History of Cumbria
Encyclopedia
The history of Cumbria
as a county of England
begins with the Local Government Act 1972
. Its territory and constituent parts however have a long history under various other administrative
and historic
units of governance. Long existing as an upland, coastal and rural area, Cumbria's heritage is characterised by a broad number of invasions, migration and settlement, as well as battles and skirmishes between the English
and Scottish
.
of Cumberland
, Westmorland
, Lancashire
North of the Sands and a small part of Yorkshire
, but the human history of the area is ancient. The region is a country of contrasts, with its mountainous central region and famous lakes, its fertile coastal plains in the north and its gently undulating hills in the south. It is a place of rock and water, and it seems to be this unique identity that has been the key to the area's popularity for millennia.
In the 21st century Cumbria relies upon tourism and farming as an economic base, but almost since humans first arrived here, industry has also played a vital role in the area's fortunes. The region might have enjoyed far greater prosperity were it not for its politico-geographical position: its proximity to Scotland has meant that for much of its history Cumbria has been disputed land between the Scots and the English, and has acted as a buffer-zone to protect the wealthier south from harassment. Raids from Scotland were a frequent part of Cumbrian life until the Acts of Union 1707
and the large area of coastline also meant vulnerability from Irish and Norse raids.
The character of Cumbria is therefore undoubtedly one of isolation. Until the coming of the railway, much of the region would have been difficult to reach and even today there are routes which make most motorists a little nervous. (In the harsher winter months, many of the central valleys are cut off from the outside world.) This made the area something of a refuge for dispossessed peoples, which may well account for the popular conception of Cumbria as a provincial backwater; quaint and archaic. The Brythonic Celts managed to cling on in enclaves until around the 10th century, long after much of England was essentially 'English', and the Norse retained a distinct identity well into the Middle Ages
. After that Cumbria remained somewhat a 'no mans' land' between Scotland and England, which meant that the traditional Cumbrian identity was neither English nor Scottish.
Since the act of union, the border areas have become more firmly English or Scottish. Whilst Cumbrians are generally hospitable to guests, it is also well known that they have an uncertain attitude to offcomers
.
Until around 13,000 years ago, Cumbria would have been uninhabitable because it would have been completely covered with thick ice sheets, which were largely responsible for carving out the mountains and valleys of the Lake District
.
Although evidence has been put forward for Upper Paleolithic
habitation in the south of the county, it is generally accepted by archeologists that the earliest inhabitants of Cumbria would have arrived during the Mesolithic
era, after 10,000 years ago. It is thought that settlers would have made their way across Morecambe Bay
and along the fertile coast where resources could have been exploited with ease. At this time the upland central region of the county would probably have been heavily forested and very dangerous. Large Mesolithic flint-chipping sites, where flints washed up from the Irish Sea
would have been worked into tools, have been found at Eskmeals, near Ravenglass
on the west coast and at Walney in the south.
activity than any time before. This was a time of technological advancement and national population expansion. At some point, the mesolithic coastal communities must have moved further inland, probably following rivers along valley corridors into the heart of Lakeland
.
The most famous and important Neolithic activity in Cumbria is the so-called 'Langdale Axe Factory'
, which created many thousands of axe heads from the green volcanic tuff
found on the Pike O'Stickle
from around 6000 BC. The axe heads were not merely for local practical use; they have been found all over the United Kingdom
from Norfolk
to Northern Ireland
, and seem to have often been used for ceremonial or ritual purposes. Clearly the green rock created a sense of mystery and magic in the Neolithic mind.
Also at this time, possibly because of the economic power created by the Axe Factory, stone circles and henges began to be constructed across the county. Neolithic examples include the impressive henge at Mayburgh
, near Penrith
, and a partly destroyed one at nearby King Arthur's Round Table
as well as the famous Castlerigg Stone Circle
above Keswick
. It's also possible that the megalith Long Meg
was erected at this time.
By the Bronze Age
, settlements in Cumbria are likely to have taken a much more permanent form. Bronze Age artefacts have been uncovered throughout the county, including several bronze axe heads around Kendal
and Levens
, an axe and a sword at Gleaston
, an intriguing carved granite ball discovered near Carlisle and part of a gold necklace believed to be from France
or Ireland
found at Greysouthen
. A timber palisade has also been discovered at High Crosby near Carlisle.
Ritual or 'religious' sites can be seen across the county and are often clearly visible. Cairns and round barrows can be found throughout the area and a cemetery has been discovered near Allithwaite
. More impressive remains include stone circles, such as Birkrigg stone circle
, Long Meg and Her Daughters
, Swinside
, Little Meg
and several others.
is generally characterised by the arrival of Celt
ic culture - including certain art forms and languages - as well as the obvious increase in the production of iron. During this time the people of Great Britain
and Ireland
were divided into various tribes. In Cumbria the Carvetii
dominated most of the county for a time whilst the Setantii
were present in the south, until both were incorporated into the vast Brigantes
which ruled most of northern England. They would have spoken the ancient British language of Brythonic, the predecessor of modern Welsh
, and were probably responsible for naming some of the county's most notable topographical features such as its rivers (e.g. Kent, Eden, Cocker, Levens) and mountains (e.g. Blencathra).
There are many remains of Iron Age settlement in Cumbria, including hill forts such as those at Maiden Castle and Dunmallard Hill and many hundreds of smaller settlements and field systems. In the 18th century a beautiful iron sword with a bronze scabbard, dating to around 50 BC, was found at Embleton near Cockermouth
and is now in the British Museum
.
in AD 43 the territory of the Brigantes
remained independent of Roman rule for some time. At that time the leader of the Brigantes was the queen Cartimandua
, of illustrious birth, whose husband Venutius
is believed to have been a Carvetian
and may therefore be responsible for the incorporation of Cumbria into the Brigantian federation.
Despite retaining their independence, Cartimandua and Venutius were loyal to the Romans and in return were offered protection by their Imperial neighbours. But the royal couple were divorced and Venutius led two rebellions against his ex-wife. The first, in the 50's AD, was successfully quashed by the Romans but the second, in 69 AD, came at a time of political instability in the Empire and resulted in the Romans evacutating Cartimandua and leaving Venutius to reign over the Brigantes.
Two years later the Roman conquest of the Brigantes began, but appears to have lasted for several decades. In 78 AD Agricola
managed to push north from Deva (Chester
) to Carlisle and placed garrisons between the Solway Firth
and the River Tyne
, consolidating his gains over the following two years. Despite the Romans managing to occupy the region and make allegiances with the Brigantes, the troubles seem to have continued until at least the 140's AD when they were said to have been defeated in an unprovoked war by Emperor Antonius Pius.
Although not attested by any literary source, evidence from inscriptions suggests that under Roman rule most of the area of what is now Cumbria formed a civitas
of the Carvetii
separate from that of the Brigantes
. Its administrative capital is presumed to have been Luguvalium
(Carlisle), the only walled town known in the region.
The impression left upon Cumbria by the Roman occupation can hardly be understated. From around the 120's AD a system of roads was built across the county, including the aptly named High Street
which runs across the eastern fells from the Roman fort Brocavum at Brougham
to Galava near Ambleside
. The roads were a vital means of communication across the mountains and moors of the county, connecting the many forts, such as the one at Hardknott
with the sea ports at Ravenglass
and Maryport
, the important settlement of Luguvalium
at Carlisle and, of course, Hadrian's Wall
.
Building of Hadrian's Wall
along the line of Agricola's earlier garrison
s was begun in 122 AD and was completed in less than ten years, such was the efficiency of the Roman military. For Hadrian's Wall in the west of England, originally "turf and timber were preferred on the Solway plain, where stone is scarce". It ran from Bowness on Solway on the Solway Firth across the north of the county and through Northumberland
to Wallsend
on the Tyne estuary and was created on the orders of emperor Hadrian
as an attempt to create a solid northern frontier to the Roman Empire and keep the Brigantes and neighbouring Scotti
under control.
Only twenty years after Hadrian's Wall was started, Antonius Pius almost abandoned it, turning his attentions to his own frontier fortification the Antonine Wall
in Scotland. But Antonius' attempts to exert control in the far north failed and he returned to Hadrian's Wall in 164 AD, after which garrisons were retained until the onset of the 5th century.
There are several forts and milecastles along Cumbrian half of the wall, the largest or which is Birdoswald.
It is difficult to assess the long-term effects that the Roman occupation had on the native inhabitants of Cumbria. Everyone would certainly have been aware of their arrival in the area, and their final departure, but the locals were left much more up to their own devices than those in the south of England. No doubt there would have been some Romanisation of the local culture, specifically among the governing élites who worked closely with the Roman military. The local dialect
word eglus, meaning a church, has survived from Roman times, having been incorporated into the Brythonic language from the Latin
ecclesia, showing not only an acceptance of Roman culture among the locals, but also the original introduction of Christianity
to the region.
Even before the Romans left Britain, it appears that Coel Hen was an important figure in the Roman province of Northern Britain, which covered everything between the River Humber and the River Tweed
. It is thought by some that he may have been the last of the Duces Brittanniarum and as such would have commanded the army in this region. After the withdrawal, Coel Hen became the High King of Northern Britain (in the same vein as the Irish Ard Rí) and ruled from Eburacum (now York
).
Following Coel Hen's death, his kingdom was continually divided among his descendants until, in the 6th century Urien is recorded as the king of a land called Rheged
, which is thought to have been centred on modern Cumbria but also included large parts of Dumfriesshire
, Lancashire
and Yorkshire
. The Kingdom was based at Llwyfenydd, believed to be what is now the Lyvennet Beck, a tributary of the River Eden
in east Cumbria. The little that is known about Rheged and its kings comes from the poems of Taliesin
, who was bard to Urien. It is known that under Urien's leadership, the kings of the north fought against the encroaching Angles and that he was betrayed by one of his own allies, Morcant Bulc, who arranged his assassination after the battle of Ynys Metcaut (Lindisfarne
) around 585 AD.
Unfortunately the lack of documentary or even archaeological evidence from this period of Cumbria's history has meant that history and legend have become hopelessly intertwined and the fragments of certainty have become the basis of local myth. One of Cumbria's greatest heroes is Urien Rheged's son, Owain
(usually Ewain in Cumbria), who is supposed to have lived at Castle Hewen, believed to be a Romano-British hillfort south of Carlisle.
As with many other areas with Celtic connections, there are a number of Arthurian legends associated with Cumbria. Arthur's father, Uther Pendragon
is supposed to have live at Pendragon Castle, high in the upper Eden Valley, although the castle itself is probably 12th century and was originally called Mallerstang Castle. It is also believed that Arthur's famous last Battle of Camlann in which he was fatally wounded was fought in the vicinity of Birdoswald, whose Roman named was Camboglanna. More popular in local legend are associations with Arthur's knight Lancelot
, who is believed to have been from Tarn Wadling, now a dried up lake near High Hesket (and overlooked by Owain map Urien's Castle Hewen). Even King Arthur's Round Table, a massive earthwork near Penrith, has no actual associations with Arthur but is said to have been a duelling ground for Lancelot. Finally, the Roman Bath-house at Ravenglass, known locally as Walls Castle, is thought to be the Arthurian Lyons Garde.
One aspect of the sub-Roman period
in Cumbria that can be assumed with a little more certainty is the early establishment of Christianity. A number of early saints are associated with the region, including Saint Patrick
, Saint Ninian
and Saint Kentigern.
Patrick was born to a family of local dignitaries at Banna venta Berniae, assumed to be Ravenglass (whose Roman name was Glannaventa) or somewhere in the Solway region of Carlisle. Several places are traditionally associated with Patrick, such as Aspatria
and Patterdale
, largely because both derive their names from historical Patricks, but there is no evidence to suggest that there is any association with these places.
Saint Ninian, born about 360 AD, was almost certainly of Cumbrian origin and has strong associations with Ninekirks
near Penrith. Not only did Ninian give his name to the place, he is believed to have had a hermitage in the caves of Isis Parlis overlooking the present church, which was originally dedicated to him. Earthworks in the area also give tantalising clues to an early monastery here. Ninian is often credited with the conversion of the Cymry to Christianity, despite its original introduction to the area by Romans.
By the 6th century, however, it seems that the Cymry had fallen back into old pagan ways and that it was the responsibility of Saint Kentigern to re-Christianise the area. Kentigern, or Mungo as he was affectionately known, was a contemporary of Urien Rheged (although one source claims that he was the illegitimate son of Owain mab Urien) who is known to have been a Christian, but his subjects might have been less devout. Around 553 AD Kentigern was expelled from Strathclyde where he was based, because of a strong anti-Christian movement. The fact that he fled as far as Wales, and could not find refuge in Cumbria, suggests that similar feeling might have been popular here. However, in 573 AD a battle took place at Ardderydd (Arthuret
) on the border with Scotland, between the Christian King Rhydderch Hael of Strathclyde and the pagan King Gwenddolau and was a victory for the Christians, after which Kentigern returned to Strathclyde. What involvement Rheged had in this battle is not clear, but it seems they benefitted by gaining the land formerly called Caer-Wenddolau (modern Carwinley) by the Border Esk separating Cumbria from Dumfries and Galloway
, and they may have even amalgamated with Strathclyde to form a sort of dual-kingdom.
It is possible that at the time of the Synod of Whitby
in 664 AD, when the Celtic Church of the North was abandoned in favour of the Roman Church, which was dominant in the south of England, much if not all of Cumbria was subject to the will of the Northumbrian Kings. The area certainly seems to have undergone a full scale conversion to the Roman faith. In 670 AD, Oswiu's son—but not by Riemmelth—Ecgfrith
ascended the throne of Northumbria and it was probably in that year that the Bewcastle Cross
was erected, bearing English runes, which shows that they were certainly present in the area. But it seems that Cumbria was little more than a province at this time and, although Anglian influences were clearly seeping in, the region remained essentially British and retained its own client-kings. In 685 AD, when Saint Cuthbert was granted lands in Cumbria by Aldfrith, the new King of Northumbria, it is said he was given Cartmel and all the Britons therein, showing that even areas where Anglian settlement was greatest, the British were still predominant.
The arrival of the first Norse
settlers is thought to have been around 925 AD. Unlike much of the country to the east, the Vikings of Cumbria were Norwegians
who came via Ireland
, Scotland
and the Isle of Man
. Fifty years earlier the Danes led by Halfdan
had entered Cumbria through the Stainmore Pass and ransacked the area, reducing Carlisle to such a state that it remained in ruins for the next two hundred years, and annexed Cumbria to the Danelaw
.
For a time, it is likely that the Vikings would have simply raided the coastal areas of the county by sea before returning to Ireland and the Isle of Man. But they soon came to settle, and seem to have preferred the uplands of the central region, no doubt because the Angles had not penetrated so far and land was easier to come by. Their influence is still evident in the vast number of place names, particularly in the central lakes, which include Norse elements such as dale
, fell
, howe
and thwaite.
During this period much of Cumberland and Westmorland - traditionally to the Rere Cross on Stainmore
formed part of the Kingdom of Strathclyde
also known as Cumbria. One theory is that Viking colonisation was encouraged by the Cumbric speaking kings as a bulwark against the English to the South
In 945 AD the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
records a defeat of the Cumbrians and the harrying of Cumberland (referring not just to the English county of Cumberland
but also all the Cumbrian lands up to Glasgow). Edmund I of England defeated the last Cumbrian king, Dunmail
- possibly Dyfnwal III of Strathclyde. Following the defeat, the area was ceded to Malcolm I of Scotland, although it is probable that the southernmost areas around Furness
, Cartmel and Kendal
remained in under English control.
The influence of the Vikings remained strong until the Middle Ages, particularly in the central region. A Norse-English creole
was spoken until at least the 12th century and evidence of the imposition of the Viking political system is shown in the existence of several possible Thing mounds
throughout the county, the most significant of which is at Fell Foot in Langdale. As an example of Viking relics, a hoard of Viking coins and silver objects was discovered at Penrith
.
When the Normans conquered England in 1066 much of Cumbria was a no-man's-land between England and Scotland which meant that the land was not of great value. As a consequence, when the Domesday Book
was compiled on behalf of William I
only the southern part of the county was included and even that was only as annexes to Yorkshire.
For the most part the Cumbrian Domesday entries are little more than a list of place names and the amount of taxable land therein, with the names of the pre- and post-conquest landowners - a much sparser account than much of the rest of England. This in itself shows the isolated and remote nature of the area at this time, but the entries also provide evidence that Cumbria's prosperity had decreased significantly since the middle of the previous millennium - no doubt in part caused by the Conqueror's Harrying of the North
.
covering Hougun refers to the time when it was held by Earl Tostig about 1060. The exact location of Hougun has been long disputed and Millom
is often suggested, although High Haume near Dalton-in-Furness
has also been suggested given that it was recorded in 1336 as Howehom. The name itself is thought to derive from the Old Norse
haugr meaning 'among the hills,' which could refer to almost anywhere in the area. Houganai or island of Hougun was also the name given to nearby Walney Island
.
The Hougun entry is as follows (land is measured in carucate
s in the north, which is roughly the amount of land assume to provide for one household for one year):
Hougun (?High Haume/Millom
), 4 c., Tosti
Ulvreston (Ulverston
), 6c., Turulf
Aldingham (Aldingham), 6c., Ernulf
Cherchebi (?Cartmel
), Dwan from the King
Holecher (Holker), Orm from the King
Neutun (High and Low Newton), King's land
Bretebi (Birkby), Orm from the King
Further east, in what was later to become Westmorland
, several other places are mentioned but with similar brevity. Most of the places are within the low lying areas around the Kent
and Lune
valleys. Most of the entries are in two groups: the first is land around Kendal
belonging to the King which had belonged to a Gillemichael before the Conquest; and the second is land belonging to Roger de Poitou
and held by one Ernwin the Priest under him:
King's land
Biedun (Beetham
), 6c., Ernwin the Priest from Roger de Poitou
Brebrune (Barbon), King's land
Castretune (Casterton), King's land
Holme (Holme), King's land
Hotun (Hutton Roof), King's land
Cherchebi (Kirkby Lonsdale), King's land
Lupetun (Lupton), King's land
Manzserge (Mansergh), King's land
Middeltun (Middleton), King's land
conquered Carlisle for England, beginning a period of centuries of border conflict and instability. Lands in the county were granted to Norman allies to secure the taking and almost immediately they began constructing strongholds at places such as Carlisle, Brough and Liddel to protect the new border.
In 1136 King David I of Scotland
invaded Carlisle and captured it forcing King Stephen
to cede much of Cumberland and Westmorland to him, and in 1139 David's son Prince Henry was created Earl of Northumberland, giving him control of the administrative area of Northumberland, Cumberland, Westmorland and Lancashire north of the River Ribble
. In return for acknowledging their new King's overlordship the Norman lords of Cumbria were mostly allowed to keep their lands and their positions and there appears to have been a short period of relative peace as there are no known instances of castle building at this time.
But in 1157, Malcolm IV of Scotland surrendered the lands granted in 1136 back to England. In the period which followed, many of the great castles of Cumbria were built or strengthened, including Carlisle
, Brougham
, Brough
and Appleby
, strongly suggesting that there was a sense of insecurity at this time.
It was around this time that the ancient counties which made up modern Cumbria came into existence. Westmorland was recorded as early as 966 when it was mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
, but at this time it was not an administrative district. It was mentioned again in 1131 by which time it had become a more definite political district, although it wasn't until 1177 that it was formally created from the baronies of Appleby and Kendal. After the area's recovery from Scotland in 1092, Cumberland was granted to Ranulph le Meschin as the 'Honour of Carlisle' but reverted to the Crown in 1121 when he became Earl of Chester. After being recovered from Scotland again in 1157 the barony of Copeland
was added to the area to form the county as it remained until 1974; it was renamed Cumberland in 1177. Lancashire was one of the last counties to be formed in England in 1182 although its boundaries may have been fixed around 1100. Why the Furness and Cartmel peninsulas were included in the county of Lancashire when they are entirely cut off from the main body by Morecambe Bay
is not immediately obvious. If the borders were settled as early as 1100 the decision may have been due to the influence of Roger de Poitou who held lands on both sides of the Bay, but it is more likely that it was a result of the cross-sands communications between Furness and Lancaster being stronger than those with Cumberland and Westmorland to the north due to the diffuculties of travelling out of the area.
The 13th century was a relatively peaceful one as relations between England and Scotland remained amiable for a while following the Treaty of York
in which Alexander II
resigned his hereditary claim to Cumberland and Westmorland in return for several manors in both counties. It also appears to have been a period of relative prosperity, with many of the monasteries which had been established in the 12th century beginning to flourish; most notably Furness Abbey
in the south of the county which went on to become the second richest religious house in the north of England with lands across Cumbria and in Yorkshire. Wool was probably the greatest commercial asset of Cumbria at this time, with sheep being bred on the fells then wool carried along a network of packhorse
trails to centres like Kendal, which became wealthy on the wool trade and gave its name to the vibrant Kendal Green colour. Iron was also commercially exploited at this time and the wide expanses of Forest became prime hunting ground for the wealthy.
Towards the end of the 13th century the peace between England and Scotland was shattered at the hand of Edward I
. In 1286 he confiscated the manors granted in 1237 and in 1292 installed John Balliol on the Scottish throne and when Balliol invaded Cumbria four years later Edward defeated him and took upon the government of Scotland himself. Resistance came from Scotland in the form of William Wallace
and Robert the Bruce and a three hundred year period of regular raids and counter-raids followed which effectively undid the years of economic progress since the Harrying of the North
two centuries earlier.
Two early raids of 1316 and 1322, under the leadership of Bruce were particularly damaging and were as far reaching as Yorkshire
. On the second occasion, the Abbot of Furness Abbey went to meet Bruce in an attempt to bribe him into sparing his Abbey and its lands from destruction. The Scottish King accepted the bribe but continued to ransack the entire area anyway, so much so that in a tax inquisition of 1341 the land at nearby Aldingham
was said to have decreased in value from £53 6s 8d to just £10 and at Ulverston
from £35 6s 8d to only £5.
. The Reivers were characterised by strong kinship bonds, forming clan-like groups under a given surname - Hetherington and Carleton were two of the most prominent in the Cumbria area. These groups became semi-autonomous from local government, owing far more loyalty to their name than to the king or local lords.
The Reivers take their name from the fact that they lived by raiding (from the Old English rēafian 'to rob'), rustling cattle and sheep from across the border and even looting the armies of their own King, such was their antipathy towards their nations. The reiving became so common and so violent by the 16th century that wealthier border families took to building bastle house
s or pele towers - fortified dwellings, often with room for livestock and supplies beneath the accommodation - which are still a common site in the north of Cumbria.
In an attempt to deal with the growing problem, the English and Scottish monarchs installed local magnates, with extensive local connections and considerable power, as wardens. In Cumbria the powerful northern families such as the Dacres and the Cliffords, who owned Brough and Brougham castles amongst many others, were often in control of the wardenship.
The problem of the reivers worsened in the last few decades of the 16th century, first because an increase in taxes forced an increase in rents which caused a breakdown of the ties between landlords and tenants, and second because many of the border families remained staunch Catholics following the Protestant Reformation. Only when the border effectively disintegrated with the Union of the Crowns in 1603 did reiving cease to dominate the lives of the border inhabitants.
s.
' background. The next national census is due in 2011 and is expected to show significant change in certain aspects of the county's demography (especially ethnicity, with the 'White' population in Cumbria being estimated at just over 97.9% in 2007 - see also Demographics of Cumbria
).
Also in 2001, Cumbria saw one of the most devastating agricultural incidents of recent times. An outbreak of foot-and-mouth resulted in the killing of 10 million cattle and sheep across the UK, out of 2,000 cases nationwide 843 were in Cumbria (or 42% of all cases). Cumbria was the worst affected county in the outbreak which dominated much of the 2001 UK media coverage prior to the September 11 attacks. Cumbria's agriculture and tourism industries were severely scarred, many tourists were put off visiting the Lake District
, whilst the local economy is estimated to have lost billions
. After huge efforts to prevent the disease from spreading further (by killing infected animals as well as disinfecting every vehicle to enter certain parts of the county) the outbreak was officially halted in October, 2001 (after begin in February the same year).
In 2001, the South Cumbrian town of Barrow-in-Furness
hit global headlines after an outbreak of Legionnaires' disease
, the source of the bactera was later found to be from steam coming out of a badly maintained air conditioning unit in the forum 28
media and arts centre, ultimately seven people died from contracting the disease and in total the number of cases stood at 172 it was and still remains one of the worst outbreak of its kind in recorded history (the most deadly in the UK's history). Because of the 2001 outbreak, in 2006, Barrow Borough Council became the first public body in the country to have faced corporate manslaughter charges, the charges were cleared however chief architect Gillian Beckingham and Barrow Borough Council were fined £15,000 and £125,000 respectively after both admitted breaching the Health and Safety at Work Act.
On the evening of February 5, 2004, dozens of illegal Chinese workers were collecting cockles
off the Cumbrian coast when rising tides led to 23 of them eventually drowning in Morecambe Bay
. The workers were all illegal immigrants, mainly from the Fujian
province of China, and have been described as being untrained and inexperienced. They were being exploited by gang leader Lin Liangren who paid them £5 per 25 kg of cockles. local authorities were alerted by one of the gang members who contacted them with a mobile phone, but only one of the workers was rescued from the waters. This was partly due to the fact that the phone call was unclear both to the extent and severity of the danger, and to their location, presumably through a lack of English language ability. A total of 21 bodies, of men and women between the ages of 18 and 45, were recovered from the bay after the incident. Two of the victims were women, the vast majority were young men in their 20's and 30's and it is presumed that two more bodies were lost at sea. The disaster led to the Gangmaster Licensing Act 2004 and the formation of the Gangmasters Licensing Authority
(also the perpetrator, Lin Liangren was sentenced to 14 years' imprisonment, numerous others linked with the disaster were also imprisoned on immigration offences and of perverting the course of justice).
One of several incidents to have occurred on the West Coast Main Line
in the 21st century was the Tebay rail accident
, on the 15th February 2004 four railway workers were hit and killed by a trolley carrying lengths of rail which had not been properly secured and had run away from a maintenance yard several miles away. The boss of the rail maintenance company and a crane operator were tried on charges of manslaughter caused by gross negligence, both men were eventually jailed.
On January 8, 2005 flooding caused massive disruption and damage across the north of the county, this was considered the worst flooding in living memory until the November 2009 Great Britain and Ireland floods, Carlisle
was the worst affected location. More than 3,000 properties were affected, 60,000 homes were left without power and some areas of the city were under 7 ft (2.1 m) of water. Significant rainfall burst the banks of the rivers Eden
, Kent
, Derwent
, Greta and Cocker. Ultimately £250 million of damage was caused.
The 2006 Morecambe Bay helicopter crash
had Cumbrian authorities on standby, especially the RNLI station in Barrow, the fatal air incident occurred on December 27, 2006 at approximately 18:40 GMT, whilst transporting replacement crew between the Millom
and Morecambe gas platforms. It was eventually discovered that the Eurocopter AS365N
descened into sea due to pilot error and this led to the death of six men.
On February 23, 2007 train 1S83, the 17:15 Virgin West Coast Pendolino
West Coast Main Line
express service from London Euston
to Glasgow Central was derailed by a defective set of points, the incident occurred at 20:15 GMT when 109 people were on board. 30 serious and 58 minor injuries were reported and ultimately 1 person was killed. Sir Richard Branson, owner of the Virgin empire visited the site and although was devestaded by the incident claimed that "If the train had been old stock then the number of injuries and the mortalities would have been horrendous". The 2009 Cumbria earthquake refers to an event on April 28, 2009 at 11:22 am local time when an earthquake of the magnitude 3.7 struck Cumbria
, England
. It was recorded by the British Meteorological Society as having an epicentre approximately 8 km (5 mi) underneath Ulverston
. The earthquake was felt by residents in Lancashire
and the tremor lasted for 5–10 seconds. Phone calls were recorded from a number of people who felt the tremor in the Barrow
, Carnforth
and Kendal
areas but there were no reports of any casualties, injuries or damages.
During the night of November 19, 2009, some parts of Cumbria saw more rainfall than what is expected over the period of a whole winter month. The most intense period of rainfall broke nationwide records, and resulted in almost everywhere in the country being affected. However the worst damage occurred in the north and around Cockermouth
and Workington
where water rose to almost 3 meters in places, many Lakes of the Lake District overflowed and resulted in the collapse of several bridges. The flooding has so far claimed the life of one person in the county, Bill Barker a police officer who was performing his duties directing traffic away from the Northside Bridge at Workington when the bridge collapsed into the river.
On June 2, 2010 one of the worst mass shootings in British history occurred in West Cumbria
. Taxi driver Derrik Bird went on a three hour shooting spree in the towns of Whitehaven
, Egremont
and Seascale
which ultimately claimed the lives of twelve people (which included his twin brother and a former work colleague, the other fatalities are thought to have been targeted at random). Dozens more were injured before Bird turned the gun on himself and committed suicide in a field near the village of Boot. The event also saw the complete lockdown of the Sellafield
nuclear processing site, an action unseen in the plants 50 year history.
Also worth of note are several overseas events which have affected the county. The War in Afghanistan
has so far claimed the lives of three Cumbrians (two men and one woman - the UK's first female loss), whilst the War in Iraq has seen the deaths of two Cumbrian servicemen.
Cumbria
Cumbria , is a non-metropolitan county in North West England. The county and Cumbria County Council, its local authority, came into existence in 1974 after the passage of the Local Government Act 1972. Cumbria's largest settlement and county town is Carlisle. It consists of six districts, and in...
as a county of England
Counties of England
Counties of England are areas used for the purposes of administrative, geographical and political demarcation. For administrative purposes, England outside Greater London and the Isles of Scilly is divided into 83 counties. The counties may consist of a single district or be divided into several...
begins with the Local Government Act 1972
Local Government Act 1972
The Local Government Act 1972 is an Act of Parliament in the United Kingdom that reformed local government in England and Wales on 1 April 1974....
. Its territory and constituent parts however have a long history under various other administrative
Administrative counties of England
Administrative counties were a level of subnational division of England used for the purposes of local government from 1889 to 1974. They were created by the Local Government Act 1888 as the areas for which county councils were elected. Some large counties were divided into several administrative...
and historic
Historic counties of England
The historic counties of England are subdivisions of England established for administration by the Normans and in most cases based on earlier Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and shires...
units of governance. Long existing as an upland, coastal and rural area, Cumbria's heritage is characterised by a broad number of invasions, migration and settlement, as well as battles and skirmishes between the English
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
and Scottish
Scotland
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
.
Character
Cumbria was created in 1974 from territory from the historic countiesHistoric counties of England
The historic counties of England are subdivisions of England established for administration by the Normans and in most cases based on earlier Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and shires...
of Cumberland
Cumberland
Cumberland is a historic county of North West England, on the border with Scotland, from the 12th century until 1974. It formed an administrative county from 1889 to 1974 and now forms part of Cumbria....
, Westmorland
Westmorland
Westmorland is an area of North West England and one of the 39 historic counties of England. It formed an administrative county from 1889 to 1974, after which the entirety of the county was absorbed into the new county of Cumbria.-Early history:...
, Lancashire
Lancashire
Lancashire is a non-metropolitan county of historic origin in the North West of England. It takes its name from the city of Lancaster, and is sometimes known as the County of Lancaster. Although Lancaster is still considered to be the county town, Lancashire County Council is based in Preston...
North of the Sands and a small part of Yorkshire
Yorkshire
Yorkshire is a historic county of northern England and the largest in the United Kingdom. Because of its great size in comparison to other English counties, functions have been increasingly undertaken over time by its subdivisions, which have also been subject to periodic reform...
, but the human history of the area is ancient. The region is a country of contrasts, with its mountainous central region and famous lakes, its fertile coastal plains in the north and its gently undulating hills in the south. It is a place of rock and water, and it seems to be this unique identity that has been the key to the area's popularity for millennia.
In the 21st century Cumbria relies upon tourism and farming as an economic base, but almost since humans first arrived here, industry has also played a vital role in the area's fortunes. The region might have enjoyed far greater prosperity were it not for its politico-geographical position: its proximity to Scotland has meant that for much of its history Cumbria has been disputed land between the Scots and the English, and has acted as a buffer-zone to protect the wealthier south from harassment. Raids from Scotland were a frequent part of Cumbrian life until the Acts of Union 1707
Acts of Union 1707
The Acts of Union were two Parliamentary Acts - the Union with Scotland Act passed in 1706 by the Parliament of England, and the Union with England Act passed in 1707 by the Parliament of Scotland - which put into effect the terms of the Treaty of Union that had been agreed on 22 July 1706,...
and the large area of coastline also meant vulnerability from Irish and Norse raids.
The character of Cumbria is therefore undoubtedly one of isolation. Until the coming of the railway, much of the region would have been difficult to reach and even today there are routes which make most motorists a little nervous. (In the harsher winter months, many of the central valleys are cut off from the outside world.) This made the area something of a refuge for dispossessed peoples, which may well account for the popular conception of Cumbria as a provincial backwater; quaint and archaic. The Brythonic Celts managed to cling on in enclaves until around the 10th century, long after much of England was essentially 'English', and the Norse retained a distinct identity well into the Middle Ages
Middle Ages
The Middle Ages is a periodization of European history from the 5th century to the 15th century. The Middle Ages follows the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and precedes the Early Modern Era. It is the middle period of a three-period division of Western history: Classic, Medieval and Modern...
. After that Cumbria remained somewhat a 'no mans' land' between Scotland and England, which meant that the traditional Cumbrian identity was neither English nor Scottish.
Since the act of union, the border areas have become more firmly English or Scottish. Whilst Cumbrians are generally hospitable to guests, it is also well known that they have an uncertain attitude to offcomers
Cumbrian dialect
The Cumbrian dialect is a local English dialect spoken in Cumbria in northern England, not to be confused with the extinct Celtic language Cumbric that used to be spoken in Cumbria. As in any county, there is a gradual drift in accent towards its neighbours...
.
Earliest Inhabitants
Lake District
The Lake District, also commonly known as The Lakes or Lakeland, is a mountainous region in North West England. A popular holiday destination, it is famous not only for its lakes and its mountains but also for its associations with the early 19th century poetry and writings of William Wordsworth...
.
Although evidence has been put forward for Upper Paleolithic
Upper Paleolithic
The Upper Paleolithic is the third and last subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe, Africa and Asia. Very broadly it dates to between 40,000 and 10,000 years ago, roughly coinciding with the appearance of behavioral modernity and before the advent of...
habitation in the south of the county, it is generally accepted by archeologists that the earliest inhabitants of Cumbria would have arrived during the Mesolithic
Mesolithic
The Mesolithic is an archaeological concept used to refer to certain groups of archaeological cultures defined as falling between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic....
era, after 10,000 years ago. It is thought that settlers would have made their way across Morecambe Bay
Morecambe Bay
Morecambe Bay is a large bay in northwest England, nearly due east of the Isle of Man and just to the south of the Lake District National Park. It is the largest expanse of intertidal mudflats and sand in the United Kingdom, covering a total area of 310 km².-Natural features:The rivers Leven,...
and along the fertile coast where resources could have been exploited with ease. At this time the upland central region of the county would probably have been heavily forested and very dangerous. Large Mesolithic flint-chipping sites, where flints washed up from the Irish Sea
Irish Sea
The Irish Sea separates the islands of Ireland and Great Britain. It is connected to the Celtic Sea in the south by St George's Channel, and to the Atlantic Ocean in the north by the North Channel. Anglesey is the largest island within the Irish Sea, followed by the Isle of Man...
would have been worked into tools, have been found at Eskmeals, near Ravenglass
Ravenglass
Ravenglass is a small coastal village and natural harbour in Cumbria, England. It is the only coastal town within the Lake District National Park...
on the west coast and at Walney in the south.
Neolithic period
There is much more visible evidence of NeolithicNeolithic
The Neolithic Age, Era, or Period, or New Stone Age, was a period in the development of human technology, beginning about 9500 BC in some parts of the Middle East, and later in other parts of the world. It is traditionally considered as the last part of the Stone Age...
activity than any time before. This was a time of technological advancement and national population expansion. At some point, the mesolithic coastal communities must have moved further inland, probably following rivers along valley corridors into the heart of Lakeland
Lake District
The Lake District, also commonly known as The Lakes or Lakeland, is a mountainous region in North West England. A popular holiday destination, it is famous not only for its lakes and its mountains but also for its associations with the early 19th century poetry and writings of William Wordsworth...
.
Langdale axe industry
The Langdale axe industry is the name given by archaeologists to the centre of a specialised stone tool manufacturing at Great Langdale in England's Lake District during the Neolithic period .The area has outcrops of fine-grained greenstone suitable for making polished axes which have been...
, which created many thousands of axe heads from the green volcanic tuff
Tuff
Tuff is a type of rock consisting of consolidated volcanic ash ejected from vents during a volcanic eruption. Tuff is sometimes called tufa, particularly when used as construction material, although tufa also refers to a quite different rock. Rock that contains greater than 50% tuff is considered...
found on the Pike O'Stickle
Pike of Stickle
Pike of Stickle, also known as Pike O’ Stickle, is a fell in the English Lake District. It reaches a height of 709 metres and is situated in the central part of the national park in the valley of Great Langdale...
from around 6000 BC. The axe heads were not merely for local practical use; they have been found all over the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
from Norfolk
Norfolk
Norfolk is a low-lying county in the East of England. It has borders with Lincolnshire to the west, Cambridgeshire to the west and southwest and Suffolk to the south. Its northern and eastern boundaries are the North Sea coast and to the north-west the county is bordered by The Wash. The county...
to Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland
Northern Ireland is one of the four countries of the United Kingdom. Situated in the north-east of the island of Ireland, it shares a border with the Republic of Ireland to the south and west...
, and seem to have often been used for ceremonial or ritual purposes. Clearly the green rock created a sense of mystery and magic in the Neolithic mind.
Also at this time, possibly because of the economic power created by the Axe Factory, stone circles and henges began to be constructed across the county. Neolithic examples include the impressive henge at Mayburgh
Mayburgh Henge
Mayburgh Henge is a large prehistoric monument in the county of Cumbria in northern England. Mayburgh Henge is just outside the village of Eamont Bridge close to the confluence of the Rivers Eamont and Lowther around 1 mile south of Penrith, just a few hundred yards from the M6 motorway.Mayburgh...
, near Penrith
Penrith, Cumbria
Penrith was an urban district between 1894 and 1974, when it was merged into Eden District.The authority's area was coterminous with the civil parish of Penrith although when the council was abolished Penrith became an unparished area....
, and a partly destroyed one at nearby King Arthur's Round Table
King Arthur's Round Table, Cumbria
King Arthur's Round Table is a Neolithic henge in the village of Eamont Bridge within the English county of Cumbria, around 2 km south east of Penrith. The site is free to visitors and is under the control of English Heritage....
as well as the famous Castlerigg Stone Circle
Castlerigg stone circle
The stone circle at Castlerigg is situated near Keswick in Cumbria, North West England...
above Keswick
Keswick, Cumbria
Keswick is a market town and civil parish within the Borough of Allerdale in Cumbria, England. It had a population of 4,984, according to the 2001 census, and is situated just north of Derwent Water, and a short distance from Bassenthwaite Lake, both in the Lake District National Park...
. It's also possible that the megalith Long Meg
Long Meg and Her Daughters
Long Meg and Her Daughters, also known as Maughanby Circle, is a Bronze Age stone circle near Penrith in Cumbria, North West England. One of around 1,300 stone circles in the British Isles and Brittany, it was constructed as a part of a megalithic tradition that lasted from 3,300 to 900 BCE, during...
was erected at this time.
Bronze Age
Bronze Age
The Bronze Age is a period characterized by the use of copper and its alloy bronze as the chief hard materials in the manufacture of some implements and weapons. Chronologically, it stands between the Stone Age and Iron Age...
, settlements in Cumbria are likely to have taken a much more permanent form. Bronze Age artefacts have been uncovered throughout the county, including several bronze axe heads around Kendal
Kendal
Kendal, anciently known as Kirkby in Kendal or Kirkby Kendal, is a market town and civil parish within the South Lakeland District of Cumbria, England...
and Levens
Levens, Cumbria
Levens is a village and civil parish in the South Lakeland district of the English county of Cumbria. It has a population of 1,007. The village lies south of Kendal off the A6 and A590 roads. Levens Hall is within the parish.- External links :**...
, an axe and a sword at Gleaston
Gleaston
Gleaston is a village with a population of around 400 in the Furness area of South Cumbria, situated between the towns of Barrow-in-Furness, Dalton-in-Furness and Ulverston. The history of the village can be traced as far back as the mesolithic period and it was the centre of the manor of Muchland...
, an intriguing carved granite ball discovered near Carlisle and part of a gold necklace believed to be from France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
or Ireland
Ireland
Ireland is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth...
found at Greysouthen
Greysouthen
Greysouthen is a small village and civil parish between the towns of Workington and Cockermouth, which are in Cumbria, in the North West of England....
. A timber palisade has also been discovered at High Crosby near Carlisle.
Ritual or 'religious' sites can be seen across the county and are often clearly visible. Cairns and round barrows can be found throughout the area and a cemetery has been discovered near Allithwaite
Allithwaite
Allithwaite is a small village in Cumbria, England, located roughly West of Grange-over-Sands. Most of its residents commute to local areas of Ulverston, Barrow-in-Furness, Kendal or Lancaster to work. Allithwaite, and the village of Cartmel situated to the north, are part of the civil parish of...
. More impressive remains include stone circles, such as Birkrigg stone circle
Birkrigg stone circle
The Birkrigg stone circle, also known as the Druid's Temple is a Bronze Age stone circle two miles south of Ulverston in the English county of Cumbria. It dates to between 1700 and 1400 BC....
, Long Meg and Her Daughters
Long Meg and Her Daughters
Long Meg and Her Daughters, also known as Maughanby Circle, is a Bronze Age stone circle near Penrith in Cumbria, North West England. One of around 1,300 stone circles in the British Isles and Brittany, it was constructed as a part of a megalithic tradition that lasted from 3,300 to 900 BCE, during...
, Swinside
Swinside
Swinside, which is also known as Sunkenkirk and Swineshead, is a stone circle lying beside Swinside Fell, part of Black Combe in southern Cumbria, North West England...
, Little Meg
Little Meg
Little Meg is a small circle of large kerb stones which probably surrounded a Bronze Age kerb cairn. It is close to the village of Langwathby to the north-east of Penrith in the English county of Cumbria and is 640 meters north-east of the more famous stone circle of Long Meg and Her Daughters.One...
and several others.
Iron Age
The Iron Age in BritainBritish Iron Age
The British Iron Age is a conventional name used in the archaeology of Great Britain, referring to the prehistoric and protohistoric phases of the Iron-Age culture of the main island and the smaller islands, typically excluding prehistoric Ireland, and which had an independent Iron Age culture of...
is generally characterised by the arrival of Celt
Celt
The Celts were a diverse group of tribal societies in Iron Age and Roman-era Europe who spoke Celtic languages.The earliest archaeological culture commonly accepted as Celtic, or rather Proto-Celtic, was the central European Hallstatt culture , named for the rich grave finds in Hallstatt, Austria....
ic culture - including certain art forms and languages - as well as the obvious increase in the production of iron. During this time the people of Great Britain
Great Britain
Great Britain or Britain is an island situated to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island, as well as the largest of the British Isles...
and Ireland
Ireland
Ireland is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth...
were divided into various tribes. In Cumbria the Carvetii
Carvetii
The Carvetii were a people and civitas of Roman Britain living in what is now Cumbria and North Lancashire in north-west England. They are not mentioned in Ptolemy's Geography or in any other classical text, and are known only from inscriptions found in Penrith and Temple Sowerby in Cumbria...
dominated most of the county for a time whilst the Setantii
Setantii
The Setantii were a pre-Roman British tribe who apparently lived in the western and southern littoral of Lancashire in England...
were present in the south, until both were incorporated into the vast Brigantes
Brigantes
The Brigantes were a Celtic tribe who in pre-Roman times controlled the largest section of what would become Northern England, and a significant part of the Midlands. Their kingdom is sometimes called Brigantia, and it was centred in what was later known as Yorkshire...
which ruled most of northern England. They would have spoken the ancient British language of Brythonic, the predecessor of modern Welsh
Welsh language
Welsh is a member of the Brythonic branch of the Celtic languages spoken natively in Wales, by some along the Welsh border in England, and in Y Wladfa...
, and were probably responsible for naming some of the county's most notable topographical features such as its rivers (e.g. Kent, Eden, Cocker, Levens) and mountains (e.g. Blencathra).
There are many remains of Iron Age settlement in Cumbria, including hill forts such as those at Maiden Castle and Dunmallard Hill and many hundreds of smaller settlements and field systems. In the 18th century a beautiful iron sword with a bronze scabbard, dating to around 50 BC, was found at Embleton near Cockermouth
Cockermouth
-History:The Romans created a fort at Derventio, now the adjoining village of Papcastle, to protect the river crossing, which had become located on a major route for troops heading towards Hadrian's Wall....
and is now in the British Museum
British Museum
The British Museum is a museum of human history and culture in London. Its collections, which number more than seven million objects, are amongst the largest and most comprehensive in the world and originate from all continents, illustrating and documenting the story of human culture from its...
.
Romans
After the Romans' initial conquest of BritainRoman conquest of Britain
The Roman conquest of Britain was a gradual process, beginning effectively in AD 43 under Emperor Claudius, whose general Aulus Plautius served as first governor of Britannia. Great Britain had already frequently been the target of invasions, planned and actual, by forces of the Roman Republic and...
in AD 43 the territory of the Brigantes
Brigantes
The Brigantes were a Celtic tribe who in pre-Roman times controlled the largest section of what would become Northern England, and a significant part of the Midlands. Their kingdom is sometimes called Brigantia, and it was centred in what was later known as Yorkshire...
remained independent of Roman rule for some time. At that time the leader of the Brigantes was the queen Cartimandua
Cartimandua
Cartimandua or Cartismandua was a queen of the Brigantes, a Celtic people in what is now Northern England, in the 1st century. She came to power around the time of the Roman conquest of Britain, and formed a large tribal agglomeration that became loyal to Rome...
, of illustrious birth, whose husband Venutius
Venutius
Venutius was a 1st century king of the Brigantes in northern Britain at the time of the Roman conquest. Some have suggested he may have belonged to the Carvetii, a tribe which probably formed part of the Brigantes confederation....
is believed to have been a Carvetian
Carvetii
The Carvetii were a people and civitas of Roman Britain living in what is now Cumbria and North Lancashire in north-west England. They are not mentioned in Ptolemy's Geography or in any other classical text, and are known only from inscriptions found in Penrith and Temple Sowerby in Cumbria...
and may therefore be responsible for the incorporation of Cumbria into the Brigantian federation.
Despite retaining their independence, Cartimandua and Venutius were loyal to the Romans and in return were offered protection by their Imperial neighbours. But the royal couple were divorced and Venutius led two rebellions against his ex-wife. The first, in the 50's AD, was successfully quashed by the Romans but the second, in 69 AD, came at a time of political instability in the Empire and resulted in the Romans evacutating Cartimandua and leaving Venutius to reign over the Brigantes.
Gnaeus Julius Agricola
Gnaeus Julius Agricola was a Roman general responsible for much of the Roman conquest of Britain. His biography, the De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae, was the first published work of his son-in-law, the historian Tacitus, and is the source for most of what is known about him.Born to a noted...
managed to push north from Deva (Chester
Chester
Chester is a city in Cheshire, England. Lying on the River Dee, close to the border with Wales, it is home to 77,040 inhabitants, and is the largest and most populous settlement of the wider unitary authority area of Cheshire West and Chester, which had a population of 328,100 according to the...
) to Carlisle and placed garrisons between the Solway Firth
Solway Firth
The Solway Firth is a firth that forms part of the border between England and Scotland, between Cumbria and Dumfries and Galloway. It stretches from St Bees Head, just south of Whitehaven in Cumbria, to the Mull of Galloway, on the western end of Dumfries and Galloway. The Isle of Man is also very...
and the River Tyne
River Tyne
The River Tyne is a river in North East England in Great Britain. It is formed by the confluence of two rivers: the North Tyne and the South Tyne. These two rivers converge at Warden Rock near Hexham in Northumberland at a place dubbed 'The Meeting of the Waters'.The North Tyne rises on the...
, consolidating his gains over the following two years. Despite the Romans managing to occupy the region and make allegiances with the Brigantes, the troubles seem to have continued until at least the 140's AD when they were said to have been defeated in an unprovoked war by Emperor Antonius Pius.
Although not attested by any literary source, evidence from inscriptions suggests that under Roman rule most of the area of what is now Cumbria formed a civitas
Civitas
In the history of Rome, the Latin term civitas , according to Cicero in the time of the late Roman Republic, was the social body of the cives, or citizens, united by law . It is the law that binds them together, giving them responsibilities on the one hand and rights of citizenship on the other...
of the Carvetii
Carvetii
The Carvetii were a people and civitas of Roman Britain living in what is now Cumbria and North Lancashire in north-west England. They are not mentioned in Ptolemy's Geography or in any other classical text, and are known only from inscriptions found in Penrith and Temple Sowerby in Cumbria...
separate from that of the Brigantes
Brigantes
The Brigantes were a Celtic tribe who in pre-Roman times controlled the largest section of what would become Northern England, and a significant part of the Midlands. Their kingdom is sometimes called Brigantia, and it was centred in what was later known as Yorkshire...
. Its administrative capital is presumed to have been Luguvalium
Luguvalium
Luguvalium was a town in the Roman province of Britannia. Today it is known as Carlisle, located in the English county of Cumbria .-Pre-Roman:...
(Carlisle), the only walled town known in the region.
The impression left upon Cumbria by the Roman occupation can hardly be understated. From around the 120's AD a system of roads was built across the county, including the aptly named High Street
High Street (Lake District)
High Street is a fell in the English Lake District. At 828 metres , its summit is the highest point in the far eastern part of the national park. The fell is named after the Roman road which ran over the summit.-History and Naming:...
which runs across the eastern fells from the Roman fort Brocavum at Brougham
Brougham, Cumbria
Brougham is a small village and civil parish on the outskirts of Penrith in the Eden District of Cumbria, England...
to Galava near Ambleside
Ambleside
Ambleside is a town in Cumbria, in North West England.Historically within the county of Westmorland, it is situated at the head of Windermere, England's largest lake...
. The roads were a vital means of communication across the mountains and moors of the county, connecting the many forts, such as the one at Hardknott
Hardknott Roman Fort
Mediobogdum was a fort in the Roman province of Britannia. Its remains are located on the western side of the Hardknott Pass in the English county of Cumbria .-The location and name:...
with the sea ports at Ravenglass
Ravenglass
Ravenglass is a small coastal village and natural harbour in Cumbria, England. It is the only coastal town within the Lake District National Park...
and Maryport
Alauna (Maryport)
Alauna , was a fort in the Roman province of Britannia...
, the important settlement of Luguvalium
Luguvalium
Luguvalium was a town in the Roman province of Britannia. Today it is known as Carlisle, located in the English county of Cumbria .-Pre-Roman:...
at Carlisle and, of course, Hadrian's Wall
Hadrian's Wall
Hadrian's Wall was a defensive fortification in Roman Britain. Begun in AD 122, during the rule of emperor Hadrian, it was the first of two fortifications built across Great Britain, the second being the Antonine Wall, lesser known of the two because its physical remains are less evident today.The...
.
Building of Hadrian's Wall
Hadrian's Wall
Hadrian's Wall was a defensive fortification in Roman Britain. Begun in AD 122, during the rule of emperor Hadrian, it was the first of two fortifications built across Great Britain, the second being the Antonine Wall, lesser known of the two because its physical remains are less evident today.The...
along the line of Agricola's earlier garrison
Garrison
Garrison is the collective term for a body of troops stationed in a particular location, originally to guard it, but now often simply using it as a home base....
s was begun in 122 AD and was completed in less than ten years, such was the efficiency of the Roman military. For Hadrian's Wall in the west of England, originally "turf and timber were preferred on the Solway plain, where stone is scarce". It ran from Bowness on Solway on the Solway Firth across the north of the county and through Northumberland
Northumberland
Northumberland is the northernmost ceremonial county and a unitary district in North East England. For Eurostat purposes Northumberland is a NUTS 3 region and is one of three boroughs or unitary districts that comprise the "Northumberland and Tyne and Wear" NUTS 2 region...
to Wallsend
Wallsend
Wallsend is an area in North Tyneside, Tyne and Wear, England. Wallsend derives its name as the location of the end of Hadrian's Wall. It has a population of 42,842.-Romans:...
on the Tyne estuary and was created on the orders of emperor Hadrian
Hadrian
Hadrian , was Roman Emperor from 117 to 138. He is best known for building Hadrian's Wall, which marked the northern limit of Roman Britain. In Rome, he re-built the Pantheon and constructed the Temple of Venus and Roma. In addition to being emperor, Hadrian was a humanist and was philhellene in...
as an attempt to create a solid northern frontier to the Roman Empire and keep the Brigantes and neighbouring Scotti
Scoti
Scoti or Scotti was the generic name used by the Romans to describe those who sailed from Ireland to conduct raids on Roman Britain. It was thus synonymous with the modern term Gaels...
under control.
Antonine Wall
The Antonine Wall is a stone and turf fortification built by the Romans across what is now the Central Belt of Scotland, between the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde. Representing the northernmost frontier barrier of the Roman Empire, it spanned approximately 39 miles and was about ten feet ...
in Scotland. But Antonius' attempts to exert control in the far north failed and he returned to Hadrian's Wall in 164 AD, after which garrisons were retained until the onset of the 5th century.
There are several forts and milecastles along Cumbrian half of the wall, the largest or which is Birdoswald.
It is difficult to assess the long-term effects that the Roman occupation had on the native inhabitants of Cumbria. Everyone would certainly have been aware of their arrival in the area, and their final departure, but the locals were left much more up to their own devices than those in the south of England. No doubt there would have been some Romanisation of the local culture, specifically among the governing élites who worked closely with the Roman military. The local dialect
Cumbrian dialect
The Cumbrian dialect is a local English dialect spoken in Cumbria in northern England, not to be confused with the extinct Celtic language Cumbric that used to be spoken in Cumbria. As in any county, there is a gradual drift in accent towards its neighbours...
word eglus, meaning a church, has survived from Roman times, having been incorporated into the Brythonic language from the Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
ecclesia, showing not only an acceptance of Roman culture among the locals, but also the original introduction of Christianity
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
to the region.
Sub-Roman times
By the time of the official Roman break with Britannia in 410, most of Britain was already acting independently of its occupiers. In Cumbria, because the Roman presence had been almost entirely military rather than civil, the withdrawal is unlikely to have caused much change. Many of the Roman forts may have continued in use as places of local government and habitation; there is evidence suggesting that Birdoswald was inhabited until at least the 6th century.Even before the Romans left Britain, it appears that Coel Hen was an important figure in the Roman province of Northern Britain, which covered everything between the River Humber and the River Tweed
River Tweed
The River Tweed, or Tweed Water, is long and flows primarily through the Borders region of Great Britain. It rises on Tweedsmuir at Tweed's Well near where the Clyde, draining northwest, and the Annan draining south also rise. "Annan, Tweed and Clyde rise oot the ae hillside" as the Border saying...
. It is thought by some that he may have been the last of the Duces Brittanniarum and as such would have commanded the army in this region. After the withdrawal, Coel Hen became the High King of Northern Britain (in the same vein as the Irish Ard Rí) and ruled from Eburacum (now York
York
York is a walled city, situated at the confluence of the Rivers Ouse and Foss in North Yorkshire, England. The city has a rich heritage and has provided the backdrop to major political events throughout much of its two millennia of existence...
).
Following Coel Hen's death, his kingdom was continually divided among his descendants until, in the 6th century Urien is recorded as the king of a land called Rheged
Rheged
Rheged is described in poetic sources as one of the kingdoms of the Hen Ogledd , the Brythonic-speaking region of what is now northern England and southern Scotland, during the Early Middle Ages...
, which is thought to have been centred on modern Cumbria but also included large parts of Dumfriesshire
Dumfriesshire
Dumfriesshire or the County of Dumfries is a registration county of Scotland. The lieutenancy area of Dumfries has similar boundaries.Until 1975 it was a county. Its county town was Dumfries...
, Lancashire
Lancashire
Lancashire is a non-metropolitan county of historic origin in the North West of England. It takes its name from the city of Lancaster, and is sometimes known as the County of Lancaster. Although Lancaster is still considered to be the county town, Lancashire County Council is based in Preston...
and Yorkshire
Yorkshire
Yorkshire is a historic county of northern England and the largest in the United Kingdom. Because of its great size in comparison to other English counties, functions have been increasingly undertaken over time by its subdivisions, which have also been subject to periodic reform...
. The Kingdom was based at Llwyfenydd, believed to be what is now the Lyvennet Beck, a tributary of the River Eden
River Eden, Cumbria
The River Eden is a river that flows through Cumbria, England on its way to the Solway Firth.-Course of river:The Eden rises in Black Fell Moss, Mallerstang, on the high ground between High Seat, Yorkshire Dales and Hugh Seat. Here it forms the boundary between the counties of Cumbria and North...
in east Cumbria. The little that is known about Rheged and its kings comes from the poems of Taliesin
Taliesin
Taliesin was an early British poet of the post-Roman period whose work has possibly survived in a Middle Welsh manuscript, the Book of Taliesin...
, who was bard to Urien. It is known that under Urien's leadership, the kings of the north fought against the encroaching Angles and that he was betrayed by one of his own allies, Morcant Bulc, who arranged his assassination after the battle of Ynys Metcaut (Lindisfarne
Lindisfarne
Lindisfarne is a tidal island off the north-east coast of England. It is also known as Holy Island and constitutes a civil parish in Northumberland...
) around 585 AD.
Unfortunately the lack of documentary or even archaeological evidence from this period of Cumbria's history has meant that history and legend have become hopelessly intertwined and the fragments of certainty have become the basis of local myth. One of Cumbria's greatest heroes is Urien Rheged's son, Owain
Owain mab Urien
Owain mab Urien was the son of Urien, king of Rheged c. 590, and fought with his father against the Angles of Bernicia. The historical figure of Owain became incorporated into the Arthurian cycle of legends where he is also known as Ywain, Yvain, Ewain or Uwain...
(usually Ewain in Cumbria), who is supposed to have lived at Castle Hewen, believed to be a Romano-British hillfort south of Carlisle.
As with many other areas with Celtic connections, there are a number of Arthurian legends associated with Cumbria. Arthur's father, Uther Pendragon
Uther Pendragon
Uther Pendragon is a legendary king of sub-Roman Britain and the father of King Arthur.A few minor references to Uther appear in Old Welsh poems, but his biography was first written down by Geoffrey of Monmouth in his Historia Regum Britanniae , and Geoffrey's account of the character was used in...
is supposed to have live at Pendragon Castle, high in the upper Eden Valley, although the castle itself is probably 12th century and was originally called Mallerstang Castle. It is also believed that Arthur's famous last Battle of Camlann in which he was fatally wounded was fought in the vicinity of Birdoswald, whose Roman named was Camboglanna. More popular in local legend are associations with Arthur's knight Lancelot
Lancelot
Sir Lancelot du Lac is one of the Knights of the Round Table in the Arthurian legend. He is the most trusted of King Arthur's knights and plays a part in many of Arthur's victories...
, who is believed to have been from Tarn Wadling, now a dried up lake near High Hesket (and overlooked by Owain map Urien's Castle Hewen). Even King Arthur's Round Table, a massive earthwork near Penrith, has no actual associations with Arthur but is said to have been a duelling ground for Lancelot. Finally, the Roman Bath-house at Ravenglass, known locally as Walls Castle, is thought to be the Arthurian Lyons Garde.
Sub-Roman Britain
Sub-Roman Britain is a term derived from an archaeological label for the material culture of Britain in Late Antiquity: the term "Sub-Roman" was invented to describe the potsherds in sites of the 5th century and the 6th century, initially with an implication of decay of locally-made wares from a...
in Cumbria that can be assumed with a little more certainty is the early establishment of Christianity. A number of early saints are associated with the region, including Saint Patrick
Saint Patrick
Saint Patrick was a Romano-Briton and Christian missionary, who is the most generally recognized patron saint of Ireland or the Apostle of Ireland, although Brigid of Kildare and Colmcille are also formally patron saints....
, Saint Ninian
Saint Ninian
Saint Ninian is a Christian saint first mentioned in the 8th century as being an early missionary among the Pictish peoples of what is now Scotland...
and Saint Kentigern.
Patrick was born to a family of local dignitaries at Banna venta Berniae, assumed to be Ravenglass (whose Roman name was Glannaventa) or somewhere in the Solway region of Carlisle. Several places are traditionally associated with Patrick, such as Aspatria
Aspatria
Aspatria is a small town and civil parish in Cumbria, England, and lies half way between Maryport and Wigton, on the A596. Historically within Cumberland, it is about away from the coast. It is approximately seven miles from the northern boundary of the Lake District, and located to the south east...
and Patterdale
Patterdale
Patterdale is a small village and civil parish in the eastern part of the English Lake District in the Eden District of Cumbria, and the long valley in which they are found, also called the Ullswater Valley....
, largely because both derive their names from historical Patricks, but there is no evidence to suggest that there is any association with these places.
Saint Ninian, born about 360 AD, was almost certainly of Cumbrian origin and has strong associations with Ninekirks
Ninekirks
Ninekirks , dedicated to Saint Ninian, was formerly the parish church of Brougham, Cumbria. It is situated on the south bank of the River Eamont near its confluence with the River Eden.-Importance:...
near Penrith. Not only did Ninian give his name to the place, he is believed to have had a hermitage in the caves of Isis Parlis overlooking the present church, which was originally dedicated to him. Earthworks in the area also give tantalising clues to an early monastery here. Ninian is often credited with the conversion of the Cymry to Christianity, despite its original introduction to the area by Romans.
By the 6th century, however, it seems that the Cymry had fallen back into old pagan ways and that it was the responsibility of Saint Kentigern to re-Christianise the area. Kentigern, or Mungo as he was affectionately known, was a contemporary of Urien Rheged (although one source claims that he was the illegitimate son of Owain mab Urien) who is known to have been a Christian, but his subjects might have been less devout. Around 553 AD Kentigern was expelled from Strathclyde where he was based, because of a strong anti-Christian movement. The fact that he fled as far as Wales, and could not find refuge in Cumbria, suggests that similar feeling might have been popular here. However, in 573 AD a battle took place at Ardderydd (Arthuret
Arthuret
Arthuret is a civil parish in the Carlisle district of Cumbria, England. According to the 2001 census it had a population of 2,434. The parish includes the small town of Longtown and the village of Easton...
) on the border with Scotland, between the Christian King Rhydderch Hael of Strathclyde and the pagan King Gwenddolau and was a victory for the Christians, after which Kentigern returned to Strathclyde. What involvement Rheged had in this battle is not clear, but it seems they benefitted by gaining the land formerly called Caer-Wenddolau (modern Carwinley) by the Border Esk separating Cumbria from Dumfries and Galloway
Dumfries and Galloway
Dumfries and Galloway is one of 32 unitary council areas of Scotland. It was one of the nine administrative 'regions' of mainland Scotland created in 1975 by the Local Government etc. Act 1973...
, and they may have even amalgamated with Strathclyde to form a sort of dual-kingdom.
Angles
Around the year 638 AD Oswiu, who would become the King of Northumbria, married Riemmelth (Rhiainfellt), a direct descendant of Urien Rheged and a Princess of the kingdom. This peaceable alliance between the British and English nations signalled the beginning of the end of Cumbrian independence, as Angles from the north east began to filter into the Eden Valley and along the north and south coasts of the county.It is possible that at the time of the Synod of Whitby
Synod of Whitby
The Synod of Whitby was a seventh century Northumbriansynod where King Oswiu of Northumbria ruled that his kingdom would calculate Easter and observe the monastic tonsure according to the customs of Rome, rather than the customs practised by Iona and its satellite institutions...
in 664 AD, when the Celtic Church of the North was abandoned in favour of the Roman Church, which was dominant in the south of England, much if not all of Cumbria was subject to the will of the Northumbrian Kings. The area certainly seems to have undergone a full scale conversion to the Roman faith. In 670 AD, Oswiu's son—but not by Riemmelth—Ecgfrith
Ecgfrith of Northumbria
King Ecgfrith was the King of Northumbria from 670 until his death. He ruled over Northumbria when it was at the height of its power, but his reign ended with a disastrous defeat in which he lost his life.-Early life:...
ascended the throne of Northumbria and it was probably in that year that the Bewcastle Cross
Bewcastle Cross
The Bewcastle Cross is an Anglo-Saxon high cross still in its original position in the churchyard of Bewcastle, near Carlisle, Cumbria, England. The cross probably dates from the 7th or early 8th century and features reliefs and inscriptions in the runic alphabet...
was erected, bearing English runes, which shows that they were certainly present in the area. But it seems that Cumbria was little more than a province at this time and, although Anglian influences were clearly seeping in, the region remained essentially British and retained its own client-kings. In 685 AD, when Saint Cuthbert was granted lands in Cumbria by Aldfrith, the new King of Northumbria, it is said he was given Cartmel and all the Britons therein, showing that even areas where Anglian settlement was greatest, the British were still predominant.
Vikings
Norsemen
Norsemen is used to refer to the group of people as a whole who spoke what is now called the Old Norse language belonging to the North Germanic branch of Indo-European languages, especially Norwegian, Icelandic, Faroese, Swedish and Danish in their earlier forms.The meaning of Norseman was "people...
settlers is thought to have been around 925 AD. Unlike much of the country to the east, the Vikings of Cumbria were Norwegians
Norwegians
Norwegians constitute both a nation and an ethnic group native to Norway. They share a common culture and speak the Norwegian language. Norwegian people and their descendants are found in migrant communities worldwide, notably in United States, Canada and Brazil.-History:Towards the end of the 3rd...
who came via Ireland
Ireland
Ireland is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth...
, Scotland
Scotland
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
and the Isle of Man
Isle of Man
The Isle of Man , otherwise known simply as Mann , is a self-governing British Crown Dependency, located in the Irish Sea between the islands of Great Britain and Ireland, within the British Isles. The head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who holds the title of Lord of Mann. The Lord of Mann is...
. Fifty years earlier the Danes led by Halfdan
Halfdan
Halfdan was a late 5th and early 6th century legendary Danish king of the Scylding lineage, the son of king named Fróði in many accounts, noted mainly as the father to the two kings who succeeded him in the rule of Denmark, kings named Hroðgar and Halga in the Old English poem Beowulf and named...
had entered Cumbria through the Stainmore Pass and ransacked the area, reducing Carlisle to such a state that it remained in ruins for the next two hundred years, and annexed Cumbria to the Danelaw
Danelaw
The Danelaw, as recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , is a historical name given to the part of England in which the laws of the "Danes" held sway and dominated those of the Anglo-Saxons. It is contrasted with "West Saxon law" and "Mercian law". The term has been extended by modern historians to...
.
For a time, it is likely that the Vikings would have simply raided the coastal areas of the county by sea before returning to Ireland and the Isle of Man. But they soon came to settle, and seem to have preferred the uplands of the central region, no doubt because the Angles had not penetrated so far and land was easier to come by. Their influence is still evident in the vast number of place names, particularly in the central lakes, which include Norse elements such as dale
Dale (origin)
A dale is an open valley. The name is used when describing the physical geography of an area. It is used most frequently in the Lowlands of Scotland and in the North of England, where the term "fell" commonly refers to the mountains or hills that flank the dale.The word dale comes from the Old...
, fell
Fell
“Fell” is a word used to refer to mountains, or certain types of mountainous landscape, in Scandinavia, the Isle of Man, and parts of northern England.- Etymology :...
, howe
Howe
Howe from the meaning hill, knoll, or mound may refer to:*a tumulus , in particular a Bowl barrow.Places in the United Kingdom:*Howe, North Yorkshire*Howe, Norfolk*Maeshowe, Orkney*Duggleby Howe, East Yorkshire...
and thwaite.
During this period much of Cumberland and Westmorland - traditionally to the Rere Cross on Stainmore
Stainmore
Stainmore is a civil parish in the Eden District of Cumbria, England, including the villages of North Stainmore and South Stainmore. It has a population of 253.- Geography :...
formed part of the Kingdom of Strathclyde
Kingdom of Strathclyde
Strathclyde , originally Brythonic Ystrad Clud, was one of the early medieval kingdoms of the celtic people called the Britons in the Hen Ogledd, the Brythonic-speaking parts of what is now southern Scotland and northern England. The kingdom developed during the post-Roman period...
also known as Cumbria. One theory is that Viking colonisation was encouraged by the Cumbric speaking kings as a bulwark against the English to the South
In 945 AD the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of annals in Old English chronicling the history of the Anglo-Saxons. The original manuscript of the Chronicle was created late in the 9th century, probably in Wessex, during the reign of Alfred the Great...
records a defeat of the Cumbrians and the harrying of Cumberland (referring not just to the English county of Cumberland
Cumberland
Cumberland is a historic county of North West England, on the border with Scotland, from the 12th century until 1974. It formed an administrative county from 1889 to 1974 and now forms part of Cumbria....
but also all the Cumbrian lands up to Glasgow). Edmund I of England defeated the last Cumbrian king, Dunmail
Dunmail
Dunmail, last King of Cumbria is a figure of both history and legend.In 945AD the Saxon king Edmund I of England conquered Strathclyde and ceded Cumbria to his ally, Malcolm I MacDonald, king of Scotland...
- possibly Dyfnwal III of Strathclyde. Following the defeat, the area was ceded to Malcolm I of Scotland, although it is probable that the southernmost areas around Furness
Furness
Furness is a peninsula in south Cumbria, England. At its widest extent, it is considered to cover the whole of North Lonsdale, that part of the Lonsdale hundred that is an exclave of the historic county of Lancashire, lying to the north of Morecambe Bay....
, Cartmel and Kendal
Kendal
Kendal, anciently known as Kirkby in Kendal or Kirkby Kendal, is a market town and civil parish within the South Lakeland District of Cumbria, England...
remained in under English control.
The influence of the Vikings remained strong until the Middle Ages, particularly in the central region. A Norse-English creole
Creole language
A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable natural language developed from the mixing of parent languages; creoles differ from pidgins in that they have been nativized by children as their primary language, making them have features of natural languages that are normally missing from...
was spoken until at least the 12th century and evidence of the imposition of the Viking political system is shown in the existence of several possible Thing mounds
Thing (assembly)
A thing was the governing assembly in Germanic and introduced into some Celtic societies, made up of the free people of the community and presided by lawspeakers, meeting in a place called a thingstead...
throughout the county, the most significant of which is at Fell Foot in Langdale. As an example of Viking relics, a hoard of Viking coins and silver objects was discovered at Penrith
Penrith, Cumbria
Penrith was an urban district between 1894 and 1974, when it was merged into Eden District.The authority's area was coterminous with the civil parish of Penrith although when the council was abolished Penrith became an unparished area....
.
Domesday
Domesday Book
Domesday Book , now held at The National Archives, Kew, Richmond upon Thames in South West London, is the record of the great survey of much of England and parts of Wales completed in 1086...
was compiled on behalf of William I
William I of England
William I , also known as William the Conqueror , was the first Norman King of England from Christmas 1066 until his death. He was also Duke of Normandy from 3 July 1035 until his death, under the name William II...
only the southern part of the county was included and even that was only as annexes to Yorkshire.
For the most part the Cumbrian Domesday entries are little more than a list of place names and the amount of taxable land therein, with the names of the pre- and post-conquest landowners - a much sparser account than much of the rest of England. This in itself shows the isolated and remote nature of the area at this time, but the entries also provide evidence that Cumbria's prosperity had decreased significantly since the middle of the previous millennium - no doubt in part caused by the Conqueror's Harrying of the North
Harrying of the North
The Harrying of the North was a series of campaigns waged by William the Conqueror in the winter of 1069–1070 to subjugate Northern England, and is part of the Norman conquest of England...
.
Hougun
The western-most entries for Cumbria, covering the Duddon and Furness Peninsulas are largely recorded as part of the Manor of Hougun. The entry in Domesday BookDomesday Book
Domesday Book , now held at The National Archives, Kew, Richmond upon Thames in South West London, is the record of the great survey of much of England and parts of Wales completed in 1086...
covering Hougun refers to the time when it was held by Earl Tostig about 1060. The exact location of Hougun has been long disputed and Millom
Millom
Millom is a town and civil parish on the estuary of the River Duddon in the southwest of Cumbria, England. The name is Cumbrian dialect for "At the mills". The town is accessible both by rail and an A class road...
is often suggested, although High Haume near Dalton-in-Furness
Dalton-in-Furness
Dalton-in-Furness is a small town of 8,394 people, north east of Barrow-in-Furness, in Cumbria, England.-History:Dalton is mentioned in the Domesday Book, written as "Daltune" as one of the townships forming the Manor of Hougun held by Earl Tostig. Historically, it was the capital of Furness...
has also been suggested given that it was recorded in 1336 as Howehom. The name itself is thought to derive from the Old Norse
Old Norse
Old Norse is a North Germanic language that was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and inhabitants of their overseas settlements during the Viking Age, until about 1300....
haugr meaning 'among the hills,' which could refer to almost anywhere in the area. Houganai or island of Hougun was also the name given to nearby Walney Island
Walney Island
The Isle of Walney, also known as Walney Island, is an island in the United Kingdom which lies off the west coast of England, at the northern tip of Morecambe Bay. It forms part of the Borough of Barrow-in-Furness, and it is separated from the mainland at Barrow by Walney Channel, a narrow channel...
.
The Hougun entry is as follows (land is measured in carucate
Carucate
The carucate or ploughland was a unit of assessment for tax used in most Danelaw counties of England, and is found for example in Domesday Book. The carucate was based on the area a plough team of eight oxen could till in a single annual season...
s in the north, which is roughly the amount of land assume to provide for one household for one year):
- In Hougun Manor Earl Tosti had four carucates rateable to the geldDanegeldThe Danegeld was a tax raised to pay tribute to the Viking raiders to save a land from being ravaged. It was called the geld or gafol in eleventh-century sources; the term Danegeld did not appear until the early twelfth century...
. - In Chiluestreuic iii c., Sourebi iii c., Hietun iiii c., Daltune ii c., Warte ii c., Neutun vi c.,
- Walletun vi c., Suntun ii c., Fordebodele ii c., Rosse vi c., Hert ii c., Lies vi c., Alia Lies ii c.,
- Glassertun ii c., Steintun ii c., Clivertun iiii c., Ouregrave iii c., Meretun iiii c., Penni-
- getun ii c., Gerleuuorde ii c., Borch vi c., Beretsiege iiii c., Witingham iiii c., Bodele iiii c.,
- Santacherche i c., Hougenai vi c.. All these vills belong to Hougun.
Hougun (?High Haume/Millom
Millom
Millom is a town and civil parish on the estuary of the River Duddon in the southwest of Cumbria, England. The name is Cumbrian dialect for "At the mills". The town is accessible both by rail and an A class road...
), 4 c., Tosti
- Chiluestreuic (Killerwick, lost), 3c.
- Sourebi (SowerbySowerbyThe Sowerby family was a British family of four generations of naturalists, illustrators, botanists, and zoologists.*James Sowerby **James De Carle Sowerby **George Brettingham Sowerby I...
), 3c. - Hietun (HawcoatHawcoatHawcoat is a ward of the UK town Barrow-in-Furness, Cumbria, North West England.The ward is one of the few places in Barrow that has been permanently inhabited since the middle ages; Hawcoat was named and identified as Hietun in the Domesday Book. It is the most northerly ward in Barrow and in 2001...
), 4c. - Daltune (Dalton-in-FurnessDalton-in-FurnessDalton-in-Furness is a small town of 8,394 people, north east of Barrow-in-Furness, in Cumbria, England.-History:Dalton is mentioned in the Domesday Book, written as "Daltune" as one of the townships forming the Manor of Hougun held by Earl Tostig. Historically, it was the capital of Furness...
), 2c. - Warte (Thwaite Flat), 2c.
- Neutun (Newton), 6c.
- Walletun (Waltoncote, lost), 6c.
- Suntun (?Sunbrick/Stank), 2c.
- Fordbodele (FordbootleMuchlandMuchland is a medieval manor in Low Furness in the county of Cumbria in northern England. The manor was the seat of the Lords of Aldingham, and included at its peak the villages of Bardsea, Urswick, Scales, Stainton, Sunbrick, Baycliff, Gleaston, Aldingham, Dendron, Leece and Newbiggin...
, lost), 2c. - Rosse (RooseRooseRoose or Roosecote is a suburb and ward of Barrow-in-Furness, Cumbria, England. The word 'roose' is Celtic for "moor" or "heath" and the suffix 'cote' of Roosecote means "hut" or "huts"...
), 6c. - Hert (HartMuchlandMuchland is a medieval manor in Low Furness in the county of Cumbria in northern England. The manor was the seat of the Lords of Aldingham, and included at its peak the villages of Bardsea, Urswick, Scales, Stainton, Sunbrick, Baycliff, Gleaston, Aldingham, Dendron, Leece and Newbiggin...
, lost), 2c. - Lies (LeeceLeeceLeece is a village on the Furness peninsula of South Lakeland in Cumbria, England, situated between the towns of Ulverston and Barrow-in-Furness...
), 6c. - Alia Lies (another LeeceMuchlandMuchland is a medieval manor in Low Furness in the county of Cumbria in northern England. The manor was the seat of the Lords of Aldingham, and included at its peak the villages of Bardsea, Urswick, Scales, Stainton, Sunbrick, Baycliff, Gleaston, Aldingham, Dendron, Leece and Newbiggin...
, lost), 2c. - Glassertun (GleastonGleastonGleaston is a village with a population of around 400 in the Furness area of South Cumbria, situated between the towns of Barrow-in-Furness, Dalton-in-Furness and Ulverston. The history of the village can be traced as far back as the mesolithic period and it was the centre of the manor of Muchland...
), 2c. - Steintun (StaintonStainton, CarlisleStainton is a small village in the City of Carlisle District, in the English county of Cumbria. It is near the city of Carlisle....
), 2c. - Clivertun (CriveltonMuchlandMuchland is a medieval manor in Low Furness in the county of Cumbria in northern England. The manor was the seat of the Lords of Aldingham, and included at its peak the villages of Bardsea, Urswick, Scales, Stainton, Sunbrick, Baycliff, Gleaston, Aldingham, Dendron, Leece and Newbiggin...
, lost) 4c. - Ourgrave (Orgrave), 3c.
- Meretun (Marton), 4c.
- Pennigetun (PenningtonPennington, CumbriaPennington, Cumbria is a small village and civil parish in Furness, a region of Cumbria, England. Pennington lies in between Ulverston and Lindal....
), 2c. - Gerleuuorde (IrelethAskam and IrelethDuring the Middle Ages, the entire area was controlled by the Cistercian monks of Furness Abbey. During this time, Ireleth was little more than one of many farming communities in Furness. The iron ore developments of Askam largely bypassed Ireleth, and the village developed slowly, housing farmers...
), 2c. - Borch (?Broughton-in-FurnessBroughton-in-FurnessBroughton in Furness is a small town on the southern boundary of England's Lake District National Park. It is located in the Furness region of Cumbria, which was part of Lancashire before 1974...
/Birkrigg), 6c. - Beretseige (Bardsea), 4c.
- Witingham (Whicham), 4c.
- Bodele (BootleBootleBootle is a town within the Metropolitan Borough of Sefton in Merseyside, England, and a 'Post town' in the L postcode area. Formally known as Bootle-cum-Linacre, the town is 4 miles to the north of Liverpool city centre, and has a total resident population of 77,640.Historically part of...
), 4c. - Santacherche (KirksantonKirksantonKirksanton is a village on the A5093 road, in Copeland Borough, in the county of Cumbria. Nearby settlements include the town of Millom and the villages of Silecroft and Whicham....
) 1c. - Hougenai (Walney), 6c.
Ulvreston (Ulverston
Ulverston
Ulverston is a market town and civil parish in the South Lakeland district of Cumbria in north-west England. Historically part of Lancashire, the town is located in the Furness area, close to the Lake District, and just north of Morecambe Bay....
), 6c., Turulf
- Dene (DendronDendron, CumbriaDendron is a small village in South Cumbria, around three miles from the town of Barrow-in-Furness. The village was once just a collection of farms, but many of the old farm buildings have now been converted into houses for commuters working in Barrow, Ulverston and Dalton.The village is mentioned...
), 1c. - Bodeltun (Bolton-with-Adgarley), 6c.
Aldingham (Aldingham), 6c., Ernulf
Cherchebi (?Cartmel
Cartmel
Cartmel is a village in Cumbria, England, situated north-west of Grange-over-Sands and close to the River Eea. Historically it was in Lancashire; boundary changes brought it into the newly created county of Cumbria in 1974, yet keeping it within the boundaries of the traditional County Palatine...
), Dwan from the King
Holecher (Holker), Orm from the King
Neutun (High and Low Newton), King's land
Bretebi (Birkby), Orm from the King
Further east, in what was later to become Westmorland
Westmorland
Westmorland is an area of North West England and one of the 39 historic counties of England. It formed an administrative county from 1889 to 1974, after which the entirety of the county was absorbed into the new county of Cumbria.-Early history:...
, several other places are mentioned but with similar brevity. Most of the places are within the low lying areas around the Kent
River Kent
The River Kent is a short river in the county of Cumbria in England. The river originates in hills surrounding Kentmere, and flows for around 20 miles into the north of Morecambe Bay. The Lake District National Park includes the upper reaches of the river within its boundaries.The river passes...
and Lune
River Lune
The River Lune is a river in Cumbria and Lancashire, England.It is formed at Wath, in the parish of Ravenstonedale, Cumbria, at the confluence of Sandwath Beck and Weasdale Beck...
valleys. Most of the entries are in two groups: the first is land around Kendal
Kendal
Kendal, anciently known as Kirkby in Kendal or Kirkby Kendal, is a market town and civil parish within the South Lakeland District of Cumbria, England...
belonging to the King which had belonged to a Gillemichael before the Conquest; and the second is land belonging to Roger de Poitou
Roger the Poitevin
Roger the Poitevin was born in Normandy in the mid-1060s and died before 1140 . He was an Anglo-Norman aristocrat, who possessed large holdings in both England and through his marriage in France....
and held by one Ernwin the Priest under him:
- In Stercaland, Mimet, Cherchebi, Helsingetune, Steintun, Bodelforde, Hoton, Bortun,
- Daltun, Patun. Gillemichael had them. There are xx c. of land taxable in them.
- In Biedun Earl Tosti had vi c. taxable. Now Roger de Poitou has them, and Ernwin the
- Priest under him. In Yeland iiii c., Fareltun iiii c., Prestun iii c., Borwick ii c.,
- Hennecastre ii c., Eureshaim ii c., Lefuenes ii c.
King's land
- Stercaland (Strickland Roger)
- Mimet (Mint)
- Cherchebi (KendalKendalKendal, anciently known as Kirkby in Kendal or Kirkby Kendal, is a market town and civil parish within the South Lakeland District of Cumbria, England...
) [previously known as Kirkby Kendal] - Helsingetune (HelsingtonHelsingtonHelsington is a civil parish in the South Lakeland district of the English county of Cumbria. It includes the village of Brigsteer and Sizergh Castle and Garden, a property owned by the National Trust. The parish has a population of 288....
) - Steintun (Stainton)
- Bodelforde lost
- Hoton (Old Hutton)
- Bortun (Burton-in-Kendal)
- Daltun (Dalton)
- Patun (Patton)
Biedun (Beetham
Beetham
Beetham is a village and civil parish in Cumbria, England, situated on the border with Lancashire. It is part of the Arnside and Silverdale Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty.-Demography:The parish had a population of 1,724 recorded in the 2001 census,...
), 6c., Ernwin the Priest from Roger de Poitou
- Yeland (Yealand Conyers/Yealand Redmayne), 4c.
- Fareltun (FarletonFarleton, CumbriaFarleton is a village in the English county of Cumbria.Historically within the county of Westmorland, Farleton lies just to the east of the main A6070 road, from which it is divided by the Lancaster Canal, some south of Kendal...
) 4c. - Preston (Preston Patrick/Preston Richard) 3c.
- Borwick (Borwick) 2c.
- Hennecastre (HincasterHincasterHincaster is a small hamlet and civil parish in the South Lakeland district of Cumbria, England, located between Kendal and Milnthorpe. It has a population of 195. Hincaster is most famous for the Hincaster Tunnel which is the longest tunnel on the Lancaster Canal.-Hincaster Tunnel:The building of...
), 2c. - Eureshaim (Heversham), 2c.
- Lefuenes (LevensLevensLevens is a commune in the Alpes-Maritimes département in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in southeastern France.Its inhabitants are called Levensans .-Origin and evolution of the name:...
) 2c.
Brebrune (Barbon), King's land
Castretune (Casterton), King's land
Holme (Holme), King's land
Hotun (Hutton Roof), King's land
Cherchebi (Kirkby Lonsdale), King's land
Lupetun (Lupton), King's land
Manzserge (Mansergh), King's land
Middeltun (Middleton), King's land
Scottish wars
It did not take long for the Normans to assert their control over the whole of Cumbria. In 1092, William IIWilliam II of England
William II , the third son of William I of England, was King of England from 1087 until 1100, with powers over Normandy, and influence in Scotland. He was less successful in extending control into Wales...
conquered Carlisle for England, beginning a period of centuries of border conflict and instability. Lands in the county were granted to Norman allies to secure the taking and almost immediately they began constructing strongholds at places such as Carlisle, Brough and Liddel to protect the new border.
In 1136 King David I of Scotland
David I of Scotland
David I or Dabíd mac Maíl Choluim was a 12th-century ruler who was Prince of the Cumbrians and later King of the Scots...
invaded Carlisle and captured it forcing King Stephen
Stephen of England
Stephen , often referred to as Stephen of Blois , was a grandson of William the Conqueror. He was King of England from 1135 to his death, and also the Count of Boulogne by right of his wife. Stephen's reign was marked by the Anarchy, a civil war with his cousin and rival, the Empress Matilda...
to cede much of Cumberland and Westmorland to him, and in 1139 David's son Prince Henry was created Earl of Northumberland, giving him control of the administrative area of Northumberland, Cumberland, Westmorland and Lancashire north of the River Ribble
River Ribble
The River Ribble is a river that runs through North Yorkshire and Lancashire, in northern England. The river's drainage basin also includes parts of Greater Manchester around Wigan.-Geography:...
. In return for acknowledging their new King's overlordship the Norman lords of Cumbria were mostly allowed to keep their lands and their positions and there appears to have been a short period of relative peace as there are no known instances of castle building at this time.
But in 1157, Malcolm IV of Scotland surrendered the lands granted in 1136 back to England. In the period which followed, many of the great castles of Cumbria were built or strengthened, including Carlisle
Carlisle Castle
Carlisle Castle is situated in Carlisle, in the English county of Cumbria, near the ruins of Hadrian's Wall. The castle is over 900 years old and has been the scene of many historical episodes in British history. Given the proximity of Carlisle to the border between England and Scotland, it...
, Brougham
Brougham Castle
Brougham Castle is a medieval building about south-east of Penrith, Cumbria, England. It is a Scheduled Monument and open to the public. Founded by Robert de Vieuxpont in the early 13th century on the site of a Roman fort, it sits near the confluence of the rivers Eamont and Lowther...
, Brough
Brough Castle
Brough Castle is a ruined castle in the village of Brough, Cumbria , England. It is currently administered by English Heritage. The Castle consists of a large mound, on which there is an extensive range of buildings, with a circular corner tower, and the remnants of an older four storey...
and Appleby
Appleby-in-Westmorland
Appleby-in-Westmorland is a town and civil parish in Cumbria, in North West England. It is situated within a loop of the River Eden and has a population of approximately 2,500. It is in the historic county of Westmorland, of which it was the county town. The town's name was simply Appleby, until...
, strongly suggesting that there was a sense of insecurity at this time.
It was around this time that the ancient counties which made up modern Cumbria came into existence. Westmorland was recorded as early as 966 when it was mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of annals in Old English chronicling the history of the Anglo-Saxons. The original manuscript of the Chronicle was created late in the 9th century, probably in Wessex, during the reign of Alfred the Great...
, but at this time it was not an administrative district. It was mentioned again in 1131 by which time it had become a more definite political district, although it wasn't until 1177 that it was formally created from the baronies of Appleby and Kendal. After the area's recovery from Scotland in 1092, Cumberland was granted to Ranulph le Meschin as the 'Honour of Carlisle' but reverted to the Crown in 1121 when he became Earl of Chester. After being recovered from Scotland again in 1157 the barony of Copeland
Copeland, Cumbria
Copeland is a local government district and borough in western Cumbria, England. Its council is based in Whitehaven. It was formed on 1 April 1974 by the merger of the borough of Whitehaven, Ennerdale Rural District and Millom Rural District....
was added to the area to form the county as it remained until 1974; it was renamed Cumberland in 1177. Lancashire was one of the last counties to be formed in England in 1182 although its boundaries may have been fixed around 1100. Why the Furness and Cartmel peninsulas were included in the county of Lancashire when they are entirely cut off from the main body by Morecambe Bay
Morecambe Bay
Morecambe Bay is a large bay in northwest England, nearly due east of the Isle of Man and just to the south of the Lake District National Park. It is the largest expanse of intertidal mudflats and sand in the United Kingdom, covering a total area of 310 km².-Natural features:The rivers Leven,...
is not immediately obvious. If the borders were settled as early as 1100 the decision may have been due to the influence of Roger de Poitou who held lands on both sides of the Bay, but it is more likely that it was a result of the cross-sands communications between Furness and Lancaster being stronger than those with Cumberland and Westmorland to the north due to the diffuculties of travelling out of the area.
The 13th century was a relatively peaceful one as relations between England and Scotland remained amiable for a while following the Treaty of York
Treaty of York
The Treaty of York was an agreement between Henry III of England and Alexander II of Scotland, signed at York on 25 September 1237. It detailed the future status of several feudal properties and addressed other issues between the two kings, and indirectly marked the end of Scotland's attempts to...
in which Alexander II
Alexander II of Scotland
Alexander II was King of Scots from1214 to his death.-Early life:...
resigned his hereditary claim to Cumberland and Westmorland in return for several manors in both counties. It also appears to have been a period of relative prosperity, with many of the monasteries which had been established in the 12th century beginning to flourish; most notably Furness Abbey
Furness Abbey
Furness Abbey, or St. Mary of Furness is a former monastery situated on the outskirts of the English town of Barrow-in-Furness, Cumbria. The abbey dates back to 1123 and was once the second wealthiest and most powerful Cistercian monastery in the country, behind only Fountains Abbey in North...
in the south of the county which went on to become the second richest religious house in the north of England with lands across Cumbria and in Yorkshire. Wool was probably the greatest commercial asset of Cumbria at this time, with sheep being bred on the fells then wool carried along a network of packhorse
Packhorse
.A packhorse or pack horse refers generally to an equid such as a horse, mule, donkey or pony used for carrying goods on their backs, usually carried in sidebags or panniers. Typically packhorses are used to cross difficult terrain, where the absence of roads prevents the use of wheeled vehicles. ...
trails to centres like Kendal, which became wealthy on the wool trade and gave its name to the vibrant Kendal Green colour. Iron was also commercially exploited at this time and the wide expanses of Forest became prime hunting ground for the wealthy.
Edward I of England
Edward I , also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots, was King of England from 1272 to 1307. The first son of Henry III, Edward was involved early in the political intrigues of his father's reign, which included an outright rebellion by the English barons...
. In 1286 he confiscated the manors granted in 1237 and in 1292 installed John Balliol on the Scottish throne and when Balliol invaded Cumbria four years later Edward defeated him and took upon the government of Scotland himself. Resistance came from Scotland in the form of William Wallace
William Wallace
Sir William Wallace was a Scottish knight and landowner who became one of the main leaders during the Wars of Scottish Independence....
and Robert the Bruce and a three hundred year period of regular raids and counter-raids followed which effectively undid the years of economic progress since the Harrying of the North
Harrying of the North
The Harrying of the North was a series of campaigns waged by William the Conqueror in the winter of 1069–1070 to subjugate Northern England, and is part of the Norman conquest of England...
two centuries earlier.
Two early raids of 1316 and 1322, under the leadership of Bruce were particularly damaging and were as far reaching as Yorkshire
Yorkshire
Yorkshire is a historic county of northern England and the largest in the United Kingdom. Because of its great size in comparison to other English counties, functions have been increasingly undertaken over time by its subdivisions, which have also been subject to periodic reform...
. On the second occasion, the Abbot of Furness Abbey went to meet Bruce in an attempt to bribe him into sparing his Abbey and its lands from destruction. The Scottish King accepted the bribe but continued to ransack the entire area anyway, so much so that in a tax inquisition of 1341 the land at nearby Aldingham
Aldingham
Aldingham is a village and civil parish in the South Lakeland district of Cumbria, England. It is situated on the east coast of the Furness peninsula, facing into Morecambe Bay, and is about east of Barrow in Furness, and south of Ulverston...
was said to have decreased in value from £53 6s 8d to just £10 and at Ulverston
Ulverston
Ulverston is a market town and civil parish in the South Lakeland district of Cumbria in north-west England. Historically part of Lancashire, the town is located in the Furness area, close to the Lake District, and just north of Morecambe Bay....
from £35 6s 8d to only £5.
Border Reivers
In the three hundred years leading up to the Union of the English and Scottish crowns in 1603, as well as actual military clashes between the two countries, unrest remained constant thanks to the inhabitants of the Borderlands themselves, often called the Border ReiversBorder Reivers
Border Reivers were raiders along the Anglo–Scottish border from the late 13th century to the beginning of the 17th century. Their ranks consisted of both Scottish and English families, and they raided the entire border country without regard to their victims' nationality...
. The Reivers were characterised by strong kinship bonds, forming clan-like groups under a given surname - Hetherington and Carleton were two of the most prominent in the Cumbria area. These groups became semi-autonomous from local government, owing far more loyalty to their name than to the king or local lords.
The Reivers take their name from the fact that they lived by raiding (from the Old English rēafian 'to rob'), rustling cattle and sheep from across the border and even looting the armies of their own King, such was their antipathy towards their nations. The reiving became so common and so violent by the 16th century that wealthier border families took to building bastle house
Bastle house
Bastle houses are a type of construction found along the Anglo-Scottish border, in the areas formerly plagued by border Reivers. They are farmhouses, characterised by elaborate security measures against raids...
s or pele towers - fortified dwellings, often with room for livestock and supplies beneath the accommodation - which are still a common site in the north of Cumbria.
The problem of the reivers worsened in the last few decades of the 16th century, first because an increase in taxes forced an increase in rents which caused a breakdown of the ties between landlords and tenants, and second because many of the border families remained staunch Catholics following the Protestant Reformation. Only when the border effectively disintegrated with the Union of the Crowns in 1603 did reiving cease to dominate the lives of the border inhabitants.
Heavy Industry
Seaton Iron Works was an iron works which operated between 1762 and 1857 in Seaton, Cumberland. As well as making iron it also manufactured iron goods, and before 1800 was a manufacturer of steam engineSteam engine
A steam engine is a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid.Steam engines are external combustion engines, where the working fluid is separate from the combustion products. Non-combustion heat sources such as solar power, nuclear power or geothermal energy may be...
s.
Lakeland Poets
- William WordsworthWilliam WordsworthWilliam Wordsworth was a major English Romantic poet who, with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, helped to launch the Romantic Age in English literature with the 1798 joint publication Lyrical Ballads....
- Samuel Taylor ColeridgeSamuel Taylor ColeridgeSamuel Taylor Coleridge was an English poet, Romantic, literary critic and philosopher who, with his friend William Wordsworth, was a founder of the Romantic Movement in England and a member of the Lake Poets. He is probably best known for his poems The Rime of the Ancient Mariner and Kubla...
20th century
- 1910 Ais Gill rail accidentHawes Junction rail crashThe Hawes Junction rail crash occurred on 24 December 1910, on the Midland Railway's Settle and Carlisle mainline at the junction with the Wensleydale Railway in Westmorland , England. It was caused when a busy signalman forgot about a pair of light engines waiting at his down starting signal to...
- 1913 Ais Gill rail accident
- World War IIWorld War IIWorld War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
- Barrow BlitzBarrow BlitzThe Barrow Blitz is the name given to the Luftwaffe bombings of Barrow-in-Furness, England during World War II. It took place primarily during April and May 1941, although the earliest Luftwaffe bombing occurred in September 1940.-Prelude:...
- Barrow Blitz
- Windscale fireWindscale fireThe Windscale fire of 10 October 1957 was the worst nuclear accident in Great Britain's history, ranked in severity at level 5 on the 7-point International Nuclear Event Scale. The two piles had been hurriedly built as part of the British atomic bomb project. Windscale Pile No. 1 was operational in...
- 1995 Ais Gill rail accident
2000 - 2010
Leading Cumbria into the 21st century was the 2001 UK Census which showed the county as having a population of 487,607 (237,915 males and 249,692 females). The population density proved fairly low due to Cumbria being the third largest county in England. At the start of the century, Cumbria was one of the least ethnically diverse regions in the country with 99.3% of individuals classing themselves as being of any 'WhiteWhite people
White people is a term which usually refers to human beings characterized, at least in part, by the light pigmentation of their skin...
' background. The next national census is due in 2011 and is expected to show significant change in certain aspects of the county's demography (especially ethnicity, with the 'White' population in Cumbria being estimated at just over 97.9% in 2007 - see also Demographics of Cumbria
Demographics of Cumbria
The British county of Cumbria is located in North West England and has a population of 496,200 . However with an area of 6,768 km² it is England's 3rd largest county, with only 73 per km², it is the country's second least densely populated county...
).
Also in 2001, Cumbria saw one of the most devastating agricultural incidents of recent times. An outbreak of foot-and-mouth resulted in the killing of 10 million cattle and sheep across the UK, out of 2,000 cases nationwide 843 were in Cumbria (or 42% of all cases). Cumbria was the worst affected county in the outbreak which dominated much of the 2001 UK media coverage prior to the September 11 attacks. Cumbria's agriculture and tourism industries were severely scarred, many tourists were put off visiting the Lake District
Lake District
The Lake District, also commonly known as The Lakes or Lakeland, is a mountainous region in North West England. A popular holiday destination, it is famous not only for its lakes and its mountains but also for its associations with the early 19th century poetry and writings of William Wordsworth...
, whilst the local economy is estimated to have lost billions
Pound sterling
The pound sterling , commonly called the pound, is the official currency of the United Kingdom, its Crown Dependencies and the British Overseas Territories of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, British Antarctic Territory and Tristan da Cunha. It is subdivided into 100 pence...
. After huge efforts to prevent the disease from spreading further (by killing infected animals as well as disinfecting every vehicle to enter certain parts of the county) the outbreak was officially halted in October, 2001 (after begin in February the same year).
In 2001, the South Cumbrian town of Barrow-in-Furness
Barrow-in-Furness
Barrow-in-Furness is an industrial town and seaport which forms about half the territory of the wider Borough of Barrow-in-Furness in the county of Cumbria, England. It lies north of Liverpool, northwest of Manchester and southwest from the county town of Carlisle...
hit global headlines after an outbreak of Legionnaires' disease
2002 Barrow-in-Furness Legionnaires' disease outbreak
The 2002 Barrow-in-Furness Legionnaires' disease outbreak was a fatal outbreak of Legionellosis which occurred in Barrow-in-Furness, Cumbria, England it was and still remains the second worst outbreak of its kind in the country's history.-History:...
, the source of the bactera was later found to be from steam coming out of a badly maintained air conditioning unit in the forum 28
Forum 28
The Forum 28 is a media and arts centre located in the British town of Barrow-in-Furness. The site is currently home to a large theatre and stage, several conference and function rooms, Barrow's main tourist information centre and a Costa Coffee outlet...
media and arts centre, ultimately seven people died from contracting the disease and in total the number of cases stood at 172 it was and still remains one of the worst outbreak of its kind in recorded history (the most deadly in the UK's history). Because of the 2001 outbreak, in 2006, Barrow Borough Council became the first public body in the country to have faced corporate manslaughter charges, the charges were cleared however chief architect Gillian Beckingham and Barrow Borough Council were fined £15,000 and £125,000 respectively after both admitted breaching the Health and Safety at Work Act.
On the evening of February 5, 2004, dozens of illegal Chinese workers were collecting cockles
2004 Morecambe Bay cockling disaster
The Morecambe Bay cockling disaster occurred on the evening of 5 February 2004 at Morecambe Bay in North West England, when at least 21 cockle pickers were drowned by an incoming tide off the Lancashire/Cumbrian coast....
off the Cumbrian coast when rising tides led to 23 of them eventually drowning in Morecambe Bay
Morecambe Bay
Morecambe Bay is a large bay in northwest England, nearly due east of the Isle of Man and just to the south of the Lake District National Park. It is the largest expanse of intertidal mudflats and sand in the United Kingdom, covering a total area of 310 km².-Natural features:The rivers Leven,...
. The workers were all illegal immigrants, mainly from the Fujian
Fujian
' , formerly romanised as Fukien or Huguing or Foukien, is a province on the southeast coast of mainland China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, and Guangdong to the south. Taiwan lies to the east, across the Taiwan Strait...
province of China, and have been described as being untrained and inexperienced. They were being exploited by gang leader Lin Liangren who paid them £5 per 25 kg of cockles. local authorities were alerted by one of the gang members who contacted them with a mobile phone, but only one of the workers was rescued from the waters. This was partly due to the fact that the phone call was unclear both to the extent and severity of the danger, and to their location, presumably through a lack of English language ability. A total of 21 bodies, of men and women between the ages of 18 and 45, were recovered from the bay after the incident. Two of the victims were women, the vast majority were young men in their 20's and 30's and it is presumed that two more bodies were lost at sea. The disaster led to the Gangmaster Licensing Act 2004 and the formation of the Gangmasters Licensing Authority
Gangmasters Licensing Authority
The Gangmasters Licensing Authority is an agency in the United Kingdom regulating the supply of workers to the agricultural, horticultural and shellfish industries...
(also the perpetrator, Lin Liangren was sentenced to 14 years' imprisonment, numerous others linked with the disaster were also imprisoned on immigration offences and of perverting the course of justice).
One of several incidents to have occurred on the West Coast Main Line
West Coast Main Line
The West Coast Main Line is the busiest mixed-traffic railway route in Britain, being the country's most important rail backbone in terms of population served. Fast, long-distance inter-city passenger services are provided between London, the West Midlands, the North West, North Wales and the...
in the 21st century was the Tebay rail accident
Tebay rail accident
The Tebay rail accident occurred when four railway workers working on the West Coast Main Line were killed by a runaway wagon near Tebay, Cumbria, England in the early hours of 15 February 2004.-Incident:...
, on the 15th February 2004 four railway workers were hit and killed by a trolley carrying lengths of rail which had not been properly secured and had run away from a maintenance yard several miles away. The boss of the rail maintenance company and a crane operator were tried on charges of manslaughter caused by gross negligence, both men were eventually jailed.
On January 8, 2005 flooding caused massive disruption and damage across the north of the county, this was considered the worst flooding in living memory until the November 2009 Great Britain and Ireland floods, Carlisle
City of Carlisle
The City of Carlisle is a local government district of Cumbria, England, with the status of a city and non-metropolitan district. It is named after its largest settlement, Carlisle, but covers a far larger area which includes the towns of Brampton and Longtown, as well as outlying villages...
was the worst affected location. More than 3,000 properties were affected, 60,000 homes were left without power and some areas of the city were under 7 ft (2.1 m) of water. Significant rainfall burst the banks of the rivers Eden
River Eden, Cumbria
The River Eden is a river that flows through Cumbria, England on its way to the Solway Firth.-Course of river:The Eden rises in Black Fell Moss, Mallerstang, on the high ground between High Seat, Yorkshire Dales and Hugh Seat. Here it forms the boundary between the counties of Cumbria and North...
, Kent
River Kent
The River Kent is a short river in the county of Cumbria in England. The river originates in hills surrounding Kentmere, and flows for around 20 miles into the north of Morecambe Bay. The Lake District National Park includes the upper reaches of the river within its boundaries.The river passes...
, Derwent
River Derwent, Cumbria
The Derwent is a river in the Lake District of the county of Cumbria in the north of England. The name Derwent is derived from a Celtic word for "oak trees"....
, Greta and Cocker. Ultimately £250 million of damage was caused.
The 2006 Morecambe Bay helicopter crash
2006 Morecambe Bay helicopter crash
The 2006 Morecambe Bay Helicopter Crash was a fatal air incident that occurred on 27 December 2006 at approximately 18:40 GMT, whilst replacement crew were being transported between the Millom and Morecambe gas platforms situated approximately 24 miles from the shoreline of Morecambe Bay,...
had Cumbrian authorities on standby, especially the RNLI station in Barrow, the fatal air incident occurred on December 27, 2006 at approximately 18:40 GMT, whilst transporting replacement crew between the Millom
Millom
Millom is a town and civil parish on the estuary of the River Duddon in the southwest of Cumbria, England. The name is Cumbrian dialect for "At the mills". The town is accessible both by rail and an A class road...
and Morecambe gas platforms. It was eventually discovered that the Eurocopter AS365N
Eurocopter Dauphin
The Eurocopter SA 365/AS365 Dauphin 2 is a medium-weight multipurpose twin-engine helicopter manufactured by Eurocopter .-Design and development:...
descened into sea due to pilot error and this led to the death of six men.
On February 23, 2007 train 1S83, the 17:15 Virgin West Coast Pendolino
British Rail Class 390
The Class 390 Pendolino is a type of train used in Great Britain. They are electric multiple units using Fiat's tilting train pendolino technology and built by Alstom. Fifty-three 9-car units were originally built for Virgin Trains from 2001 to 2004 for operation on the West Coast Main Line , with...
West Coast Main Line
West Coast Main Line
The West Coast Main Line is the busiest mixed-traffic railway route in Britain, being the country's most important rail backbone in terms of population served. Fast, long-distance inter-city passenger services are provided between London, the West Midlands, the North West, North Wales and the...
express service from London Euston
Euston railway station
Euston railway station, also known as London Euston, is a central London railway terminus in the London Borough of Camden. It is the sixth busiest rail terminal in London . It is one of 18 railway stations managed by Network Rail, and is the southern terminus of the West Coast Main Line...
to Glasgow Central was derailed by a defective set of points, the incident occurred at 20:15 GMT when 109 people were on board. 30 serious and 58 minor injuries were reported and ultimately 1 person was killed. Sir Richard Branson, owner of the Virgin empire visited the site and although was devestaded by the incident claimed that "If the train had been old stock then the number of injuries and the mortalities would have been horrendous". The 2009 Cumbria earthquake refers to an event on April 28, 2009 at 11:22 am local time when an earthquake of the magnitude 3.7 struck Cumbria
Cumbria
Cumbria , is a non-metropolitan county in North West England. The county and Cumbria County Council, its local authority, came into existence in 1974 after the passage of the Local Government Act 1972. Cumbria's largest settlement and county town is Carlisle. It consists of six districts, and in...
, England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
. It was recorded by the British Meteorological Society as having an epicentre approximately 8 km (5 mi) underneath Ulverston
Ulverston
Ulverston is a market town and civil parish in the South Lakeland district of Cumbria in north-west England. Historically part of Lancashire, the town is located in the Furness area, close to the Lake District, and just north of Morecambe Bay....
. The earthquake was felt by residents in Lancashire
Lancashire
Lancashire is a non-metropolitan county of historic origin in the North West of England. It takes its name from the city of Lancaster, and is sometimes known as the County of Lancaster. Although Lancaster is still considered to be the county town, Lancashire County Council is based in Preston...
and the tremor lasted for 5–10 seconds. Phone calls were recorded from a number of people who felt the tremor in the Barrow
Barrow-in-Furness
Barrow-in-Furness is an industrial town and seaport which forms about half the territory of the wider Borough of Barrow-in-Furness in the county of Cumbria, England. It lies north of Liverpool, northwest of Manchester and southwest from the county town of Carlisle...
, Carnforth
Carnforth
- References :...
and Kendal
Kendal
Kendal, anciently known as Kirkby in Kendal or Kirkby Kendal, is a market town and civil parish within the South Lakeland District of Cumbria, England...
areas but there were no reports of any casualties, injuries or damages.
Cockermouth
-History:The Romans created a fort at Derventio, now the adjoining village of Papcastle, to protect the river crossing, which had become located on a major route for troops heading towards Hadrian's Wall....
and Workington
Workington
Workington is a town, civil parish and port on the west coast of Cumbria, England, at the mouth of the River Derwent. Lying within the Borough of Allerdale, Workington is southwest of Carlisle, west of Cockermouth, and southwest of Maryport...
where water rose to almost 3 meters in places, many Lakes of the Lake District overflowed and resulted in the collapse of several bridges. The flooding has so far claimed the life of one person in the county, Bill Barker a police officer who was performing his duties directing traffic away from the Northside Bridge at Workington when the bridge collapsed into the river.
On June 2, 2010 one of the worst mass shootings in British history occurred in West Cumbria
Cumbria shootings
The Cumbria shootings was a killing spree that occurred on 2 June 2010 when a lone gunman, Derrick Bird, killed 12 people and injured 11 others before killing himself in Cumbria, England....
. Taxi driver Derrik Bird went on a three hour shooting spree in the towns of Whitehaven
Whitehaven
Whitehaven is a small town and port on the coast of Cumbria, England, which lies equidistant between the county's two largest settlements, Carlisle and Barrow-in-Furness, and is served by the Cumbrian Coast Line and the A595 road...
, Egremont
Egremont, Cumbria
Egremont is a market town and civil parish in the Borough of Copeland in Cumbria, England, south of Whitehaven and on the River Ehen. The town, which lies at the foot of Uldale Valley and Dent Fell, was historically within Cumberland and has a long industrial heritage including dyeing, weaving and...
and Seascale
Seascale
Seascale is a village and civil parish on the Irish Sea coast of Cumbria in north-west England.-History:The place-name indicates that it was inhabited by Norse settlers, probably before 1000 AD. It is derived from skali, meaning in Norse a wooden hut or shelter...
which ultimately claimed the lives of twelve people (which included his twin brother and a former work colleague, the other fatalities are thought to have been targeted at random). Dozens more were injured before Bird turned the gun on himself and committed suicide in a field near the village of Boot. The event also saw the complete lockdown of the Sellafield
Sellafield
Sellafield is a nuclear reprocessing site, close to the village of Seascale on the coast of the Irish Sea in Cumbria, England. The site is served by Sellafield railway station. Sellafield is an off-shoot from the original nuclear reactor site at Windscale which is currently undergoing...
nuclear processing site, an action unseen in the plants 50 year history.
Also worth of note are several overseas events which have affected the county. The War in Afghanistan
War in Afghanistan (2001–present)
The War in Afghanistan began on October 7, 2001, as the armed forces of the United States of America, the United Kingdom, Australia, and the Afghan United Front launched Operation Enduring Freedom...
has so far claimed the lives of three Cumbrians (two men and one woman - the UK's first female loss), whilst the War in Iraq has seen the deaths of two Cumbrian servicemen.
Timeline
| c. Circa Circa , usually abbreviated c. or ca. , means "approximately" in the English language, usually referring to a date... 11,000 |
Ice sheets melt |
| c. Circa Circa , usually abbreviated c. or ca. , means "approximately" in the English language, usually referring to a date... 8,000 |
Mesolithic hunter-gatherers settle coastal |
| c. Circa Circa , usually abbreviated c. or ca. , means "approximately" in the English language, usually referring to a date... 6,000 |
Langdale Axe Factory begins |
| c. Circa Circa , usually abbreviated c. or ca. , means "approximately" in the English language, usually referring to a date... 3,200 |
Castlerigg Stone Circle begun |
| c. Circa Circa , usually abbreviated c. or ca. , means "approximately" in the English language, usually referring to a date... 50–59 |
First rebellion by Venutius against Cartamandua, failed |
| 69 | Second rebellion by Venutius, he gains possession of Brigantian kingdom |
| 71 | Roman conquest of Brigantes begins |
| 78 | Agricola advances in Cumbria and places garrisons between the Solway and Tyne |
| 79–80 | Further military campaigns by Agricola |
| 122 | Hadrian's Wall begun |
| 142 | Antonius Pius abandons Hadrian's Wall |
| 164 | Hadrian's Wall reoccupied |
| c. Circa Circa , usually abbreviated c. or ca. , means "approximately" in the English language, usually referring to a date... 400 |
Romans begin withdrawing troops to Europe |
| 410 | Official end of Roman Britain, Coel Hen takes over as High King of Northern Britain |
| c. Circa Circa , usually abbreviated c. or ca. , means "approximately" in the English language, usually referring to a date... 420 |
Coel Hen dies, Ceneu takes over Northern Britain |
| c. Circa Circa , usually abbreviated c. or ca. , means "approximately" in the English language, usually referring to a date... 450 |
Ceneu dies; Rheged created by Gwrast Lledlwm |
| c. Circa Circa , usually abbreviated c. or ca. , means "approximately" in the English language, usually referring to a date... 490 |
Gwrast Lledlwm dies; Rheged given to Merchion Gul |
| 535 | Merchion Gul dies; Rheged divided into North, given to Cynfarch Oer, and South |
| 559 | Catraeth added to Rheged lands |
| c. Circa Circa , usually abbreviated c. or ca. , means "approximately" in the English language, usually referring to a date... 570 |
Cynfarch Oer dies; Urien Rheged becomes King |
| 573 | Caer-Guenddolau added to Rheged lands |
| c. Circa Circa , usually abbreviated c. or ca. , means "approximately" in the English language, usually referring to a date... 585 |
Battle of Ynys Metcaut; Urien killed by Morcant Bulc; Owain map Urien becomes King |
| c. Circa Circa , usually abbreviated c. or ca. , means "approximately" in the English language, usually referring to a date... 597 |
Owain map Urien killed by Morcant Bulc |
| c. Circa Circa , usually abbreviated c. or ca. , means "approximately" in the English language, usually referring to a date... 616 |
Angles of Bernacia enter Rheged |
| c. Circa Circa , usually abbreviated c. or ca. , means "approximately" in the English language, usually referring to a date... 638 |
Riemmelth, Princess of Rheged marries Oswiu, Prince of Northumbria |
| 685 | St Cuthbert granted land around Carlisle, where he founds a priory, and Cartmel |
| 875 | Danes sack Carlisle |
| c. Circa Circa , usually abbreviated c. or ca. , means "approximately" in the English language, usually referring to a date... 925 |
Norse arrive |
| 945 | Edmund I defeats Dunmail and cedes Cumbria to Malcolm I of Scotland |
| 1092 | William II William II of England William II , the third son of William I of England, was King of England from 1087 until 1100, with powers over Normandy, and influence in Scotland. He was less successful in extending control into Wales... restores Cumbria to England |
| 1136 | King Stephen Stephen, King of England Stephen , often referred to as Stephen of Blois , was a grandson of William the Conqueror. He was King of England from 1135 to his death, and also the Count of Boulogne by right of his wife. Stephen's reign was marked by the Anarchy, a civil war with his cousin and rival, the Empress Matilda... forced to cede Cumbria to Scotland |
| 1157 | Henry II Henry II of England Henry II ruled as King of England , Count of Anjou, Count of Maine, Duke of Normandy, Duke of Aquitaine, Duke of Gascony, Count of Nantes, Lord of Ireland and, at various times, controlled parts of Wales, Scotland and western France. Henry, the great-grandson of William the Conqueror, was the... regains Cumbria |
| 1182 | Lancashire created, including part of South Cumbria |
| 1316 | Scottish raids along the west coast as far as Furness and Cartmel |
| 1322 | Scottish raids; the Abbot of Furness attempts to bribe Robert the Bruce |
| 1745 | Battle of Clifton Clifton Moor Skirmish The Clifton Moor Skirmish took place between forces of the British Hanoverian government and Jacobite rebels on 19 December 1745. Since the commander of the British forces, the Duke of Cumberland, was aware of the Jacobite presence in Derby, the Jacobite leader Prince Charles Edward Stuart decided... , last military battle fought on English soil |
| 1951 | Lake District National Park Lake District National Park The Lake District National Park is located in the north-west of England and is the largest of the English National Parks and the second largest in the United Kingdom. It is in the central and most-visited part of the Lake District.... established |
| 1974 | Modern county of Cumbria established |