian-Egyptian Sudan
Sudan
Sudan , officially the Republic of the Sudan , is a country in North Africa, sometimes considered part of the Middle East politically. It is bordered by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the northeast, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east, South Sudan to the south, the Central African Republic to the...
was to link Italian North Africa
Italian North Africa
Italian North Africa was the aggregate of territories and colonies controlled by Italy in North Africa from 1911 until World War II...
with Italian East Africa
Italian East Africa
Italian East Africa was an Italian colonial administrative subdivision established in 1936, resulting from the merger of the Ethiopian Empire with the old colonies of Italian Somaliland and Italian Eritrea. In August 1940, British Somaliland was conquered and annexed to Italian East Africa...
.
French Somaliland
Initially, an Italian force was assembled to capture the port city of DjiboutiDjibouti (city)
The City of Djibouti is the capital and largest city in the Republic of Djibouti, a nation in the Horn of Africa. The biggest settlement on the Gulf of Tadjoura, it lies on a peninsula that separates that basin from the Gulf of Aden.-History:...
, the major French base in French Somaliland
French Somaliland
French Somaliland was a French colony in the Horn of Africa. Established after the French signed various treaties between 1883 and 1887 with the then ruling Somali Sultans, the colony lasted from 1896 until 1946, when it became an overseas territory of France....
(modern Djibouti
Djibouti
Djibouti , officially the Republic of Djibouti , is a country in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Eritrea in the north, Ethiopia in the west and south, and Somalia in the southeast. The remainder of the border is formed by the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden at the east...
). The French commander, Brigadier-General Paul Legentilhomme
Paul Legentilhomme
Paul Legentilhomme was an officer in the French Army during World War I and World War II. After the fall of France in 1940, he joined the forces of the Free French...
, had some 7,000 men in seven battalions of Senegalese and Somali infantry. Legentilhomme also had three batteries of field guns, four batteries of anti-aircraft guns, a company of light tanks, four companies of militia and irregulars, two platoons of camel corps, and an assortment of aircraft. But, after the fall of France in June 1940, the Vichy French
Vichy France
Vichy France, Vichy Regime, or Vichy Government, are common terms used to describe the government of France that collaborated with the Axis powers from July 1940 to August 1944. This government succeeded the Third Republic and preceded the Provisional Government of the French Republic...
government's neutrality allowed the Italians to shift their focus to the more lightly defended British Somaliland.
On 18 June 1940, Legentilhomme left French Somaliland and joined the Free French. But French Somaliland, the colony Legentilhomme once commanded, remained loyal to the Vichy government until the British seized in after a conducting a siege after a 101 day blockade in October of 1941.
The Italian invasion of British Somaliland
Guglielmo Nasi
Guglielmo Ciro Nasi was an Italian General who fought in Italian East Africa during World War II.-Biography:Nasi was born in Civitavecchia, Latium...
.
The Italian force attacking British Somaliland in August included five colonial brigades, three Blackshirt battalions, and three bands (banda
Bands (Italian Army irregulars)
Bande was in Italian military terminology the name used to designate irregular forces, composed normally of foreigners or colonial natives, with some Italian officers and NCOs in command. These units were employed by the Italian Army as auxiliaries to the regular national and colonial military...
) of native troops. The Italians had armoured vehicles (a small number of both light
L3/35
The L3/35 or Carro Veloce CV-35 was an Italian tank used before and during World War II. Although designated a light tank by the Italian Army, its turretless configuration, weight and firepower make it closer to contemporary tankettes....
and medium tanks), artillery, and, for the moment, superior air support.
The Italians were opposed by a British contingent, commanded by Brigadier Arthur Reginald Chater
Arthur Reginald Chater
Major-General Arthur Reginald Chater CB, CVO, DSO, OBE, Croix de Guerre was an officer in the Royal Marines during World War I, the interwar years, and World War II....
, of about four-thousand men consisting of the lightly armed Somaliland Camel Corps
Somaliland Camel Corps
The Somaliland Camel Corps was a unit of the British Army based in British Somaliland from the early 20th century until the 1960s.Camels are a necessity in East Africa, being as important as ponies are in Mongolia...
, the 2nd (Nyasaland
Nyasaland
Nyasaland or the Nyasaland Protectorate, was a British protectorate located in Africa, which was established in 1907 when the former British Central Africa Protectorate changed its name. Since 1964, it has been known as Malawi....
) Battalion King's African Rifles
King's African Rifles
The King's African Rifles was a multi-battalion British colonial regiment raised from the various British possessions in East Africa from 1902 until independence in the 1960s. It performed both military and internal security functions within the East African colonies as well as external service as...
(KAR), the 1st Battalion Northern Rhodesia
Northern Rhodesia
Northern Rhodesia was a territory in south central Africa, formed in 1911. It became independent in 1964 as Zambia.It was initially administered under charter by the British South Africa Company and formed by it in 1911 by amalgamating North-Western Rhodesia and North-Eastern Rhodesia...
n Regiment, the 3rd Battalion 15th Punjab Regiment
15th Punjab Regiment
The 15th Punjab Regiment was a regiment of the British Indian Army from 1922 to 1947. It was transferred to Pakistan Army on Partition of India in 1947, and amalgamated with the 1st, 14th and 16th Punjab Regiments in 1956 to form the Punjab Regiment....
and 1st East African Light Battery (four 3.7 inch howitzers). They were joined from Aden on 7 August by the 1st Battalion 2nd Punjab Regiment
2nd Punjab Regiment
The 2nd Punjab Regiment was a British Indian Army regiment from 1922 to the partition of India in 1947.The regiment was formed by the amalgamation of other regiments:*1st Battalion, from the 67th Punjabis, formerly the 7th Regiment of Madras Native Infantry...
and 8 August by 2nd Battalion Black Watch
Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment)
It all began in 1725 when General Wade, as leader of the King's Army in Scotland, and involved in his great project of building the military roads there, set up six companies of the Highland "Watch". These were formed to stop fighting among the clans; controlling the roads was an important part of...
. Chaters' force was not only critically short of artillery but it had no tanks or armoured cars nor did it have any anti-tank weapons to oppose the Italian medium and light tanks.
The Italians advanced in three columns, with the western column advancing towards Zeila
Zeila
Zeila, also known as Zaila , is a port city on the Gulf of Aden coast, situated in the northwestern Awdal region of Somalia.Located near the Djibouti border, the town sits on a sandy spit surrounded by the sea. It is known for its offshore islands, coral reef and mangroves. Landward, the terrain is...
, the central column towards Hargeisa
Hargeisa
Hargeisa is a city in the northwestern Woqooyi Galbeed region of Somalia. With a population of approximately 2 million residents, it is the second largest city in the country. Hargeisa is the capital of Somaliland, a self-declared republic that is internationally recognized as an autonomous region...
, and the eastern column towards Odweina in the south. Lieutenant-General Carlo De Simone
Carlo De Simone
Carlo De Simone was an officer in the Italian Army during World War II.During most of the East African Campaign, Lieutenant-General De Simone commanded Italian forces in southern Italian Somaliland. However, during the Italian invasion of British Somaliland, De Simone commanded General Guglielmo...
commanded the main central column. Chater used his Camel Corps to skirmish with and screen against the advancing Italians as the other British and Commonwealth forces pulled back towards Tug Argan, to form defensive positions in the rugged Assa Hills overlooking the main road to the capital, Berbera.
Battle of Tug Argan
On 5 August, within two days of the invasion, the towns of Zeila and Hargeisa were taken. The occupation of Zeila effectively sealed British Somaliland off from French Somaliland. Odweina fell the following day and the Italian central and eastern columns combined to launch attacks against the main British and Commonwealth positions at Tug Argan.At the end of the first week in August the British and Commonwealth forces in British Somaliland received reinforcements with the arrival of the 1st Battalion 2nd Punjab Regiment
2nd Punjab Regiment
The 2nd Punjab Regiment was a British Indian Army regiment from 1922 to the partition of India in 1947.The regiment was formed by the amalgamation of other regiments:*1st Battalion, from the 67th Punjabis, formerly the 7th Regiment of Madras Native Infantry...
. and 2nd Battalion The Black Watch. On 11 August, a new, more senior, commander, Major-General Reade Godwin-Austen
Alfred Reade Godwin-Austen
General Sir Alfred Reade Godwin-Austen KCSI, CB, OBE, MC was a British Army officer. He served during the First and Second World Wars.-Early life:The second son of Lieutenant-Colonel A. G...
, reached Berbera.
The Italians commenced their attacks at Tug Argan on 11 August but, early on 15 August, Godwin-Austen concluded that further resistance to the Italians would be futile as his troops were close to being cut off. He contacted the British Middle East Command
Middle East Command
The Middle East Command was a British Army Command established prior to the Second World War in Egypt. Its primary role was to command British land forces and co-ordinate with the relevant naval and air commands to defend British interests in the Middle East and eastern Mediterranean region.The...
headquarters in Cairo
Cairo
Cairo , is the capital of Egypt and the largest city in the Arab world and Africa, and the 16th largest metropolitan area in the world. Nicknamed "The City of a Thousand Minarets" for its preponderance of Islamic architecture, Cairo has long been a centre of the region's political and cultural life...
, Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
. Godwin-Austen requested and received permission to withdraw his forces from British Somaliland. The determined effort of the Black Watch
Black Watch
The Black Watch, 3rd Battalion, Royal Regiment of Scotland is an infantry battalion of the Royal Regiment of Scotland. The unit's traditional colours were retired in 2011 in a ceremony led by Queen Elizabeth II....
battalion, which covered the retreat, allowed the entire British and Commonwealth contingent to withdraw to Berbera with almost no losses. By 17 August, most of the contingent was successfully evacuated from Berbera to Aden
Aden
Aden is a seaport city in Yemen, located by the eastern approach to the Red Sea , some 170 kilometres east of Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000. Aden's ancient, natural harbour lies in the crater of an extinct volcano which now forms a peninsula, joined to the mainland by a...
. Rather than evacuate, the Somaliland Camel Corps
Somaliland Camel Corps
The Somaliland Camel Corps was a unit of the British Army based in British Somaliland from the early 20th century until the 1960s.Camels are a necessity in East Africa, being as important as ponies are in Mongolia...
was disbanded.
Aftermath of the Italian invasion of British Somaliland
On 19 August 1940, the Italians took control of Berbera and then moved down the coast to complete their conquest of British Somaliland. The British colony was annexed to Italian East AfricaItalian East Africa
Italian East Africa was an Italian colonial administrative subdivision established in 1936, resulting from the merger of the Ethiopian Empire with the old colonies of Italian Somaliland and Italian Eritrea. In August 1940, British Somaliland was conquered and annexed to Italian East Africa...
.
British and Commonwealth losses in the short campaign were relatively low:
- 38 killed
- 102 wounded
- about 120 captured
By contrast, the Italians losses were over ten times that of the British:
- 465 killed
- 1530 wounded
- Up to 2,000 unaffiliated local tribesmen killed or wounded fighting against British rule.
The British Prime Minister, Sir Winston Churchill
Winston Churchill
Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, was a predominantly Conservative British politician and statesman known for his leadership of the United Kingdom during the Second World War. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest wartime leaders of the century and served as Prime Minister twice...
, criticized General Archibald Wavell concerning the loss of British Somaliland. It was Wavell's Middle East Command
Middle East Command
The Middle East Command was a British Army Command established prior to the Second World War in Egypt. Its primary role was to command British land forces and co-ordinate with the relevant naval and air commands to defend British interests in the Middle East and eastern Mediterranean region.The...
which was responsible for the loss of the colony. Because of the low casualty rate, Churchill fretted that the British had abandoned the colony without enough of a fight.
In response to this criticism, Wavell claimed that Somaliland was a textbook withdrawal in the face of superior numbers. He pointed out to Churchill that "A bloody butcher’s bill is not the sign of a good tactician." According to Churchill's staff, Wavell's retort moved Churchill to greater fury than they had ever seen before.
The conquest of the British Somaliland was the only campaign in which Italy achieved victory without the support of other Axis
Axis Powers
The Axis powers , also known as the Axis alliance, Axis nations, Axis countries, or just the Axis, was an alignment of great powers during the mid-20th century that fought World War II against the Allies. It began in 1936 with treaties of friendship between Germany and Italy and between Germany and...
troops during World War II.
The main insights from this campaign are the following:
- The invasion of British Somaliland showed that Italian forces could co-ordinate columns separated by many miles of desert.
- British forces showed good discipline in the retreat and were able to salvage most of their forces.
- The invasion of British Somaliland was the first campaign the Italians won in World War II.
- British Somaliland was the first British colony to fall to enemy forces in World War II.
- After the first months of the war were over, Benito MussoliniBenito MussoliniBenito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini was an Italian politician who led the National Fascist Party and is credited with being one of the key figures in the creation of Fascism....
boasted that Italy had conquered a territory the size of England in the Horn of AfricaHorn of AfricaThe Horn of Africa is a peninsula in East Africa that juts hundreds of kilometers into the Arabian Sea and lies along the southern side of the Gulf of Aden. It is the easternmost projection of the African continent...
, even if the Italians had nothing to show for their offensive efforts except for the colony of British Somaliland, the Sudanese border outposts of Karora, Gallabat, Kurmak and KassalaKassalaKassala is the capital of the state of Kassala in eastern Sudan. Its 2008 population was recorded to be 419,030. It is a market town and is famous for its fruit gardens. It was formerly a railroad hub, however, as of 2006 there was no operational railway station in Kassala and much of the track...
, and the area in Kenya around MoyaleMoyaleMoyale is a market town on the border of Ethiopia and Kenya, which is split between the two countries: the larger portion is in Ethiopia , and the smaller is in Kenya . There are four disputed locations within the Moyale district between the Somali and Oromo regions...
and Buna.
Action at sea
The Italian Red Sea FlotillaRed Sea Flotilla
The Red Sea Flotilla was a unit of the Italian Royal Navy based in Massawa, Eritrea, when Massawa was part of Italian East Africa...
saw early action as they attempted to make their presence known. But they introduced themselves at a high cost. In mid to late June, four of the eight submarines based in Massawa
Massawa
Massawa, also known as Mitsiwa Massawa, also known as Mitsiwa Massawa, also known as Mitsiwa (Ge'ez ምጽዋዕ , formerly ባጽዕ is a city on the Red Sea coast of Eritrea. An important port for many centuries, it was ruled by a succession of polities, including the Axumite Empire, the Umayyad Caliphate,...
were lost.
Loss of the Macalle
On 15 June, the Italian submarine Macalle ran aground and was a total loss.Loss of the Galileo Galilei
On 16 June 1940, the Italian submarine Galileo Galilei sank the NorwegianNorway
Norway , officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jan Mayen, and the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and Bouvet Island. Norway has a total area of and a population of about 4.9 million...
tanker
Oil tanker
An oil tanker, also known as a petroleum tanker, is a merchant ship designed for the bulk transport of oil. There are two basic types of oil tankers: the crude tanker and the product tanker. Crude tankers move large quantities of unrefined crude oil from its point of extraction to refineries...
James Stove approximately 12 miles (19.3 km) south of Aden. On 18 June, the Galileo Galilei captured the Yugoslav steamship Dravo but, in the end, released it. On 19 June, the Galileo Galilei was on patrol off of Aden and encountered the armed trawler
Naval trawler
A naval trawler is a vessel built along the lines of a fishing trawler but fitted out for naval purposes. Naval trawlers were widely used during the First and Second world wars. Fishing trawlers were particularly suited for many naval requirements because they were robust boats designed to work...
Moonstone. During a gun duel, the commander of the Galileo Galilei was killed, and the submarine was then captured by the armed trawler. The submarine was subsequently used by the British as HMS X2.
Loss of the Evangelista Torricelli
On 23 June, in the Gulf of AdenGulf of Aden
The Gulf of Aden is located in the Arabian Sea between Yemen, on the south coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and Somalia in the Horn of Africa. In the northwest, it connects with the Red Sea through the Bab-el-Mandeb strait, which is about 20 miles wide....
off French Somaliland
French Somaliland
French Somaliland was a French colony in the Horn of Africa. Established after the French signed various treaties between 1883 and 1887 with the then ruling Somali Sultans, the colony lasted from 1896 until 1946, when it became an overseas territory of France....
, the Italian Brin class submarine
Brin class submarine
The Brin-class submarines were five Italian submarines that served in the Regia Marina during World War II. All ships were built by Tosi. Two boats were replacements for Archimede-class submarines secretly transferred to the Nationalists during the Spanish Civil War in 1937. The class were...
Evangelista Torricelli was sunk by the British destroyers HMS Kandahar
HMS Kandahar (F28)
HMS Kandahar was a K-class destroyer of the Royal Navy, named after the Afghan city of Kandahar.-History:Kandahar was launched on 21 March 1939. On 21 February 1941, in company with and , she captured the German blockade runner off Iceland...
and Kingston
HMS Kingston (F64)
HMS Kingston was a K-class destroyer of the Royal Navy laid down by J. Samuel White and Company at Cowes on the Isle of Wight on 6 October 1937 as part of an order for six similar destroyers....
with assistance from the sloop
Shoreham class sloop
The Shoreham-class sloops were a class of eight small British warships built in the early 1930s.Developed from the Bridgewater-class sloops, with a longer hull, the Shoreham-class sloops were laid down between 1929 and 1931 at Chatham and Devonport Naval Dockyards.-Ships:*HMS Shoreham was launched...
Shoreham. Several hours afterwards, the British destroyer Khartoum
HMS Khartoum (F45)
HMS Khartoum was a K-class destroyer of the Royal Navy, ostensibly named after the capital of Sudan, Khartoum.-History:Khartoum was launched on 6 February 1939. Her initial action occurred on 19 December 1939, during deployment in the Firth of Clyde, when she was subject to an unsuccessful torpedo...
suffered an internal explosion following a fire and sank in shallow water off Perim Island. The British destroyer was a total loss.
Loss of the Luigi Galvani
Later on 23 June, the Italian submarine Luigi Galvani sank the Indian patrol sloop Pathan in the Indian OceanIndian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's oceanic divisions, covering approximately 20% of the water on the Earth's surface. It is bounded on the north by the Indian Subcontinent and Arabian Peninsula ; on the west by eastern Africa; on the east by Indochina, the Sunda Islands, and...
. However, on 24 June, the Luigi Galvani was sunk by the sloop Falmouth
Shoreham class sloop
The Shoreham-class sloops were a class of eight small British warships built in the early 1930s.Developed from the Bridgewater-class sloops, with a longer hull, the Shoreham-class sloops were laid down between 1929 and 1931 at Chatham and Devonport Naval Dockyards.-Ships:*HMS Shoreham was launched...
in the Gulf of Oman
Gulf of Oman
The Gulf of Oman or Sea of Oman is a strait that connects the Arabian Sea with the Strait of Hormuz, which then runs to the Persian Gulf. It is generally included as a branch of the Persian Gulf, not as an arm of the Arabian Sea. On the north coast is Pakistan and Iran...
.
Actions after the conquest of British Somaliland
During the time between the Italian conquest of British SomalilandItalian conquest of British Somaliland
The Italian conquest of British Somaliland was a military campaign in the Horn of Africa, which took place in August 1940 between forces of Italy and those of Great Britain and its Commonwealth...
and the Allied counter-offensive, much attention shifted to the naval sphere and to the activities of the Italian Red Sea Flotilla
Red Sea Flotilla
The Red Sea Flotilla was a unit of the Italian Royal Navy based in Massawa, Eritrea, when Massawa was part of Italian East Africa...
. Fuel and parts shortages continued to hamper the ability of the Italian flotilla to interfere with either convoys or even individual vessels of the British Eastern Fleet.
On 13 August, the Italian submarine Gauleo Ferraras tried to intercept the British battleship Royal Sovereign
HMS Royal Sovereign (05)
HMS Royal Sovereign was a Revenge-class battleship of the Royal Navy displacing and armed with eight guns in four twin turrets...
in the Red Sea
Red Sea
The Red Sea is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait and the Gulf of Aden. In the north, there is the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez...
. Royal Sovereign, coming from Suez
Suez
Suez is a seaport city in north-eastern Egypt, located on the north coast of the Gulf of Suez , near the southern terminus of the Suez Canal, having the same boundaries as Suez governorate. It has three harbors, Adabya, Ain Sokhna and Port Tawfiq, and extensive port facilities...
, escaped the Italian ambush and made it safely to Aden.
On 6 September, the Italian submarine Guglielmo waited for prey south of the Farasan Islands
Farasan Islands
Farasan Islands is a large coral island group in the Red Sea, belonging to Saudi Arabia. It is located some 40 km offshore from Jizan, in the far southwestern part of the country. It is located at around . It is a protected area and was home to the extinct Arabian gazelle and, in winter, migratory...
. The Guglielmo succeeded in torpedoing and sinking only one ship, the oil tanker Atlas.
Between 20 October and 21 October, the Italian submarines Guglielmo and Gauleo Ferraras tried to intercept a large British Red Sea convoy coming from the Indian Ocean and sailing to Port Sudan
Port Sudan
Port Sudan is the capital of Red Sea State, Sudan; it has 489,725 residents . Located on the Red Sea, it is the Republic of Sudan's main port city.-History:...
and Suez. The BN7 convoy included 31 cargo vessels escorted by the New Zealand
New Zealand
New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses and numerous smaller islands. The country is situated some east of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and roughly south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga...
cruiser Leander
HMNZS Leander
HMNZS Leander was a light cruiser which served with the Royal New Zealand Navy during World War II. She was the lead ship of a class of eight ships, the Leander class light cruiser and was initially named HMS Leander.- History :...
, the British destroyer Kimberley
HMS Kimberley (F50)
HMS Kimberley was a K-class destroyer of the Royal Navy. She served in the Second World War and survived it, being one of only two of the K-class to do so. So far she has been the only ship of the Royal Navy to bear the name Kimberley, after the town of Kimberley, Northern Cape, site of the Siege...
and five sloops. The convoy also had an air escort provided by 50 fighters and bombers based in Aden. The Guglielmo and Gauleo Ferraras did not succeed in intercepting the convoy. On 21 November, the same convoy was attacked by the Italian destroyers Pantera, Leone and Francesco Nullo. The convoy escorts drove the Italian destroyers off. Two of the convoy escorts, the New Zealand cruiser Leander and the British destroyer Kimberley drove the Italian destroyer Francesco Nullo ashore with their combined gunfire. The Francesco Nullo was destroyed the next day by Royal Air Force
Royal Air Force
The Royal Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Formed on 1 April 1918, it is the oldest independent air force in the world...
(RAF) Blenheim
Bristol Blenheim
The Bristol Blenheim was a British light bomber aircraft designed and built by the Bristol Aeroplane Company that was used extensively in the early days of the Second World War. It was adapted as an interim long-range and night fighter, pending the availability of the Beaufighter...
light bombers.
Initial British attacks on Italian positions in the Sudan
The 5th Indian Infantry Division started to arrive in the Sudan in early September 1940. The 29th Indian Infantry Brigade29th Indian Infantry Brigade
The 29th Indian Infantry Brigade was an Infantry formation of the Indian Army during World War II. It was formed in October 1940, by the renumbering of the 21st Indian Infantry Brigade. It was assigned to the 5th Indian Infantry Division...
were placed on the Red Sea coast to protect Port Sudan, the 9th Indian Infantry Brigade
9th Indian Infantry Brigade
The 9th Indian Infantry Brigade was an Infantry formation of the Indian Army during World War II. It was formed in India and converted to the 5th Indian Infantry Brigade and a new 9th Brigade was then formed all in September 1939. The brigade was assigned to the 5th Indian Infantry Division in June...
were positioned southwest of Kassala and the 10th Indian Infantry Brigade
10th Indian Infantry Brigade
The 10th Indian Infantry Brigade was an Infantry formation of the Indian Army during World War II. It was formed in September 1939. In June 1940 it was assigned to the 5th Indian Infantry Division and in September 1940, sailed for East Africa...
were sent to Gedaref, accompanying the divisional headquarters. On 6 November a surprise attack was staged to take back Gallabat
Gallabat
Gallabat is a village in the Sudanese state of Al Qadarif. It lies at one of the country's border crossing points with Ethiopia; on the other side of the border is Ethiopia's corresponding border village Metemma.-History:...
. The attacking force comprised William "Bill" Slim's
William Slim, 1st Viscount Slim
Field Marshal William Joseph "Bill"'Slim, 1st Viscount Slim, KG, GCB, GCMG, GCVO, GBE, DSO, MC, KStJ was a British military commander and the 13th Governor-General of Australia....
10th Indian Infantry Brigade. Slim was accompanied by a squadron of 12 medium and light tanks, a field regiment of artillery, and supported by the RAF. The attack began at 5:30 am and Gallabat
Gallabat
Gallabat is a village in the Sudanese state of Al Qadarif. It lies at one of the country's border crossing points with Ethiopia; on the other side of the border is Ethiopia's corresponding border village Metemma.-History:...
was captured by 8:00 am. The planned follow-on assault on Metemma
Metemma
Metemma is a town in northwestern Ethiopia, on the border with Sudan. Located in the Semien Gondar Zone of the Amhara Region, Metemma has a latitude and longitude of with an elevation of 685 meters above sea level. Across the border is the corresponding Sudanese village of Gallabat...
, on the other side of the ravine forming the border, had to be delayed because by this time nine of the tanks were out of action.
Italian counterattack
Lieutenant-General Luigi FrusciLuigi Frusci
Luigi Frusci was an officer in the Italian Royal Army during World War II.Frusci fought on the southern front for General Rodolfo Graziani during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War...
, acting Governor of Eritrea
Eritrea
Eritrea , officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in the Horn of Africa. Eritrea derives it's name from the Greek word Erethria, meaning 'red land'. The capital is Asmara. It is bordered by Sudan in the west, Ethiopia in the south, and Djibouti in the southeast...
and commander of the Italian forces there, was not prepared to relinquish the Italian-held positions in the Sudan. The Italian defenders occupied strong prepared positions with barbed-wire defences which could only be broken by tanks. As Slim paused while his tanks were repaired, General Martini, the Italian commander at Gondar, sent a fierce onslaught from the counter-attacking Italian Royal Air Force (Regia Aeronautica
Regia Aeronautica
The Italian Royal Air Force was the name of the air force of the Kingdom of Italy. It was established as a service independent of the Royal Italian Army from 1923 until 1946...
). Italian aircraft appeared in great strength. The Italian airmen shot down seven RAF Gloster Gladiator
Gloster Gladiator
The Gloster Gladiator was a British-built biplane fighter. It was used by the Royal Air Force and the Royal Navy and was exported to a number of other air forces during the late 1930s. It was the RAF's last biplane fighter aircraft and was rendered obsolete by newer monoplane designs even as it...
biplane fighters whilst losing five Fiat CR-42s and, for forty-eight hours, proceeded to methodically bomb the 1st Battalion Essex Regiment
Essex Regiment
The Essex Regiment was an infantry regiment of the British Army that saw active service from 1881 to 1958. Members of the regiment were recruited from across Essex county. Its lineage is continued by the Royal Anglian Regiment.-Origins:...
and the 3rd Battalion 18th Royal Garwhal Rifles. The Italians did this until the British and Commonwealth troops were compelled to withdraw from the positions they had just won. The 10th Indian Brigade re-occupied the ridge west of Gallabat three days later but the operation against Metemma was not continued.
For the next two months, the 10th Indian Brigade and, after them, the 9th Indian Brigade (who relieved the 10th Brigade in December) simulated the activities of a full division. The brigades blazed lines of communication east from Gedaref and created dummy airfields and stores depots. The British forces did this to convince Italian Intelligence that Platt's main thrust would be towards Gondar rather than Kassala
Kassala
Kassala is the capital of the state of Kassala in eastern Sudan. Its 2008 population was recorded to be 419,030. It is a market town and is famous for its fruit gardens. It was formerly a railroad hub, however, as of 2006 there was no operational railway station in Kassala and much of the track...
.
Gazelle Force
On 16 October, Gazelle Force was created in the SudanSudan
Sudan , officially the Republic of the Sudan , is a country in North Africa, sometimes considered part of the Middle East politically. It is bordered by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the northeast, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east, South Sudan to the south, the Central African Republic to the...
as a mobile reconnaissance and fighting force. It comprised three motor machine-gun companies from the Sudan Defence Force
Sudan Defence Force
The Sudan Defence Force was a Sudanese military unit formed in 1925, as its name indicates, to maintain the borders of the Sudan under the British administration...
, the 1st Duke of York's Own Skinner's Horse (the reconnaissance regiment from the 5th Indian Infantry Division), and some mobile artillery. Gazelle Force was commanded by Colonel Frank Messervy
Frank Messervy
General Sir Frank Walter Messervy, KCSI, KBE, CB, DSO & Bar, , was a British Indian Army officer in both the First and Second World Wars...
.
Throughout November, December, and early January, Lieutenant-General William Platt continued to apply constant pressure on the Italians all along the border with the Sudan by continually patrolling and raiding with both his ground troops and his air force. During this time, better British aircraft started to replace some of the older models. The British and Commonwealth air forces were now starting to get Hawker Hurricane
Hawker Hurricane
The Hawker Hurricane is a British single-seat fighter aircraft that was designed and predominantly built by Hawker Aircraft Ltd for the Royal Air Force...
s and more Gloster Gladiator
Gloster Gladiator
The Gloster Gladiator was a British-built biplane fighter. It was used by the Royal Air Force and the Royal Navy and was exported to a number of other air forces during the late 1930s. It was the RAF's last biplane fighter aircraft and was rendered obsolete by newer monoplane designs even as it...
s. The Hurricanes were superior to the Italian Fiat CR-42 fighters and the Gladiators were at least their equal. Both the Hurricanes and the Gladiators were capable of playing havoc with Italian Savoia-Marchetti
Savoia-Marchetti
-History:The original company was founded in 1915 as SIAI . After World War I gained the name Savoia, when it acquired the Società Anonima Costruzioni Aeronautiche Savoia, an Italian aircraft company founded by Umberto Savoia in 1915.The name Marchetti was added when chief designer Alessandro...
bombers.
On 6 December, a large concentration of Italian motor transport was bombed and strafed by Commonwealth aircraft a few miles north of Kassala
Kassala
Kassala is the capital of the state of Kassala in eastern Sudan. Its 2008 population was recorded to be 419,030. It is a market town and is famous for its fruit gardens. It was formerly a railroad hub, however, as of 2006 there was no operational railway station in Kassala and much of the track...
. The same aircraft then proceeded to machine-gun from low level the nearby positions of the Italian Blackshirts and colonial infantry. A few days later, the same aircraft bombed the Italian base at Keru
Keru
Keru is a city in Eritrea....
, fifty miles east of Kassala. The Commonwealth pilots had the satisfaction of seeing supply dumps, stores, and transport enveloped in flame and smoke as they flew away.
One morning in mid-December, a force of Italian fighters paid a visit to a Rhodesian landing-strip near Kassala. The Italians strafed some Hawker Hardys caught on the ground. As a result of the Italian attack, several aircraft were destroyed. However, while successful, the attack resulted in no casualties.
Italians adopt a defensive posture
After the conquest of British Somaliland, the Italians adopted a more defensive posture. Throughout late 1940, the setbacks suffered by Italian forces elsewhere in the Mediterranean SeaBattle of the Mediterranean
The Battle of the Mediterranean was the name given to the naval campaign fought in the Mediterranean Sea during World War II, from 10 June 1940-2 May 1945....
, in the Western Desert
Operation Compass
Operation Compass was the first major Allied military operation of the Western Desert Campaign during World War II. British and Commonwealth forces attacked Italian forces in western Egypt and eastern Libya in December 1940 to February 1941. The attack was a complete success...
, in the skies over Britain
Corpo Aereo Italiano
The "Italian Air Corps" was an expeditionary force of the Italian Royal Air Force that participated in the Battle of Britain during the final months of 1940 during World War II. The CAI supported the German Air Force and flew against the British Royal Air Force...
, and on the Albanian border with Greece
Greco-Italian War
The Greco-Italian War was a conflict between Italy and Greece which lasted from 28 October 1940 to 23 April 1941. It marked the beginning of the Balkans Campaign of World War II...
prompted the new Italian Chief of the General Staff in Rome
Rome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
, General Ugo Cavallero
Ugo Cavallero
Ugo Cavallero was an Italian military commander before and during World War II. He was also a recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross...
, to adopt a new course of action in East Africa
East Africa
East Africa or Eastern Africa is the easterly region of the African continent, variably defined by geography or geopolitics. In the UN scheme of geographic regions, 19 territories constitute Eastern Africa:...
. In December 1940, Cavallero argued to the Italian High Command (Commando Supremo) that the Italian forces in East Africa should abandon offensive actions against the Sudan and against the Suez Canal
Suez Canal
The Suez Canal , also known by the nickname "The Highway to India", is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows water transportation between Europe and Asia without navigation...
. Instead, Cavallero argued that Italy should focus on defending the Italian East African Empire
Italian East Africa
Italian East Africa was an Italian colonial administrative subdivision established in 1936, resulting from the merger of the Ethiopian Empire with the old colonies of Italian Somaliland and Italian Eritrea. In August 1940, British Somaliland was conquered and annexed to Italian East Africa...
.
Amedeo, Duke of Aosta
Amedeo, 3rd Duke of Aosta
Prince Amedeo of Savoy-Aosta was the third Duke of Aosta and a first cousin, once removed of the King of Italy, Victor Emmanuel III. His baptismal name was Amedeo Umberto Isabella Luigi Filippo Maria Giuseppe Giovanni di Savoia-Aosta...
, also requested permission to withdraw from the Sudanese frontier. In response to Cavallero and the Duke of Aosta, the Italian Supreme Command (Commando Supremo) in Rome issued orders for the Italian forces in East Africa to withdraw to better defensive positions.
Orders were sent to Lieutenant-General Luigi Frusci
Luigi Frusci
Luigi Frusci was an officer in the Italian Royal Army during World War II.Frusci fought on the southern front for General Rodolfo Graziani during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War...
for him to withdraw his forces from Kassala
Kassala
Kassala is the capital of the state of Kassala in eastern Sudan. Its 2008 population was recorded to be 419,030. It is a market town and is famous for its fruit gardens. It was formerly a railroad hub, however, as of 2006 there was no operational railway station in Kassala and much of the track...
and Metemma
Metemma
Metemma is a town in northwestern Ethiopia, on the border with Sudan. Located in the Semien Gondar Zone of the Amhara Region, Metemma has a latitude and longitude of with an elevation of 685 meters above sea level. Across the border is the corresponding Sudanese village of Gallabat...
in the lowlands along the Sudanese border with Eritrea. Instead, Frusci was ordered to hold the more easily defended mountain passes on the roads running eastward from Kassala to Agordat
Agordat
Agordat is a city in Eritrea. It was the former capital of the now defunct Barka Province of Eritrea .- Overview :...
and from Metemma to Gondar. However, Frusci chose not to withdraw from the lowland. He argued that withdrawal would involve too great a loss of prestige. Furthermore, Kassala was an important railway junction. By holding it, the Italians prevented the British from using the railway to carry supplies from Port Sudan
Port Sudan
Port Sudan is the capital of Red Sea State, Sudan; it has 489,725 residents . Located on the Red Sea, it is the Republic of Sudan's main port city.-History:...
on the Red Sea coast to the base at Gedaref.
Information of the Italian withdrawal was quickly decrypted by the British and, knowing the Italian plans, Lieutenant-General William Platt
William Platt
General Sir William Platt GBE, KCB, DSO was an officer in the British Army, the Australian Army, and the New Zealand Army during World War I and World War II.-Early years:...
was able to start his offensive into Eritrea on 18 January 1941, three weeks ahead of schedule.
Allied counter-offensive
After the fall of British Somaliland, General Archibald Wavell's plan for the counter-offensive by British and Commonwealth forces included a "northern front" led by William Platt (who was promoted to Lieutenant-General in early January 1941) and a "southern front" led by Lieutenant-General Alan CunninghamAlan Gordon Cunningham
General Sir Alan Gordon Cunningham GCMG, KCB, DSO, MC was a British Army officer, noted for victories over Italian forces in the East African Campaign during the Second World War. Later he was the seventh and last High Commissioner of Palestine...
who had taken over the East African Force at the start of November 1940. A third front would be created by the forces which re-took British Somaliland by sea.
Wavell planned for Platt to advance southward from the Sudan, through Eritrea, and into Ethiopia and for Cunningham to advance northwards from Kenya, through Italian Somaliland, and into Ethiopia. While Platt advanced from the north and Cunningham from the south, Wavell planned for a third force to be landed in British Somaliland in an amphibious assault and to then re-take that colony prior to advancing into Ethiopia. According to the plan, all three forces were to ultimately join forces at the capital of Italian East Africa, Addis Ababa.
The capture of Italian East Africa would remove land-based threats to supplies and reinforcements coming from Australia, New Zealand, India, South Africa, and British East Africa and passing through the Suez Canal
Suez Canal
The Suez Canal , also known by the nickname "The Highway to India", is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows water transportation between Europe and Asia without navigation...
for the campaign in North Africa and open the overland route from Cape Town
Cape Town
Cape Town is the second-most populous city in South Africa, and the provincial capital and primate city of the Western Cape. As the seat of the National Parliament, it is also the legislative capital of the country. It forms part of the City of Cape Town metropolitan municipality...
to Cairo
Cairo
Cairo , is the capital of Egypt and the largest city in the Arab world and Africa, and the 16th largest metropolitan area in the world. Nicknamed "The City of a Thousand Minarets" for its preponderance of Islamic architecture, Cairo has long been a centre of the region's political and cultural life...
.
The Empire Strikes Back
On 18 January 1941, Emperor Selassie crossed the border near the village of Um Iddla. Two days later he joined Gideon ForceGideon Force
The Gideon Force was a small British-led African regular force which acted as a Corps d'Elite amongst the irregular Ethiopian forces fighting the Italian occupation forces in Ethiopia during the East African Campaign of World War II...
which was already in Ethiopia. The standard of the Lion of Judah
Lion of Judah
The Lion of Judah was the symbol of the Israelite tribe of Judah in the Book of Genesis of the Hebrew Bible .-Lion of Judah and Judaism:...
was raised again.
The crossing was made some 450 miles (724.2 km) northwest of Addis Ababa
Addis Ababa
Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia...
, the capital Emperor Selassie had been forced to flee when the Italian General Pietro Badoglio
Pietro Badoglio
Pietro Badoglio, 1st Duke of Addis Abeba, 1st Marquess of Sabotino was an Italian soldier and politician...
captured the city from the Ethiopians on 5 May 1936 during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
The Second Italo–Abyssinian War was a colonial war that started in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war was fought between the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy and the armed forces of the Ethiopian Empire...
.
Campaign in Gojjam
Emperor Selassie and Gideon Force under Major Orde Wingate conducted a campaign for the next three months in the Ethiopian province of GojjamGojjam
Gojjam was a kingdom in the north-western part of Ethiopia, with its capital city at Debre Marqos. This region is distinctive for lying entirely within the bend of the Abbay River from its outflow from Lake Tana to the Sudan...
where they initially faced opposing forces of about 25,000 men. Emperor Selassie and Gideon Force rallied Ethiopian patriots wherever they went using powerful loudspeakers which had been supplied to the patriot forces to announce the presence of the emperor and inducing local tribal leaders and Italian askari
Askari
Askari is an Arabic, Bosnian, Urdu, Turkish, Somali, Persian, Amharic and Swahili word meaning "soldier" . It was normally used to describe local troops in East Africa, Northeast Africa, and Central Africa serving in the armies of European colonial powers...
s to desert the Italian cause. Using surprise and bluff, this relatively small force disrupted Italian supply lines and provided important intelligence to the more conventional British and Commonwealth forces.
In March, there was a furious clash between Colonel Sandford and Wingate. Sandford maintained in a signal to headquarters in Khartoum
Khartoum
Khartoum is the capital and largest city of Sudan and of Khartoum State. It is located at the confluence of the White Nile flowing north from Lake Victoria, and the Blue Nile flowing west from Ethiopia. The location where the two Niles meet is known as "al-Mogran"...
that the resources being absorbed by Wingate for the "comparatively slow advance of [his] conventional forces" was "paralysing Patriot activities by diverting rifles, ammunition and pack saddles exclusively to Wingate's force, instead of giving equal priority to the Patriots" which would have a greater impact through swift and dispersed action not just in Gojjam but with the assistance of Sandford's Mission 101, in other provinces as well. This was followed by a signal of rebuttal from Wingate to Platt who had to rebuke them both. The dispute overflowed into Wingate's formations leading to the mutiny of the 2nd Ethiopian Battalion at the start of April. Wingate had to leave his sick-bed (he was suffering from an attack of malaria) to dismiss the battalion's commander, after which it rallied to its new leader and performed well for the rest of the campaign.
First victory
On 6 March 1941, Ethiopia's "Patriots" won their first victory when they took BureBure (Gojjam), Ethiopia
Bure is a town in western Ethiopia. Located in the Mirab Gojjam Zone of the Amhara Region, this town has a longitude and latitude of with an elevation of 2091 meters above sea level....
. From 27 February to 3 March Gideon Force harried the well-sited defensive forts at Bure while propagandists yelling through their megaphones fostered the Italian belief that they were being attacked by a substantial force and provoked many desertions. Finally on 4 March, fearing his line of communication to Debre Marqos
Debre Marqos
Debre Marqos is a city and woreda in east-central Ethiopia. Located in the Misraq Gojjam Zone of the Amhara Region, it has a latitude and longitude of , and an elevation of 2,446 meters. The city is named Debre Marqos after its principal church, which was constructed in 1869 and dedicated to St....
was threatened, Colonel Natale, not knowing that the attacking force counted only 450 men, pulled out of Bure and headed for Dembacha on the road to Debre Marqos. Harried from behind by the Frontier Battalion, Natale's column met the 2nd Ethiopian Battalion head-on just west of Dembacha. The Ethiopian battalion put up a stiff resistance but were overwhelmed. However, Natale had been shaken by recent events and abandoned Dembacha on 8 March and pulled all the garrisons back to Debre Marqos.
The American United Press Agency reported: "The East African war has turned into a race to Addis Ababa between the army of Abyssinian volunteers and the mechanised South African troops who stand in such remarkable contrast to each other. The South African troops are advancing from Mogadishu toward Harar, which lies about 30 miles (48.3 km) from the Djibouti-Addis Ababa railway line."
In less than three months, Gideon Force (less the 2nd Ethiopian Battalion which was no longer a combatant force after the engagement at Dembacha) and an ever-growing army of Ethiopian patriots were advancing on the Italian fortifications at Debre Marqos, the capital of Gojjam. Lieutenant-Colonel Bousted, commanding the Frontier Battalion, embarked on a guerrilla campaign which involved small parties of 50 or so men silently infiltrating to within 10 yards (9 m) of an enemy position in the middle of the night and then attacking with grenades and bayonets to clear the defenders. By early April the defenders had been forced back to the inner defensive ring at Debre Marqos. Because of the critical situation to the south, the Duke of Aosta ordered the withdrawal from Debre Marqos and on 4 April 12,000 people (including 4,000 women) under their commander, Colonel Maraventano, began the 200 miles (321.9 km) trek to Safartak and then beyond to Dessie
Dessie
Dessie is a city and a woreda in north-central Ethiopia. Located on the Addis Ababa - Asmara highway in the Debub Wollo Zone of the Amhara Region, this city has a latitude and longitude of with an elevation between 2,470 and 2,550 meters above sea level.Dessie has postal service , and telephone...
. On 6 April Hailie Selassie entered Debre Marqos and was formally greeted by Wingate, Gideon Force and Ras Hailu, the powerful local patriot leader.
Addis Ababa
While Debre Markos and Addis Derra were being captured, other Ethiopian patriots under Ras Abebe AregaiAbebe Aregai
Ras Abebe Aregai was Prime Minister of Ethiopia from 27 November 1957 until his death. During the Italian occupation, he led a group of resistance fighters that operated in Menz and Shewa...
consolidated themselves around Addis Ababa in preparation for Emperor Selassie's return. In response to the rapidly advancing British and Commonwealth forces and to the general uprising of Ethiopian patriots, the Italians in Ethiopia retreated to the mountain fortresses of Gondar, Amba Alagi
Amba Alagi
Amba Alagi is a mountain, or an amba, in northern Ethiopia. Located in the Debubawi Zone of the Tigray Region, Amba Alagi dominates the roadway that runs past it from the city of Mek'ele south to Maychew. Because of its strategic location, Amba Alagi has been the location of several battles...
, Dessie
Dessie
Dessie is a city and a woreda in north-central Ethiopia. Located on the Addis Ababa - Asmara highway in the Debub Wollo Zone of the Amhara Region, this city has a latitude and longitude of with an elevation between 2,470 and 2,550 meters above sea level.Dessie has postal service , and telephone...
, and Gimma
Jimma
Jimma, also Jima, is the largest city in southwestern Ethiopia. Located in the Jimma Zone of the Oromia Region, it has a latitude and longitude of . The town was the capital of Kaffa Province until the province was dissolved. Prior to the 2007 census, Jimma was reorganized administratively as a...
.
From Debra Marqos, Wingate followed the retreating Italians and undertook a series of harrying actions. In early May most of Gideon Force had to break off in order to provide a suitable escort for Hailie Selassie's formal entry into Addis Ababa. Following the ceremonials Wingate returned to Safforce, the main Mission 101 force which was harassing Maraventano's column. By 18 May the column was dug in at Agibor.
Facing Maraventano was a force of about 2,000 including only 160 trained soldiers (100 from the Frontier Battalion and 60 from the re-formed 2nd Ethiopian Battalion). Both sides by this time were short of food, ammunition, water and medical supplies. Wingate sent a message to Maraventano falsely telling of very substantial forces about to join him and playing on the likely imminent withdrawal of British troops leaving the Italian column at the mercy of the Patriots. By 21 May, having referred the matter to higher authority in Gondar which had left the decision to him, Maraventano indicated an intention to surrender with the formal honours taking place on 23 May. Wingate accepted the surrender of 1,100 Italian and 5,000 colonial troops, 2,000 women and children and 1,000 mule men and camp followers. By this time his force contained only 36 regular soldiers to make the formal guard of honour at the surrender, the rest of his force being patriots.
On 18 May, a small part of Gideon Force led by the explorer Wilfred Thesiger
Wilfred Thesiger
Sir Wilfred Patrick Thesiger, CBE, DSO, FRAS, FRGS was a British explorer and travel writer born in Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia.-Family:...
blocked a force of 2,500 retreating Italians. On 24 May, thinking he faced superior numbers, the Italian commander agreed to surrender to Thesiger.
Campaign in Eritrea
On 12 January, Amedeo, Duke of Aosta, sent his elite Savoy Grenadiers Division to defend KerenKeren, Eritrea
Keren is the second largest city in Eritrea. It is situated about 91 kilometers northwest of Asmara. The town serves as the capital of the Anseba region, and is home to the Bilen ethnic group.-History:...
. The Italian force at Keren soon included three colonial brigades and the Savoy Grenadiers. The Savoy Grenadiers included one battalion of highly mobile infantry (Bersaglieri
Bersaglieri
The Bersaglieri are a corps of the Italian Army originally created by General Alessandro La Marmora on 18 June 1836 to serve in the Piedmontese Army, later to become the Royal Italian Army...
) and the Uork Amba Battalion, the one battalion of elite mountain troops (Alpini
Alpini
The Alpini, , are the elite mountain warfare soldiers of the Italian Army. They are currently organized in two operational brigades, which are subordinated to the Alpini Corps Command. The singular is Alpino ....
) in East Africa.
Operation Compass
Operation Compass was the first major Allied military operation of the Western Desert Campaign during World War II. British and Commonwealth forces attacked Italian forces in western Egypt and eastern Libya in December 1940 to February 1941. The attack was a complete success...
in the Western Desert
Western Desert Campaign
The Western Desert Campaign, also known as the Desert War, was the initial stage of the North African Campaign during the Second World War. The campaign was heavily influenced by the availability of supplies and transport. The ability of the Allied forces, operating from besieged Malta, to...
. Further reinforcements in the form of a battery of 6-inch howitzers and a company of I tanks
Infantry tank
The infantry tank was a concept developed by the British and French in the years leading up to World War II. Infantry tanks were tanks designed to support the infantry in the attack. To achieve this they were generally heavily armoured compared to the cruiser tanks, to allow them to operate in...
were also forthcoming.
The arrival of the 4th Indian Infantry Division (which commenced on 7 January), together with intelligence concerning the Italian plans, greatly aided Platt's plans. The main British attack on Eritrea, originally scheduled to start on February 8 with an attack against the railway junction at Kassala, was brought forward to January 18. However, the aggressive skirmishing in the previous month had prompted the Italians in late December to withdraw from their northern flank back to Keru and Wachai. Finally, on 17 January Frusci acceded to the orders from Rome and withdrew from Kassala and Tessenei to concentrate in the Keru - Biscia - Aicota triangle where the mountains began.
Platt's forces advance into Eritrea
On January 19, 1941, Lieutenant-General Platt's two divisions, the 4th Indian Infantry Division, commanded by Major-General Noel Beresford-PeirseNoel Beresford-Peirse
Lieutenant-General Sir Noel Monson de la Poer Beresford-Peirse KBE, CB, DSO was a British Army officer.-Family background:...
and the 5th Indian Infantry Division, commanded by Major-General Lewis Heath
Lewis Heath
Lieutenant-General Sir Lewis Macclesfield Heath, KBE, CB, CIE, DSO, MC was an officer in the British Army and the Indian Army during the pre-World War I years, World War I, the interwar years, and World War II...
, entered Kassala making for the heavily fortified town of Agordat to the east. On that first day, as the British and Commonwealth troops passed through Kassala and entered Sabdaret and Tessenei, the Italians were already dug in among the jagged foothills of the Eritrean Plateau on the approaches to Agordat.
Briggs Force
As the Indian divisions crossed the Eritrean border in the west, Briggs Force, operating independently from the main force and under Platt's direct command, advanced eastwards from the Sudan and entered Eritrea from the north through the border town of Karora. Briggs Force was four battalions under Brigadier Harold Rawdon BriggsHarold Rawdon Briggs
Lieutenant-General Sir Rawdon Briggs KCIE KBE CB DSO and two bars was an officer in the British Indian Army during World War I, World War II and the post-war era.Field Marshal Viscount William Slim said of him-Early life:...
— two battalions from Briggs's own 7th Indian Infantry Brigade
7th Indian Infantry Brigade
The 7th Indian Infantry Brigade was an Infantry formation of the Indian Army during World War II. It was formed in September 1939, by renaming the Poona Independent Brigade as the 7th Indian Infantry Brigade and renumbered 4th in June 1940, A second 7th Brigade was formed in June 1940, and assigned...
(from the 4th Indian Infantry Division), together with two battalions from the French "Brigade of the East" (Brigade d'Orient) — one Senegalese colonial battalion and one Free French battalion.
After capturing Italian positions near Karora, Briggs Force fought its way to the northern defences of Keren and linked up with the main force in March.
Agordat and Barentu
Advancing east from KassalaKassala
Kassala is the capital of the state of Kassala in eastern Sudan. Its 2008 population was recorded to be 419,030. It is a market town and is famous for its fruit gardens. It was formerly a railroad hub, however, as of 2006 there was no operational railway station in Kassala and much of the track...
towards Agordat, the 4th Indian Division, still with only one under-strength brigade available (11th Indian Infantry Brigade
11th Indian Infantry Brigade
The 11th Indian Infantry Brigade was an Infantry formation of the Indian Army during World War II. It was formed in September 1939. In October 1939, it was assigned to the 4th Indian Infantry Division...
) but with Gazelle Force under command, took the northern road via Wachai and Keru
Keru
Keru is a city in Eritrea....
. Meanwhile the two brigades of 5th Indian Infantry Division (a third brigade, 9th Indian Infantry Brigade
9th Indian Infantry Brigade
The 9th Indian Infantry Brigade was an Infantry formation of the Indian Army during World War II. It was formed in India and converted to the 5th Indian Infantry Brigade and a new 9th Brigade was then formed all in September 1939. The brigade was assigned to the 5th Indian Infantry Division in June...
, had remained to cover the Gallabat position) took the southern road via Tessenei, Aicota and Barentu
Barentu, Eritrea
Barentu is a town in south-western Eritrea, lying south of Agordat. It is mainly inhabited by the Nilotic Kunama people and Nara people. The Nara people leader Shekaray Agaba was the first to build the town umba arenku which it means the white water. It is located in the Gash-Barka Zone of...
. Both roads were mined and sown with spikes placing a heavy burden on the engineers to maintain the momentum of the advance.
On 21 January 5th Indian Division had occupied Aicota without opposition and Gazelle Force had reached the strongly defended position at the Keru Gorge held by five Italian battalions. The Italian position at Keru was undone by a bold move by Major-General Heath who sent the 2nd Battalion Highland Light Infantry and the 2nd Motor Machine Gun Battalion from 10th Indian Brigade northeast along a track from Aicota to the rear of the Italian position at Keru. On 22 January when 4th Indian Division put in their attack, the 5th Indian Division detachment were across the Italians' rear line of communication. The Italian position, which should have been held for weeks, became untenable and while some elements of the Italian 41st Brigade managed to escape across country in the night, General Fongoli with his staff and guns and 1200 men were taken prisoner.
By 25 January the lateral line of communication between Agordat and Barentu had been cut leaving these two strong points isolated from each other. Agordat was defended by four infantry brigades supported by 76 guns and a company each of medium and light tanks all under the command of General Lorenzini. 4th Indian Division's second brigade (5th Indian Infantry Brigade
5th Indian Infantry Brigade
The 5th Indian Infantry Brigade was an Infantry formation of the Indian Army during World War II. It was converted for the 9th Indian Infantry Brigade in September 1939, and assigned to the 4th Indian Infantry Division. The brigade fist moved to Egypt and took part in the early battles in North...
) had by now concentrated from Egypt and Beresford-Pierse therefore paused to allow it together with the first four I tanks to move into the front line. On the evening of 28 January he sent 11th Indian Brigade's 3/14th Punjab Regiment
14th Punjab Regiment
The 14th Punjab Regiment was a regiment of the British Indian Army from 1922 to 1947. It was transferred to the Pakistan Army on Partition of India in 1947, and amalgamated with the 1st, 15th and 16th Punjab Regiments in 1956, to form the Punjab Regiment....
on a flanking move into the Cochen hills to the south. On 29 January they were joined by a second battalion, 1/6th Rajputana Rifles
6th Rajputana Rifles
The 6th Rajputana Rifles were an infantry regiment of the British Indian Army. They were formed in 1922, after the Indian government reformed the army. They moved away from single battalion regiments to multi battalion regiments...
. On 30 January they were counter attacked by five Italian colonial battalions with mountain artillery in support. The Indian battalions came under intense pressure and were forced to give way but counter attacked on the morning of 31 January and regained the lost ground. With Lorenzini's attention fully occupied by the events in the Cochen, Beresford-Pierse launched 5th Indian Brigade in his main attack on the plain below supported by the four I tanks. The tanks proved decisive and by the evening the road to Keren had been cut and the Italian defenders isolated. Once again the Italian forces attempted to get away in the hours of darkness but 1,000 prisoners were taken and 43 guns captured.
Meanwhile 5th Indian Division had attacked Barentu and despite facing 8,000 defenders and 32 guns settled in prepared defences, they had prevailed without help from I tanks and occupied the town on 2 February.
Within nine days, the forces of Beresford-Peirse and Heath had advanced 100 miles (160 kilometres) and broken through the Italian positions in the foothills to capture Agordat
Agordat
Agordat is a city in Eritrea. It was the former capital of the now defunct Barka Province of Eritrea .- Overview :...
on February 1. In total 6,000 prisoners had been taken and 80 guns, 26 tanks and 400 trucks captured.
On 21 January, during the advance of the 5th Indian Division, Brigadier William "Bill" Slim was wounded by aerial strafing. Slim's command of 10th Indian Infantry Brigade
10th Indian Infantry Brigade
The 10th Indian Infantry Brigade was an Infantry formation of the Indian Army during World War II. It was formed in September 1939. In June 1940 it was assigned to the 5th Indian Infantry Division and in September 1940, sailed for East Africa...
was assumed temporarily by Lieutenant-Colonel Bernard Fletcher
Bernard Campbell Fletcher
Bernard Campbell Fletcher DSO, MC was an officer in the British Indian Army during World War II.During the East African Campaign, Fletcher commanded both the Indian 10th Infantry Brigade and the Indian 9th Infantry Brigade, both of the Indian 5th Infantry Division...
, commander of the brigade's 2nd Highland Light Infantry
Highland Light Infantry
The Highland Light Infantry was a regiment of the British Army from 1881 to 1959. In 1923 the regimental title was expanded to the Highland Light Infantry ...
battalion, until March when Brigadier Thomas "Pete" Rees
Thomas Wynford Rees
Thomas Wynford Rees CB, CIE, DSO & Bar, MC, DL was an officer in the British Indian Army during World War I, the interwar years, World War II, and post-war.-Early life and career:The son of the Reverend T. M...
took over.
Metemma
On 31 January, the Italian garrison at MetemmaMetemma
Metemma is a town in northwestern Ethiopia, on the border with Sudan. Located in the Semien Gondar Zone of the Amhara Region, Metemma has a latitude and longitude of with an elevation of 685 meters above sea level. Across the border is the corresponding Sudanese village of Gallabat...
in northern Ethiopia, having been under increasing pressure for three weeks and realising that Platt's main thrust would not be coming from the Gallabat direction withdrew towards Gondar
Gondar
Gondar or Gonder is a city in Ethiopia, which was once the old imperial capital and capital of the historic Begemder Province. As a result, the old province of Begemder is sometimes referred to as Gondar...
. This withdrawal allowed the 9th Indian Infantry Brigade
9th Indian Infantry Brigade
The 9th Indian Infantry Brigade was an Infantry formation of the Indian Army during World War II. It was formed in India and converted to the 5th Indian Infantry Brigade and a new 9th Brigade was then formed all in September 1939. The brigade was assigned to the 5th Indian Infantry Division in June...
of the 5th Indian Infantry Division to occupy Metemma. Brigadier Mosley Mayne
Mosley Mayne
General Sir Ashton Gerard Oswald Mosley Mayne GCB, CBE, DSO was a British Indian Army officer in both World War I and World War II.-Early career:...
, 9th Brigade's commander, sent units along the road towards Wahni to harry the retreating Italian forces fighting lively engagements 20 miles (32.2 km) and 45 miles (72.4 km) east of Metemma. Progress on the road was difficult because of the thickly laid minefields and it was during this period that 2nd Lieutenant Premindra Singh Bhagat
Premindra Singh Bhagat
Lieutenant General Premindra Singh Bhagat VC, PVSM was an officer in the Indian Army during World War II and a recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces, and the PVSM,...
of the Royal Bombay Sappers and Miners won the first Victoria Cross
Victoria Cross
The Victoria Cross is the highest military decoration awarded for valour "in the face of the enemy" to members of the armed forces of various Commonwealth countries, and previous British Empire territories....
for the British Indian Army in World War II for a "...continuous feat of sheer cold courage" clearing 15 minefields and 55 miles (88.5 km) of roads in 48 hours of unbroken effort.
By 31 January, the Duke of Aosta reported that the Italian military forces in East Africa were down to 67 operational aircraft with limited fuel.
Keren
The key action on the northern front then took place at Keren
Keren, Eritrea
Keren is the second largest city in Eritrea. It is situated about 91 kilometers northwest of Asmara. The town serves as the capital of the Anseba region, and is home to the Bilen ethnic group.-History:...
in Eritrea, 60 miles (96.6 km) further east of Agordat towards the Red Sea. While General Frusci
Luigi Frusci
Luigi Frusci was an officer in the Italian Royal Army during World War II.Frusci fought on the southern front for General Rodolfo Graziani during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War...
was in overall command of the Italian forces in Eritrea, the Italians at Keren were commanded by General Nicolangelo Carnimeo
Nicolangelo Carnimeo
Nicolangelo Carnimeo was an Italian lieutenant-general; later a legal-administrative judge and then a member of Parliament of the Italian Republic....
. On 5 February, the Battle of Keren
Battle of Keren
The Battle of Keren was fought as part of the East African Campaign during World War II. The Battle of Keren was fought from 5 February-1 April 1941 between the colonial Italian army defending it's colonial possession of Eritrea and the invading British and Commonwealth forces. In 1941, Keren was...
began. The battle started with assaults by elements of 4th Indian Infantry Division (Gazelle Force and 11th Indian Brigade) on the Italian positions in the mountains leading to Keren. Initially the resolute Italian defenders prevailed with heavy casualties on both sides. Further heavy attacks took place over the next ten days, but the Italians held and there was no break through.
Platt decided to regroup and concentrate his forces before attacking again. Planning for a set-piece battle he disbanded Gazelle Force (with Messervy taking over 9th Indian Brigade) and brought 5th Indian Infantry Division (which had been mopping up at Agordat) to the front. On 1 March, his command was expanded by the arrival of Briggs Force from the north. Although it lacked the artillery for a major offensive, Briggs Force drew off a significant part of the Keren garrison. This aided Platt's main offensive which was being launched from the south west. Briggs Force also posed a threat to Massawa
Massawa
Massawa, also known as Mitsiwa Massawa, also known as Mitsiwa Massawa, also known as Mitsiwa (Ge'ez ምጽዋዕ , formerly ባጽዕ is a city on the Red Sea coast of Eritrea. An important port for many centuries, it was ruled by a succession of polities, including the Axumite Empire, the Umayyad Caliphate,...
to the east. This threat obliged the Italians to maintain a reserve on the coast.
On 14 March, by the time the next assault on Keren commenced, Platt's force of about 13,000 men faced a re-inforced Italian defence of about 23,000 men. Once again, both sides fought with determination and both sides suffered heavy losses. According to Winston Churchill
Winston Churchill
Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, was a predominantly Conservative British politician and statesman known for his leadership of the United Kingdom during the Second World War. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest wartime leaders of the century and served as Prime Minister twice...
, both sides were evenly matched at Keren, both on the ground and in the air. However, Churchill points out that the arrival of Hurricane
Hawker Hurricane
The Hawker Hurricane is a British single-seat fighter aircraft that was designed and predominantly built by Hawker Aircraft Ltd for the Royal Air Force...
fighters gave the British the upper hand in the air.
It took until 27 March for Keren to fall. In the account of the battle written in Eastern Epic, an official history of the British Indian Army
British Indian Army
The British Indian Army, officially simply the Indian Army, was the principal army of the British Raj in India before the partition of India in 1947...
in World War II, Compton Mackenzie wrote:
Keren was decisive in terms of the strategic objectives of the Allied forces (to the extent that when Wavell was created an earl
Earl
An earl is a member of the nobility. The title is Anglo-Saxon, akin to the Scandinavian form jarl, and meant "chieftain", particularly a chieftain set to rule a territory in a king's stead. In Scandinavia, it became obsolete in the Middle Ages and was replaced with duke...
he chose as his second title the viscount
Viscount
A viscount or viscountess is a member of the European nobility whose comital title ranks usually, as in the British peerage, above a baron, below an earl or a count .-Etymology:...
y of Keren and of Winchester). While hard fighting lay ahead before the campaign would come to an end, the fall of Keren broke the resistance of the Italian forces and led to the almost immediate capture of Massawa on the coast. This made it possible for the Allies to safely use the Red Sea for ships bringing munitions and supplies to the North African theatre.
Asmara
After Keren fell, Indian 5th Infantry DivisionIndian 5th Infantry Division
Indian 5th Infantry Division was an infantry division in the Indian Army during World War II which fought in several theatres of war and more than earned its nickname the "Ball of Fire".- History :...
set off eastwards in pursuit of the retreating Italians and towards the Eritrean capital of Asmara
Asmara
Asmara is the capital city and largest settlement in Eritrea, home to a population of around 579,000 people...
, some 50 miles (80.5 km) away. They left the Indian 4th Infantry Division
Indian 4th Infantry Division
The Indian 4th Infantry Division, also known as the Red Eagle Division, is an infantry division of the Indian Army.The division was formed in Egypt in 1939 and was the first Indian formation to go overseas during the Second World War. As with all formations in the Indian Army prior to independence,...
behind to mop up in Keren. After mopping up, the Indian 4th Infantry Division returned to Egypt (leaving behind for a little longer the formations it had detached to Briggs Force).
The retreating Italians fought minor skirmishes but mounted no major stand. A new defensive position was formed at Ad Teclesan, in a narrow valley on the route from Keren to Asmara. The 80th Colonial Division was brought from Gondar and the remaining two battalions of the Savoia Grenadiers from Addis Ababa. However, the Keren defeat had shattered the morale of the Italian forces and when Heath's attack came early on 31 March there was little fighting. On 1 April, Asmara was declared an open town and 5th Indian Division entered the town to take 5,000 more prisoners and capture the entire equipment reserve of the Italian East African armies including 1,500,000 shells and 3,000,000 rounds of small arms ammunition. Three days later, after resupply along the lengthening road to the Kassala railway junction on the Sudanese border, 10th Infantry Brigade of Indian 5th Infantry Division set off east again towards Massawa
Massawa
Massawa, also known as Mitsiwa Massawa, also known as Mitsiwa Massawa, also known as Mitsiwa (Ge'ez ምጽዋዕ , formerly ባጽዕ is a city on the Red Sea coast of Eritrea. An important port for many centuries, it was ruled by a succession of polities, including the Axumite Empire, the Umayyad Caliphate,...
. Massawa was some 50 miles (80.5 km) away, 7000 feet (2,133.6 m) lower, and on the coast. On 10th Brigade's left flank was Briggs Force which had advanced cross-country from Keren and were approaching Massawa from the north along the coast.
Massawa
Rear Admiral Mario Bonnetti, commander of the Italian Red Sea FlotillaRed Sea Flotilla
The Red Sea Flotilla was a unit of the Italian Royal Navy based in Massawa, Eritrea, when Massawa was part of Italian East Africa...
and the commander of the garrison at Massawa, had been ordered by Benito Mussolini
Benito Mussolini
Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini was an Italian politician who led the National Fascist Party and is credited with being one of the key figures in the creation of Fascism....
to defend the town to the last man. The Italians had 10,000 troops and 100 assorted tanks and armoured cars to defend Massawa. About 1,000 of the defenders at Massawa were veterans from Keren and another bloody battle seemed likely.
Armed merchantmen
Armed merchantman is a term that has come to mean a merchant ship equipped with guns, usually for defensive purposes, either by design or after the fact. In the days of sail, piracy and privateers, many merchantmen would be routinely armed, especially those engaging in long distance and high value...
Ramb I broke out of Massawa with the colonial ship Eritrea and the armed merchant cruiser Ramb II
Italian ship Ramb II
The Italian auxiliary cruiser Ramb II was built at Monfalcone by the Re-United Yards of the Adriatic in 1937.-Design:...
The Ramb I and Ramb II were known as auxiliary cruisers or merchant raider
Merchant raider
Merchant raiders are ships which disguise themselves as non-combatant merchant vessels, whilst actually being armed and intending to attack enemy commerce. Germany used several merchant raiders early in World War I, and again early in World War II...
s, armed ships which disguised themselves as noncombatant merchant vessels. Ramb I and Ramb II were relatively modern and fast. They had been transformed into auxiliary cruisers with the installation of four 120 mm guns and some 13.2 mm anti-aircraft machine guns. The Eritrea was similar in concept, but, while older and slower, was able to carry more cargo. The Eritrea was armed with four 120 mm guns, two 40 mm guns, and two 13.2 mm machine guns. On 27 February 1941, the Ramb I was located off of the Maldive Islands in the Indian Ocean
Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's oceanic divisions, covering approximately 20% of the water on the Earth's surface. It is bounded on the north by the Indian Subcontinent and Arabian Peninsula ; on the west by eastern Africa; on the east by Indochina, the Sunda Islands, and...
by the New Zealand cruiser Leander and was sunk
Action of 27 February 1941
The Action of 27 February 1941 was a single ship action between a New Zealand cruiser and an Italian auxiliary cruiser. The action began when the HMNZS Leander ordered a flagless freighter stopped for inspection. Instead of complying, the freighter, the , rose the Italian colours and engaged the...
. Both the Eritrea and the Ramb II evaded detection and reached Kobe
Kobe
, pronounced , is the fifth-largest city in Japan and is the capital city of Hyōgo Prefecture on the southern side of the main island of Honshū, approximately west of Osaka...
, Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
.
From 1 March to 4 March, the remaining Italian submarines at Massawa escaped destruction by sailing south. The Guglielmo, the Gauleo Ferraras, the Perla and the Archimede planned to break out, sail south, navigate past the Cape of Good Hope
Cape of Good Hope
The Cape of Good Hope is a rocky headland on the Atlantic coast of the Cape Peninsula, South Africa.There is a misconception that the Cape of Good Hope is the southern tip of Africa, because it was once believed to be the dividing point between the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. In fact, the...
, turn north, and sail north to Bordeaux
Bordeaux
Bordeaux is a port city on the Garonne River in the Gironde department in southwestern France.The Bordeaux-Arcachon-Libourne metropolitan area, has a population of 1,010,000 and constitutes the sixth-largest urban area in France. It is the capital of the Aquitaine region, as well as the prefecture...
, France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, via the west coast of Africa. On 29 March, the Perla was refueled by the German auxiliary cruiser Atlantis
German auxiliary cruiser Atlantis
The German auxiliary cruiser Atlantis , known to the Kriegsmarine as Schiff 16 and to the Royal Navy as Raider-C, was a converted German Hilfskreuzer of the Kriegsmarine, which, during World War II, travelled more than in 602 days, and sank or captured 22 ships totaling...
in the Indian Ocean. The other submarines were refueled by the German fleet tanker Nordmark in the South Atlantic between 16 April and 17 April. All four Italian submarines arrived at Bordeaux between 7 May and 20 May.
Elements of 5th Indian Division coming from Asmara and Briggs Force, cutting across country from Keren, converged on Massawa. After some initial strong opposition, the Italian ground forces defending Massawa, lacking fuel, ammunition, and food, crumpled and resistance collapsed. French units from Briggs Force took Montecullo and Fort Umberto on April 7 and the Allies pressed into Massawa on 8 April. Colonel Ralph Monclar of the 13th French Foreign Legion Demi-Brigade
13th Foreign Legion Demi-Brigade
The 13th Foreign Legion Demi-Brigade is a mechanized infantry demi-brigade in the French Foreign Legion. It is the only permanent demi-brigade in the French Army, and is a unit of particular notoriety and reputation within the Legion...
captured the Italian admiralty building and accepted the surrender of 10,000 Italian naval personnel, bringing the unit's tally to 14,000 Italian prisoners.
The harbour facilities themselves were a prize the British were hoping to use in order to ease the maintenance backlog of naval ships needing repair in Alexandria
Alexandria Port
The Port of Alexandria is on the West Verge of the Nile Delta between the Mediterranean Sea and Mariut Lake in Alexandria, Egypt. Considered the second most important city and the main port in Egypt, it handles over three quarters of Egypt’s foreign trade. Alexandria port consists of two harbours ...
. When Asmara was captured, Bonnetti had been told by the British using the undamaged telephone line to Massawa that they would not be responsible for the feeding of the 40,000 Italian civilians in Asmara if the port installations were damaged. On referring the matter to Rome, Bonnetti was told to proceed and destroy the port. In the week preceding capture, Massawa harbour was thoroughly wrecked by Italian sabotage of machinery in shore facilities, the sinking of two large floating dry docks, and the calculated scuttling
Scuttling
Scuttling is the act of deliberately sinking a ship by allowing water to flow into the hull.This can be achieved in several ways—valves or hatches can be opened to the sea, or holes may be ripped into the hull with brute force or with explosives...
of sixteen large ships in the mouths of the north Naval Harbour, the central Commercial Harbour and the main South Harbour, blocking access in and out. Scuttled, too, was a large floating crane. The harbour was rendered useless until repairs and salvage
Marine salvage
Marine salvage is the process of rescuing a ship, its cargo, or other property from peril. Salvage encompasses rescue towing, refloating a sunken or grounded vessel, or patching or repairing a ship...
efforts could clear it thirteen months later.
On 11 April, Major-General Lewis Heath
Lewis Heath
Lieutenant-General Sir Lewis Macclesfield Heath, KBE, CB, CIE, DSO, MC was an officer in the British Army and the Indian Army during the pre-World War I years, World War I, the interwar years, and World War II...
was promoted to command the Indian III Corps
Indian III Corps
The III Corps was a formation of the Indian Army during World War I formed in Mesopotamia. Prior to the reorganization of the British and Indian forces in Mesopotamia, it was designated as the Tigris Corps....
in the Far East. Command of the Indian 5th Infantry Division
Indian 5th Infantry Division
Indian 5th Infantry Division was an infantry division in the Indian Army during World War II which fought in several theatres of war and more than earned its nickname the "Ball of Fire".- History :...
was assumed by Mosley Mayne
Mosley Mayne
General Sir Ashton Gerard Oswald Mosley Mayne GCB, CBE, DSO was a British Indian Army officer in both World War I and World War II.-Early career:...
who had previously commanded the division's 9th Brigade. Bernard Fletcher
Bernard Campbell Fletcher
Bernard Campbell Fletcher DSO, MC was an officer in the British Indian Army during World War II.During the East African Campaign, Fletcher commanded both the Indian 10th Infantry Brigade and the Indian 9th Infantry Brigade, both of the Indian 5th Infantry Division...
, who had for two months until March had temporary command of 10th Brigade, was promoted and given command of the 9th Brigade.
Before Massawa fell, Bonnetti had ordered the remaining seven Italian destroyers and the remaining motor torpedo boat (the other four boats were no longer operational) to put to sea from Massawa on "do or die" missions. In late March, three destroyers were to attack Port Suez but when one ran aground outside Massawa and had to be sunk by its sisters, this operation was abandoned and the two survivors joined the remaining division in their mission. Four, now six, destroyers had been ordered to attack the fuel tanks at Port Sudan
Port Sudan
Port Sudan is the capital of Red Sea State, Sudan; it has 489,725 residents . Located on the Red Sea, it is the Republic of Sudan's main port city.-History:...
, in early April. Two of these destroyers, Daniele Manin and Nazario Sauro, were sunk by shore-based Swordfish
Fairey Swordfish
The Fairey Swordfish was a torpedo bomber built by the Fairey Aviation Company and used by the Fleet Air Arm of the Royal Navy during the Second World War...
airplanes (of the Fleet Air Arm
Fleet Air Arm
The Fleet Air Arm is the branch of the British Royal Navy responsible for the operation of naval aircraft. The Fleet Air Arm currently operates the AgustaWestland Merlin, Westland Sea King and Westland Lynx helicopters...
) from the carrier Eagle
HMS Eagle (1918)
HMS Eagle was an early aircraft carrier of the Royal Navy. Ordered by Chile as the Almirante Cochrane, she was laid down before World War I. In early 1918 she was purchased by Britain for conversion to an aircraft carrier; this work was finished in 1924...
. Two more destroyers were damaged and scuttled on the coast near Jeddah
Jeddah
Jeddah, Jiddah, Jidda, or Jedda is a city located on the coast of the Red Sea and is the major urban center of western Saudi Arabia. It is the largest city in Makkah Province, the largest sea port on the Red Sea, and the second largest city in Saudi Arabia after the capital city, Riyadh. The...
, Saudi Arabia. The seventh destroyer suffered engine problems and remained in Massawa to be scuttled during the port demolitions. Before being scuttled by its crew, the Italian motor torpedo boat (MTB) MAS-213 torpedoed and damaged the cruiser Capetown
C class cruiser
The C class was a group of twenty-eight light cruisers of the Royal Navy, and were built in a sequence of seven classes known as the Caroline , Calliope , Cambrian , Centaur , Caledon , Ceres and Carlisle classes...
. The cruiser was escorting a convoy off Massawa.
The remaining Italian port facilities at Assab
Assab
Assab is a port city in the Southern Red Sea Region of Eritrea on the west coast of the Red Sea. In 1989, it had a population of 39,600. Assab possesses an oil refinery, which was shut down in 1997 for economic reasons...
, within easy striking distance of British aircraft based in Aden, held out for several weeks after the fall of Massawa.
Seaborne assault on British Somaliland
On 16 March 1941, Operation Appearance was launched. Staged from AdenAden
Aden is a seaport city in Yemen, located by the eastern approach to the Red Sea , some 170 kilometres east of Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000. Aden's ancient, natural harbour lies in the crater of an extinct volcano which now forms a peninsula, joined to the mainland by a...
, two battalions from the Indian Army
Indian Army
The Indian Army is the land based branch and the largest component of the Indian Armed Forces. With about 1,100,000 soldiers in active service and about 1,150,000 reserve troops, the Indian Army is the world's largest standing volunteer army...
and one Somali commando detachment were landed on both sides of Berbera
Berbera
Berbera is a city and seat of Berbera District in Somaliland, a self-proclaimed Independent Republic with de facto control over its own territory, which is recognized by the international community and the Somali Government as a part of Somalia...
by British naval "Force D" (cruisers HMS Glasgow
HMS Glasgow (C21)
The seventh HMS Glasgow , built on the Clyde, was a Southampton-class light cruiser, a sub-class of the Town-class and commissioned in September 1937. She displaced 11,930 tons and had a top speed of 32 knots . She was part of the 2nd Cruiser Squadron of the Home Fleet; she escorted the...
and Caledon
HMS Caledon (D53)
HMS Caledon was a C-class light cruiser of the British Royal Navy. She was the nameship of the Caledon group of the C-class of cruisers....
, destroyers HMS Kandahar and Kipling, auxiliary cruisers Chakdina and Chantala, Indian trawlers Netavati and Parvati, two transports and ML 109). The two Sikh
Sikh
A Sikh is a follower of Sikhism. It primarily originated in the 15th century in the Punjab region of South Asia. The term "Sikh" has its origin in Sanskrit term शिष्य , meaning "disciple, student" or शिक्ष , meaning "instruction"...
battalions (which had been part of the defending force evacuated in August 1940), made the first successful Allied
Allies of World War II
The Allies of World War II were the countries that opposed the Axis powers during the Second World War . Former Axis states contributing to the Allied victory are not considered Allied states...
landing on an enemy-held beach during World War II. The 1st Battalion 2nd Punjab Regiment
2nd Punjab Regiment
The 2nd Punjab Regiment was a British Indian Army regiment from 1922 to the partition of India in 1947.The regiment was formed by the amalgamation of other regiments:*1st Battalion, from the 67th Punjabis, formerly the 7th Regiment of Madras Native Infantry...
and the 3rd Battalion 15th Punjab Regiment
15th Punjab Regiment
The 15th Punjab Regiment was a regiment of the British Indian Army from 1922 to 1947. It was transferred to Pakistan Army on Partition of India in 1947, and amalgamated with the 1st, 14th and 16th Punjab Regiments in 1956 to form the Punjab Regiment....
re-captured British Somaliland
British Somaliland
British Somaliland was a British protectorate in the northern part of present-day Somalia. For much of its existence, British Somaliland was bordered by French Somaliland, Ethiopia, and Italian Somaliland. From 1940 to 1941, it was occupied by the Italians and was part of Italian East Africa...
from its Italian occupiers.
When the Sikhs landed, an Italian colonel (suffering from malaria together with half of his troops) waited with the 60 men who constituted the Berbera garrison. The garrison had been low on food and water for weeks. The Italians stood in formation on the beach and waited to surrender to the arriving British force. The British promptly "secured" Berbera. A British officer present at the Italian surrender later wrote: "War can be very embarrassing".
On 20 March, Hargeisa
Hargeisa
Hargeisa is a city in the northwestern Woqooyi Galbeed region of Somalia. With a population of approximately 2 million residents, it is the second largest city in the country. Hargeisa is the capital of Somaliland, a self-declared republic that is internationally recognized as an autonomous region...
was captured. The British and Commonwealth forces in British Somaliland spent the next months clearing the colony of the last remnants of its former invaders. The Somaliland Camel Corps
Somaliland Camel Corps
The Somaliland Camel Corps was a unit of the British Army based in British Somaliland from the early 20th century until the 1960s.Camels are a necessity in East Africa, being as important as ponies are in Mongolia...
was re-founded in mid-April and, in addition to looking for Italians, re-acquired its job of rounding up local bandits.
From British Somaliland, British and Commonwealth forces advanced westward into eastern Ethiopia. In late March, they linked up with advancing forces from the Southern Front around Harar
Harar
Harar is an eastern city in Ethiopia, and the capital of the modern Harari ethno-political division of Ethiopia...
and Diredawa in Ethiopia. The link-up meant that Cunningham's forces could be re-supplied more efficiently through the port of Berbera as they advanced into Ethiopia.
Some Italians, under the orders of Colonel Di Marco, started a guerrilla war
Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia
The Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia was as an armed struggle fought from the summer of 1941 to the autumn of 1943 by remnants of Italian troops in Italian East Africa, following the Italian defeat during the East African Campaign of World War II.-History:...
in the Ogaden
Ogaden
Ogaden is the name of a territory comprising the southeastern portion of the Somali Regional State in Ethiopia. The inhabitants are predominantly ethnic Somali and Muslim. The title "Somali Galbeed", which means "Western Somalia," is often preferred by Somali irredentists.The region, which is...
area that is reported to have lasted until the summer of 1942.
Campaign in Italian Somaliland and southern Ethiopia
Cunningham's forces on the southern front included the South African 1st Division, the 11th African Division, and the 12th African Division (the latter divisions were composed of East African, South AfricaSouth Africa
The Republic of South Africa is a country in southern Africa. Located at the southern tip of Africa, it is divided into nine provinces, with of coastline on the Atlantic and Indian oceans...
n, Nigeria
Nigeria
Nigeria , officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal constitutional republic comprising 36 states and its Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. The country is located in West Africa and shares land borders with the Republic of Benin in the west, Chad and Cameroon in the east, and Niger in...
n, and Ghana
Ghana
Ghana , officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country located in West Africa. It is bordered by Côte d'Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, Togo to the east, and the Gulf of Guinea to the south...
ian troops under British or South African officers). The South African division was led by Major-General George Brink
George Brink
Lieutenant-General George Edwin Brink CB CBE DSO was a South African military commander.In 1913, Brink joined the Union Defence Forces...
. The 11th African Division was commanded by Major-General H. E. de R. Wetherall
Harry Edward de Robillard Wetherall
Lieutenant General Sir Harry Edward de Robillard Wetherall KBE CB DSO MC was an officer in the British Army during World War I and World War II.-Military career:Wetherall was commissioned into the Gloucestershire Regiment in 1909....
. The 12th African Division was commanded by Major-General Reade Godwin-Austen
Alfred Reade Godwin-Austen
General Sir Alfred Reade Godwin-Austen KCSI, CB, OBE, MC was a British Army officer. He served during the First and Second World Wars.-Early life:The second son of Lieutenant-Colonel A. G...
.
Preliminary action in southern Ethiopia
Jubaland
Jubaland , also known as Azania or the Juba Valley and formerly as Trans-Juba , is an autonomous region in southern Somalia. Its eastern border lies 40–60 km east of the Jubba River, stretching from Gedo to the Indian Ocean, while its western side flanks the North Eastern Province in...
Cunningham sent the South African 1st Division (composed of 2nd and 5th South African and 21st East African brigades) and an independent East African brigade into the Galla-Sidamo Province. From 16 January to 18 January 1941, they captured El Yibo and on 19 January, an advance force of the South African division captured Jumbo. From 24 January to 25 January, Cunningham's troops fought on the Turbi Road. His hopes that the Ethiopians would rise up, however, were not realized.
Mega, Ethiopia
Mega is a town in southern Ethiopia. Located between Moyale and Yabelo on the paved highway south to Kenya, in the Borena Zone of the Oromia Region , this town has a latitude and longitude of with an elevation of 1740 meters above sea level...
on 18 February. Moyale, 70 miles southeast of Mega on the border with Kenya, was occupied on 22 February by a patrol of Abyssinian irregular troops which had been attached to the South African Division.
Invasion of Italian Somaliland
On 24 January, Cunningham's main force, including the 11th African Division and the 12th African Division, invaded Italian Somaliland from Kenya. Earlier in January, the Italians had already decided that the plains of Italian Somalia could not be defended. Most of the Italian forces were already being withdrawn to the better defensive terrain of the mountains of Ethiopia. Cunningham encountered few Italians east of the Juba River. Kismayu is located where the Juba River empties into the Indian Ocean.Against an expected six brigades and "six groups of native levies" holding the Juba for the Italians, Cunningham launched Operation Canvas with four brigade group
Brigade group
A brigade group is a term used primarily in armies of the Commonwealth of Nations for an ad hoc arrangement of forces and not a permanent organisation whereas, with a capital G, a Brigade Group is....
s. Little resistance was expected and little was encountered. On 14 February, the first objective, the port of Kismayu
Kismayu
Kismayo or Kismayu is a port city in the Jubbada Hoose province of Somalia. It is the commercial capital of the autonomous Jubaland region....
, was captured. North of Kismayu and beyond the river was the main Italian position, Jelib. On 22 February, Jelib was attacked on both flanks and from the rear. The Italians were completely routed and 30,000 were either killed, captured, or dispersed into the bush. Italian aircraft took no part in the defense having been roughly handled by South African aircraft. There was nothing that now hindered Cunningham's advance of 200 miles to take the capital and major seaport of Italian Somaliland, Mogadishu
Mogadishu
Mogadishu , popularly known as Xamar, is the largest city in Somalia and the nation's capital. Located in the coastal Benadir region on the Indian Ocean, the city has served as an important port for centuries....
.
Mogadishu
On 25 February 1941, the motorized Nigerian Brigade of the 11th African Division advanced up the coast and occupied Mogadishu. Meanwhile, the 12th African Division pushed up the Juba River in Italian Somaliland towards the Ethiopian border town of DoloDolo, Ethiopia
Dolo is a town in southeastern Ethiopia, within 30 kilometers of the Ethiopia-Somalia border. Located in the Liben Zone of the Somali Region, this town has a latitude and longitude of...
.
On 1 March, the 11th African Division began a fighting pursuit of the retreating Italian forces north from Mogadishu. The division pursued the Italians towards the Ogaden Plateau
Ogaden
Ogaden is the name of a territory comprising the southeastern portion of the Somali Regional State in Ethiopia. The inhabitants are predominantly ethnic Somali and Muslim. The title "Somali Galbeed", which means "Western Somalia," is often preferred by Somali irredentists.The region, which is...
. By 17 March, the 11th African Division completed a seventeen day dash along the Italian built "Imperial Road" (Strada Imperiale) from Mogadishu to Jijiga
Jijiga
Jijiga is a city in eastern Ethiopia and the capital of the Somali Region of that country. Located in the Jijiga Zone approximately 80 km east of Harar and 60 km west of the border with Somalia, this city has a latitude and longitude of with an elevation of 1,609 meters above sea...
in eastern Ethiopia,
By early March Cunningham's forces had captured most of Italian Somaliland and were advancing through Ethiopia towards the ultimate objective, Addis Ababa. On 26 March, Harar
Harar
Harar is an eastern city in Ethiopia, and the capital of the modern Harari ethno-political division of Ethiopia...
was captured. On 29 March, Dire Dawa
Dire Dawa
Dire Dawa is one of two chartered cities in Ethiopia . This chartered city is divided administratively into two woredas, the city proper and the non-urban woreda of Gurgura....
fell. During this time there was a link-up with the forces advancing from British Somaliland and Cunningham's supply route became much improved.
The liberation of Addis Ababa
On 6 April 1941, Addis AbabaAddis Ababa
Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia...
was liberated by Cunningham's force. In 53 days, Cunningham had advanced 1725 miles (2,776.1 km) from Kenya to reach the Ethiopian capital. The highly disciplined Police of Italian Africa
Italian Africa Police
The Italian Africa Police , was the Police of "Italian Africa" from 1 June 1936 and 1 December 1941.-Characteristics:...
(Polizia dell'Africa Italiana
Italian Africa Police
The Italian Africa Police , was the Police of "Italian Africa" from 1 June 1936 and 1 December 1941.-Characteristics:...
) stayed in the city to maintain order and keep the peace.
Emperor Haile Selassie made a formal entry to the city on 5 May. This was five years after being forced to flee when the Italians captured his capital on 5 May 1936 during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
The Second Italo–Abyssinian War was a colonial war that started in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war was fought between the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy and the armed forces of the Ethiopian Empire...
. Since then, 5 May has been observed in Ethiopia as Liberation Day
Liberation Day
Liberation Day is a day, often a public holiday, that marks the liberation of a place, similar to an independence day. Liberation marks the date of either a revolution, as in Cuba, or the end of an occupation by another state, thereby differing from independence in the meaning of secession from...
, a national holiday.
On 13 April, Cunningham sent a force under Brigadier Dan Pienaar
Dan Pienaar
Major General Daniel Hermanus Pienaar CB, DSO & Bar was a South African World War II military commander.Pienaar joined the artillery branch of the Natal Police in 1911, and transferred to the Union Defence Forces when they took over the NP in 1913...
comprising 1st South African Brigade and Campbell's Scouts (Ethiopian irregulars led by a British officer) to continue the northward advance and link up with Platt's forces advancing south.
On April 20, after a rough battle, Pienaar's force captured Dessie
Dessie
Dessie is a city and a woreda in north-central Ethiopia. Located on the Addis Ababa - Asmara highway in the Debub Wollo Zone of the Amhara Region, this city has a latitude and longitude of with an elevation between 2,470 and 2,550 meters above sea level.Dessie has postal service , and telephone...
on the main road north from Addis Ababa to Asmara. Pienaar was some 200 miles (321.9 km) south of Platt's forces gathering at Amba Alagi.
Amba Alagi
Wavell's strategic priority was for Platt to push southwards from the Sudan to Addis Ababa and for him to meet up with Cunningham pushing northwards from Kenya. A major obstacle for Platt was located at Amba AlagiAmba Alagi
Amba Alagi is a mountain, or an amba, in northern Ethiopia. Located in the Debubawi Zone of the Tigray Region, Amba Alagi dominates the roadway that runs past it from the city of Mek'ele south to Maychew. Because of its strategic location, Amba Alagi has been the location of several battles...
, a 12000 feet (3,657.6 m) high mountain between Asmara and Addis Ababa.
The Italians decided to defend the area around Amba Alagi in force. They drove galleries into the solid rock to protect their troops and to hold ample ammunition and stores. In this mountain fortress, the defenders, under command of the Duke of Aosta, thought themselves to be impregnable.
Platt gave newly promoted Major-General Mosley Mayne
Mosley Mayne
General Sir Ashton Gerard Oswald Mosley Mayne GCB, CBE, DSO was a British Indian Army officer in both World War I and World War II.-Early career:...
and the Indian 5th Infantry Division
Indian 5th Infantry Division
Indian 5th Infantry Division was an infantry division in the Indian Army during World War II which fought in several theatres of war and more than earned its nickname the "Ball of Fire".- History :...
the task of taking Amba Alagi. Mayne was only able to deploy a single expanded brigade, the Indian 29th Infantry Brigade, for this action. His attacking force was therefore inferior in numbers to the Italian defending force. Mayne's limited deployment was due to the demands on the British for internal security and for protecting their lines of communication. The supply route to Amba Alagi extended nearly 250 miles (402.3 km) south of Asmara and some 400 miles (643.7 km) from the main rail head at Kassala.
On 3 May 1941, Mayne sent in a feint attack from the east while, in the early hours of 4 May, the main attack was made from the northwest over the hills. The hills were fiercely defended by the Italians. On 11 May, Pienaar's brigade group arrived from the south and was put under Mayne's command. By 14 May Amba Alagi was surrounded. With the arrival of Pienaar, the 7000 Italian troops of the Duke of Aosta were directly attacked by 9000 British troops and more than 20000 Ethiopian irregulars.
A final assault was planned for 15 May, but a fortuitous artillery shell hit an Italian fuel dump and ruptured a vessel containing oil. This caused oil to flow into the remaining drinking water of the Italian defenders. The lack of drinkable water then forced the Italians to surrender.
On 18 May, the Duke of Aosta surrendered his embattled forces at Amba Alagi. General Mayne agreed to a surrender with "full military honors" (allowing the troops to march off the battlefield in formation and then surrender their arms) in exchange for the Duke's agreement to hand over the battlefield 'clean'. This put the Duke on his honour to identify all mines and booby-traps to the troops taking over the area and included his agreement that the Italians' remaining equipment and stores should not be sabotaged or destroyed. Mayne later wrote While the Duke of Aosta faced defeat in East Africa, his brother, the Duke of Spoleto
Tomislav II of Croatia, 4th Duke of Aosta
Prince Aimone of Savoy-Aosta, Duke of Aosta was an Italian prince from the House of Savoy and an officer of the Royal Italian Navy. The second son of Prince Emanuele Filiberto, Duke of Aosta he was granted the title Duke of Spoleto on 22 September 1904...
was being made the King of Croatia after the successful invasion of Yugoslavia
Invasion of Yugoslavia
The Invasion of Yugoslavia , also known as the April War , was the Axis Powers' attack on the Kingdom of Yugoslavia which began on 6 April 1941 during World War II...
.
The Duke of Aosta had endured the last months of fighting while suffering a severe attack of malaria
Malaria
Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease of humans and other animals caused by eukaryotic protists of the genus Plasmodium. The disease results from the multiplication of Plasmodium parasites within red blood cells, causing symptoms that typically include fever and headache, in severe cases...
(and died of malaria and Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis, MTB, or TB is a common, and in many cases lethal, infectious disease caused by various strains of mycobacteria, usually Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Tuberculosis usually attacks the lungs but can also affect other parts of the body...
a few months later).
The campaign in Italian East Africa
Italian East Africa
Italian East Africa was an Italian colonial administrative subdivision established in 1936, resulting from the merger of the Ethiopian Empire with the old colonies of Italian Somaliland and Italian Eritrea. In August 1940, British Somaliland was conquered and annexed to Italian East Africa...
was all but over.
Italian last stands
In spite of the Duke of Aosta's surrender at Amba Alagi on 18 May 1941, some Italian forces continued to hold out. The port city of AssabAssab
Assab is a port city in the Southern Red Sea Region of Eritrea on the west coast of the Red Sea. In 1989, it had a population of 39,600. Assab possesses an oil refinery, which was shut down in 1997 for economic reasons...
and the strongholds of Gondar
Gondar
Gondar or Gonder is a city in Ethiopia, which was once the old imperial capital and capital of the historic Begemder Province. As a result, the old province of Begemder is sometimes referred to as Gondar...
and Jimma
Jimma
Jimma, also Jima, is the largest city in southwestern Ethiopia. Located in the Jimma Zone of the Oromia Region, it has a latitude and longitude of . The town was the capital of Kaffa Province until the province was dissolved. Prior to the 2007 census, Jimma was reorganized administratively as a...
remained under Italian control. Both Gondar and Jimma started with garrisons of roughly 40,000 men.
Assab
On 10 June, Operation Chronometer was launched and a battalion from the Indian ArmyIndian Army
The Indian Army is the land based branch and the largest component of the Indian Armed Forces. With about 1,100,000 soldiers in active service and about 1,150,000 reserve troops, the Indian Army is the world's largest standing volunteer army...
was landed at Assab, the last Italian-held harbour on the Red Sea
Red Sea
The Red Sea is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait and the Gulf of Aden. In the north, there is the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez...
. By 11 June, Assab had fallen. On 13 June, two days after the fall, the Indian trawler "Parvati" became the last naval casualty of the campaign when it struck a magnetic mine near Assab.
Jimma
An Italian force under General Pietro GazzeraPietro Gazzera
Pietro Gazzera was an officer in the Italian Royal Army during World War II, as well as a prewar Italian politician....
, the Governor of Galla-Sidama
Sidamo Province
Sidamo was a province in the southern part of Ethiopia, with its capital city at Irgalem, and after 1978 at Awasa. It was named after an ethnic group native to Ethiopia, called the Sidamo, or more particularly, Sidama, who are located in the south-central part of that country...
and the new acting Viceroy and Governor-General of Italian East Africa, continued to resist at Jimma in southwest Ethiopia. Gazzera had replaced the Duke of Aosta as Viceroy and Governor-General of Italian East Africa.
However, even before Cunningham moved against him, Gazzera was faced with a growing irregular force of Ethiopian patriots (or Arbegnoch). Many of his units started to melt away. His colonial troops were especially prone to defection. On 21 June 1941, Gazzera abandoned Jimma where about 15,000 of what was left of his command surrendered. On July 3, Gazzera and his last 7,000 men surrendered when they were cut off by Belgian Major-General Auguste-Éduard Gilliaert
Auguste-Éduard Gilliaert
Auguste Gilliaert was an officer in the Belgian Army during World War II.Lieutenant-General Gilliaert was the commander of the "Belgian Expeditionary Forces" in East Africa during the East African Campaign...
, the commander of the Free Belgian Forces
Free Belgian Forces
The Free Belgian Forces were members of the Belgian armed forces in World War II who continued fighting against the Axis after the surrender of Belgium and its subsequent occupation by the Germans...
in East Africa.
On 28 September, the 3000 man garrison of Wolchefit Pass surrendered to the King's African Rifles
King's African Rifles
The King's African Rifles was a multi-battalion British colonial regiment raised from the various British possessions in East Africa from 1902 until independence in the 1960s. It performed both military and internal security functions within the East African colonies as well as external service as...
.
Gondar
The force at Gondar, under General Guglielmo NasiGuglielmo Nasi
Guglielmo Ciro Nasi was an Italian General who fought in Italian East Africa during World War II.-Biography:Nasi was born in Civitavecchia, Latium...
, the acting Governor of Amhara, held out for almost seven months. Gondar was the capital of Begemder
Begemder
Begemder was a province in the northwestern part of Ethiopia. There are several proposed etymologies for this name...
Province in northwest Ethiopia, about 120 miles (193.1 km) west of Amba Alagi. After General Gazzera surrendered, Nasi became the new acting Viceroy and Governor-General of Italian East Africa. But, like Gazzera, Nasi faced not just conventional forces (from Platt's command), but also an ever increasing force of Ethiopian patriots.
While the Italian Royal Air Force (Regia Aeronautica
Regia Aeronautica
The Italian Royal Air Force was the name of the air force of the Kingdom of Italy. It was established as a service independent of the Royal Italian Army from 1923 until 1946...
) in East Africa had been worn down quickly by a lop-sided war of attrition, the Italian pilots held on to the bitter end. On 24 October 1941, the last Italian aircraft of the campaign was shot down.
On 27 November 1941 General Nasi and his last 23,500 men surrendered Gondar to a combined force of British and Commonwealth troops and a force of Ethiopians. The Italians received full military honors.
Aftermath
With the Red SeaRed Sea
The Red Sea is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait and the Gulf of Aden. In the north, there is the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez...
and Gulf of Aden
Gulf of Aden
The Gulf of Aden is located in the Arabian Sea between Yemen, on the south coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and Somalia in the Horn of Africa. In the northwest, it connects with the Red Sea through the Bab-el-Mandeb strait, which is about 20 miles wide....
coastlines cleared of Axis forces, U.S. President
President of the United States
The President of the United States of America is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces....
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Franklin Delano Roosevelt , also known by his initials, FDR, was the 32nd President of the United States and a central figure in world events during the mid-20th century, leading the United States during a time of worldwide economic crisis and world war...
was able to declare that these areas were no longer combat zones. As a result, ships of the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
were able to proceed to the Suez Canal
Suez Canal
The Suez Canal , also known by the nickname "The Highway to India", is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows water transportation between Europe and Asia without navigation...
. This helped to relieve the enormous strain on the shipping resources of the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
. It was only at the end of 1941, once the US entered the war against the Axis powers, that the combat zone requirement lost its significance.
Ethiopia
Ethiopia was administered by the United Kingdom as a United Nations Trust TerritoryUnited Nations Trust Territories
United Nations trust territories were the successors of the remaining League of Nations mandates and came into being when the League of Nations ceased to exist in 1946. All of the trust territories were administered through the UN Trusteeship Council...
until 1944. In January 1942, with the final official surrender of the Italians, the British, under pressure from the American administration, signed an interim Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement
Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement
The Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement was a joint effort between Ethiopia and the United Kingdom at reestablishing Ethiopian independent statehood following the ousting of Italian troops by combined British and Ethiopian forces in 1941 during World War II....
with Emperor
Emperor of Ethiopia
The Emperor of Ethiopia was the hereditary ruler of Ethiopia until the abolition of the monarchy in 1974. The Emperor was the head of state and head of government, with ultimate executive, judicial and legislative power in that country...
Haile Selassie I
Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia
Haile Selassie I , born Tafari Makonnen, was Ethiopia's regent from 1916 to 1930 and Emperor of Ethiopia from 1930 to 1974...
acknowledging Ethiopian sovereignty. Makonnen Endelkachew
Makonnen Endelkachew
Ras Betwoded Makonnen Endelkachew was an Ethiopian aristocrat and Prime Minister under Emperor Haile Selassie. Makonnen was born in Addisge, the nephew of the noted Shewan general and politician Ras Betwoded Tessema Nadew, who introduced him to Emperor Menilek II...
was named as Prime Minister
Prime minister
A prime minister is the most senior minister of cabinet in the executive branch of government in a parliamentary system. In many systems, the prime minister selects and may dismiss other members of the cabinet, and allocates posts to members within the government. In most systems, the prime...
. On December 19, 1944, the final Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement
Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement
The Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement was a joint effort between Ethiopia and the United Kingdom at reestablishing Ethiopian independent statehood following the ousting of Italian troops by combined British and Ethiopian forces in 1941 during World War II....
was signed. Selassie reigned until 1974 when the monarchy was abolished by the Derg
Derg
The Derg or Dergue was a Communist military junta that came to power in Ethiopia following the ousting of Haile Selassie I. Derg, which means "committee" or "council" in Ge'ez, is the short name of the Coordinating Committee of the Armed Forces, Police, and Territorial Army, a committee of...
. Since about 1994, the country has been known as the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia.
Eritrea
The Italian colony of EritreaEritrea
Eritrea , officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in the Horn of Africa. Eritrea derives it's name from the Greek word Erethria, meaning 'red land'. The capital is Asmara. It is bordered by Sudan in the west, Ethiopia in the south, and Djibouti in the southeast...
was placed under British military administration for the remainder of World War II. In 1950, Eritrea was made part of Ethiopia. The unification of Eritrea and Ethiopia proved to be unacceptable to the Eritreans and led to the Eritrean War of Independence
Eritrean War of Independence
The Eritrean War of Independence was a conflict fought between the Ethiopian government and Eritrean separatists, both before and during the Ethiopian Civil War. The war started when Eritrea’s autonomy within Ethiopia, where troops were already stationed, was unilaterally revoked...
. The unification ended in the early 1990s. Eritrea became independent on a de facto
De facto
De facto is a Latin expression that means "concerning fact." In law, it often means "in practice but not necessarily ordained by law" or "in practice or actuality, but not officially established." It is commonly used in contrast to de jure when referring to matters of law, governance, or...
basis in 1991. Eritrea was recognized as being independent de jure
De jure
De jure is an expression that means "concerning law", as contrasted with de facto, which means "concerning fact".De jure = 'Legally', De facto = 'In fact'....
in 1993.
Somalia
Italian SomalilandItalian Somaliland
Italian Somaliland , also known as Italian Somalia, was a colony of the Kingdom of Italy from the 1880s until 1936 in the region of modern-day Somalia. Ruled in the 19th century by the Somali Sultanate of Hobyo and the Majeerteen Sultanate, the territory was later acquired by Italy through various...
was placed under British military administration for the remainder of the war. In 1948, it was decided that the Ogaden
Ogaden
Ogaden is the name of a territory comprising the southeastern portion of the Somali Regional State in Ethiopia. The inhabitants are predominantly ethnic Somali and Muslim. The title "Somali Galbeed", which means "Western Somalia," is often preferred by Somali irredentists.The region, which is...
border region would be awarded to Ethiopia. In 1949, the United Nations
United Nations
The United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace...
brought the Italians back to administer Somalia for ten years. In 1960, what had been Italian Somaliland became independent. Days after becoming independent, Italian Somaliland joined with what had been British Somaliland to create the independent state known as the Somali Republic
Somalia
Somalia , officially the Somali Republic and formerly known as the Somali Democratic Republic under Socialist rule, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. Since the outbreak of the Somali Civil War in 1991 there has been no central government control over most of the country's territory...
.
French Somaliland
After the British and Commonwealth forces occupied Italian East Africa, the Vichy forces in French SomalilandDjibouti
Djibouti , officially the Republic of Djibouti , is a country in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Eritrea in the north, Ethiopia in the west and south, and Somalia in the southeast. The remainder of the border is formed by the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden at the east...
were isolated. Instead of blockading the port, the Royal Navy scrupulously allowed Vichy ships to supply Djibouti's garrison, ensuring the area remain in passive obedience to Vichy, but also forestalling, to Free French consternation, a spontaneous rallying of the isolated garrison to de Gaulle's forces. The Vichy French continued to hold the colony after the Italian collapse until in October of 1941, after a 101-day British blockade, French Somaliland fell. Free French and Allied forces then occupied the French colony.
A local battalion from French Somaliland participated in the liberation of France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
in 1944.
In 1977, French Somaliland became independent as the Republic of Djibouti
Djibouti
Djibouti , officially the Republic of Djibouti , is a country in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Eritrea in the north, Ethiopia in the west and south, and Somalia in the southeast. The remainder of the border is formed by the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden at the east...
.
Italian guerrilla actions, 1941-1943
Between November 1941 and September 1943, scattered Italian units (totalling an estimated 7,000 men) fought a guerrilla war from the deserts of Eritrea and Somalia to the forests and mountains of Ethiopia. They supposedly did so in the hope of holding out until the Germans and Italians in Egypt (or even possibly the Japanese in India) intervened.Amedeo Guillet
Amedeo Guillet
Amedeo Guillet was an officer of the Italian Army. He was born in Piacenza. Descended from a noble family from Piedmont and Capua, he graduated from the Academy of Infantry and Cavalry of Modena in 1930 and began his career in the Italian Army. Dying at the age of 101, he was one of the last men...
was one of the Italian officers who fought with the Italian guerrillas in Ethiopia
Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia
The Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia was as an armed struggle fought from the summer of 1941 to the autumn of 1943 by remnants of Italian troops in Italian East Africa, following the Italian defeat during the East African Campaign of World War II.-History:...
. Other Italian officers were Captain Francesco De Martini
Francesco De Martini
Francesco De Martini was an Italian captain of the Military Information Service in Eritrea, when the Allies invaded the Italian East Africa during World War II.-Historical background:...
in Eritrea, Colonel Calderari in western Ethiopia/Somalia, Colonel Di Marco in Ogaden/British Somaliland, "blackshirt centurion" De Varda in Somalia/Ethiopia and Major Lucchetti in Ethiopia.
The Italian guerrilla war was even waged by civilians. In August 1942, Dr. Rosa Dainelli
Rosa Dainelli
Rosa Dainelli was an Italian doctor who was working in Ethiopia during World War II, when the British conquered the Italian Empire in the Horn of Africa...
successfully sabotaged the main British ammunition dump in Addis Ababa
Addis Ababa
Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia...
.
Hostilities in East Africa officially ceased on September 9, 1943 when the Italian government signed an Armistice with the Allies
Armistice with Italy
The Armistice with Italy was an armistice signed on September 3 and publicly declared on September 8, 1943, during World War II, between Italy and the Allied armed forces, who were then occupying the southern end of the country, entailing the capitulation of Italy...
, but even then some Italian soldiers continued their guerrilla war until October 1943, being unaware of the Italian armistice.
Victoria Cross recipients
The following is a list of recipients of the Victoria CrossVictoria Cross
The Victoria Cross is the highest military decoration awarded for valour "in the face of the enemy" to members of the armed forces of various Commonwealth countries, and previous British Empire territories....
(VC) during this campaign:
- Eric Charles Twelves WilsonEric Charles Twelves WilsonLieutenant Colonel Eric Charles Twelves Wilson VC was an English recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces.-Early life:Wilson was born at Sandown, Isle of Wight, and was...
(Somaliland Camel Corps) - Received during the Italian invasion of British Somaliland - Premindra Singh BhagatPremindra Singh BhagatLieutenant General Premindra Singh Bhagat VC, PVSM was an officer in the Indian Army during World War II and a recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces, and the PVSM,...
- Received during fighting on the Northern Front - Richhpal RamRichhpal RamRichhpal Ram VC was an Indian recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces.-His family:...
- Received during fighting on the Northern Front - Nigel Gray LeakeyNigel Gray LeakeyNigel Gray Leakey VC was a Kenyan recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces.-Details:...
(cousin of Louis LeakeyLouis LeakeyLouis Seymour Bazett Leakey was a British archaeologist and naturalist whose work was important in establishing human evolutionary development in Africa. He also played a major role in creating organizations for future research in Africa and for protecting wildlife there...
and sergeant in the 1/6 Battalion King's African Rifles) - Received during fighting on the Southern Front
See also
- Italian guerrilla war in EthiopiaItalian guerrilla war in EthiopiaThe Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia was as an armed struggle fought from the summer of 1941 to the autumn of 1943 by remnants of Italian troops in Italian East Africa, following the Italian defeat during the East African Campaign of World War II.-History:...
- Military history of EthiopiaMilitary history of EthiopiaThe Military history of Ethiopia dates back to the formation of the modern nation in 980 BC. Ethiopia has been involved in most major conflicts in the African region.-First Italo-Abyssinian War:...
- Military production during World War IIMilitary production during World War IIMilitary production during World War II was a critical component to military performance during WWII. Over the course of the war, the Allied countries outproduced the Axis countries in most categories of weapons.-Gross domestic product :...
- Military history of Italy during World War IIMilitary history of Italy during World War IIDuring World War II , the Kingdom of Italy had a varied and tumultuous military history. Defeated in Greece, France, East Africa and North Africa, the Italian invasion of British Somaliland was one of the only successful Italian campaigns of World War II accomplished without German support.In...
- North African campaignNorth African campaignDuring the Second World War, the North African Campaign took place in North Africa from 10 June 1940 to 13 May 1943. It included campaigns fought in the Libyan and Egyptian deserts and in Morocco and Algeria and Tunisia .The campaign was fought between the Allies and Axis powers, many of whom had...
- Western Desert CampaignWestern Desert CampaignThe Western Desert Campaign, also known as the Desert War, was the initial stage of the North African Campaign during the Second World War. The campaign was heavily influenced by the availability of supplies and transport. The ability of the Allied forces, operating from besieged Malta, to...
- Syria-Lebanon campaignSyria-Lebanon campaignThe Syria–Lebanon campaign, also known as Operation Exporter, was the Allied invasion of Vichy French-controlled Syria and Lebanon, in June–July 1941, during World War II. Time Magazine referred to the fighting as a "mixed show" while it was taking place and the campaign remains little known, even...
- West Africa Campaign (World War II)West Africa Campaign (World War II)The name West African campaign refers to two battles during World War II: the Battle of Dakar and the Battle of Gabon, both of which took place in late 1940...
- Battle of MadagascarBattle of MadagascarThe Battle of Madagascar was the Allied campaign to capture Vichy-French-controlled Madagascar during World War II. It began on 5 May 1942. Fighting did not cease until 6 November.-Geo-political:...
- László AlmásyLászló AlmásyLászló Ede Almásy de Zsadány et Törökszentmiklós was a Hungarian aristocrat, motorist, desert researcher, aviator, Scout-leader and soldier who also served as the basis for the protagonist in Michael Ondaatje's 1992 novel The English Patient and the movie based on it.-Biography:Almásy was born in...
- Battle of Kufra (1941)Battle of Kufra (1941)The Battle of Kufra was part of the World War II Allies Western Desert Campaign in the colony of Italian Libya, in the Libyan Desert of present day southeastern Libya...
- German Motorized CompanyGerman Motorized CompanyThe German Motorized Company was a light infantry company formed by the Italians during the East African Campaign during World War II.- Service history :...
- MVSN Colonial MilitiaMVSN Colonial MilitiaMVSN Colonial Militia were colonial military units of the Italian Fascist MVSN organization based in the Italian African colonial possessions of Italian North Africa , and in Italian East Africa...
- South African Irish RegimentSouth African Irish RegimentThe South African Irish Regiment is an infantry regiment of the South African Army. As a reserve unit, it has a status roughly equivalent to that of a British Territorial Army or United States Army National Guard unit.-Origins:...
- 81st (West Africa) Division81st (West Africa) DivisionThe 81st Division was formed under British control during World War II. It took part in the Burma Campaign.-History:The inspiration for the division's formation came from General George Giffard, commander of the British Army's West Africa Command, who subsequently commanded India Command's Eastern...
- 82nd (West Africa) Division82nd (West Africa) DivisionThe 82nd Division was formed under British control during World War II. It took part in the later stages of the Burma Campaign and was disbanded in Burma between May and September 1946.-Formation:...
- Colonial heads of Italian East AfricaColonial heads of Italian East AfricaThe following is a list of colonial heads of Italian East Africa, an Italian dominion from 1936 to 1941....
- Ethiopian aristocratic and court titlesEthiopian aristocratic and court titlesUntil the end of the monarchy in 1974, there were two categories of nobility in Ethiopia: the Mesafint or princes, hereditary nobles, formed the upper echelon of the ruling class; while the Mekwanint were the appointed nobles, often of humble birth, who formed the bulk of the nobility...
- dubatsDubatsDubats was the designation given to armed irregular bands employed by the Italian Regio Corpo Truppe Coloniali in Italian Somaliland from 1924 to 1941...
(Somali irregular units in Italian colonial forces) - ZaptieZaptiéZaptié was the designation given to locally raised gendarmerie units in the Italian colonies of Tripolitania, Cyrenaica, Eritrea and Italian Somaliland between 1889 and 1942....
(Locally raised gendarmerie units in the Italian colonies ) - East African Campaign (World War I)East African Campaign (World War I)The East African Campaign was a series of battles and guerrilla actions which started in German East Africa and ultimately affected portions of Mozambique, Northern Rhodesia, British East Africa, Uganda, and the Belgian Congo. The campaign was effectively ended in November 1917...
- Italian EmpireItalian EmpireThe Italian Empire was created after the Kingdom of Italy joined other European powers in establishing colonies overseas during the "scramble for Africa". Modern Italy as a unified state only existed from 1861. By this time France, Spain, Portugal, Britain, and the Netherlands, had already carved...
- Armoured car regimentArmoured car regimentArmoured Car Regiments were reconnaissance units employed by the British Army during the 20th century. The primary equipment of these units was the armoured car with many different types of armoured cars serving in the regiments during the Second World War and the Cold War. An armoured car...
- 1st Infantry Division (South Africa)
External links
published in a Supplement to the London GazetteLondon Gazette
The London Gazette is one of the official journals of record of the British government, and the most important among such official journals in the United Kingdom, in which certain statutory notices are required to be published...
Issue #37645 on 10 July 1946
- Italian East African Armed Forces, 10 June 1940
- 1940 Colonial Brigade, 10 June 1940 Italian colonial Brigades
- Italian East Africa Air Command, 10 June 1940
- Somalihome Online — The Invasion of British Somaliland
- BBC — WW2 People's War: East African Campaign
- Stone & Stone: The Invasion of British Somaliland
- Battlefront
- Photos of the italian conquest of Somaliland (and the war in A.O.I.)
- Regia Marina - The Italian Royal Navy
- Comando Supremo Italy at War — The Italian War Effort 1940-1945
- The Best of Enemies - 1962 film about the East African Campaign
- Ascari: I Leoni di Eritrea/Ascari: The Eritrean Lions. Eritrea colonial history, Eritrean ascari pictures/photos galleries and videos, historical atlas (in Italian)...
- British Military History - East Africa 1940 - 47