Manuel Belgrano
Encyclopedia
Manuel José Joaquín del Corazón de Jesús Belgrano (3 June 1770 – 20 June 1820), usually referred to as Manuel Belgrano, was an Argentine
economist, lawyer, politician, and military leader. He took part in the Argentine Wars of Independence and created the Flag of Argentina
. He is regarded as one of the main Libertadores
of the country.
Belgrano was born in Buenos Aires
, the fourth child of the Italian businessman Domingo Belgrano y Peri and Josefa Casero. He came into contact with the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment
while at university in Spain around the time of the French Revolution
. Upon his return to the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata
, where he became a notable member of the criollo
population of Buenos Aires, he tried to promote some of the new political and economic ideals, but found severe resistance from local peninsulars
. This rejection led him to work towards a greater autonomy for his country from the Spanish colonial regime
. At first, he unsuccessfully promoted the aspirations of Carlota Joaquina to become a regent ruler for the Viceroy
alty during the period the Spanish King Ferdinand VII was imprisoned during the Peninsular War
(1807–1814). He favoured the May Revolution
, which removed the viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros
from power on 25 May 1810. He was elected as a voting member of the Primera Junta
that took power after the ouster.
As a delegate for the Junta, he led the ill-fated Paraguay campaign
. His troops were defeated by Bernardo Velazco at the battles of Campichuelo
and Paraguarí
. Though he was defeated, the campaign initiated the chain of events that led to the Independence of Paraguay
in May 1811. He retreated to the vicinity of Rosario
, to fortify it against a possible royalist
attack from the Eastern Band of the Uruguay River
. While there, he created the flag of Argentina
. The First Triumvirate
did not approve the flag, but because of slow communications, Belgrano would only learn of that many weeks later, while reinforcing the Army of the North
at Jujuy. There, knowing he was at a strategic disadvantage against the royalist armies coming from Upper Peru
, Belgrano ordered the Jujuy Exodus
, which evacuated the entire population of Jujuy Province
to San Miguel de Tucumán. His counter-offensive at the Battle of Tucumán
resulted in a key strategic victory, and it was soon followed by a complete victory over the royalist army of Pío Tristán at the Battle of Salta
. However, his deeper incursions into Upper Perú led to defeats at Vilcapugio
and Ayohuma
, leading the Second Triumvirate
to order his replacement as Commander of the Army of the North by the newly arrived José de San Martín
. By then, the Asamblea del Año XIII
had approved the use of Belgrano's flag as the national war flag
.
Belgrano then went on a diplomatic mission to Europe along with Bernardino Rivadavia
to seek support for the revolutionary government. He returned in time to take part in the Congress of Tucumán
, which declared Argentine Independence
(1816). He promoted the Inca plan
to create a constitutional monarchy
with an Inca descendant as Head of State. This proposal had the support of San Martín, Martín Miguel de Güemes
, and many provincial delegates, but was strongly rejected by Buenos Aires
. The Congress of Tucumán approved the use of his flag as the national flag
. After this, Belgrano again took command of the Army of the North, but his mission was limited to protect San Miguel de Tucumán from royalist advances while San Martín prepared the Army of the Andes
for an alternate offensive across the Andes
. When Buenos Aires entered war
with José Gervasio Artigas
and Estanislao López
, he moved the Army southwards, but his troops mutinied
in January 1820. Belgrano died of dropsy
on 20 June 1820. His last words reportedly were: "¡Ay, Patria mía!" ("Alas, my country!).
the following day. As he was born in America he was considered a criollo
, a social class below the Peninsulars.
His father Domenico was Liguria
n, from the town of Imperia
. His last name was Peri, which he translated to the Spanish form Pérez, but later changed it to Belgrano - literally "Fairwheat", a name that denoted good cereal production. He was a European merchant authorised by the King of Spain to move to America, and had contacts in Spain, Río de Janeiro, and Britain. He promoted the establishment of the Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires
, which his son Manuel would lead years later. Belgrano's mother was María Josefa González Islas y Casero, born in the city of Santiago del Estero
. The family was the second richest in Buenos Aires, after the Escaladas. They had 16 sons, but four of them died. Domingo Belgrano Pérez managed a family business
, and arranged
his four daughters to be married to merchants who would become his trusted agents at the Banda Oriental
, Misiones Province
, and Spain. The eight male sons followed different paths: Domingo José Estanislao became canon at the local cathedral, while Carlos José and José Gregorio joined the military. Manuel Belgrano was meant to follow his father's work, but when he took other interests, it was his brother Francisco José María de Indias who kept working with his father.
, philosophy
, logic
, physics
, metaphysics
, and literature
, and graduated in 1786. Domingo had sufficient success as merchant to send his two sons Francisco and Manuel to study in Europe. He expected them to study commerce, but Manuel decided to study law. Belgrano was so successful and attained such prestige that Pope Pius VI
allowed him to study all kinds of forbidden literature
, even books deemed as heretic
, excepting only the astrological
and obscene
books. In this way he came into contact with authors like Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Filangieri
, who were forbidden in Spain.
Belgrano studied near the intellectual elite of Spain, and by that time there were heated discussions about the ongoing French Revolution
. Critics of the divine right of kings
, the principles of equality
and freedom, and the universal scope of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
were constant topics of debate. Among these people it was thought that Spain should be remade under similar principles, and critics of such ideas were rejected as tyrants or proponents of outdated ideas. However, the Spanish Enlightenment was slightly different from the French one as it still respected religion and the monarchy. Thus, despite the new influences, Belgrano remained a strong Catholic and monarchist
.
Belgrano also studied living languages, political economy
, and public rights
. The authors that most influenced him were Pedro Rodríguez de Campomanes
, Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos
, Adam Smith
, and François Quesnay
. Belgrano translated Quesnay's book Maximes générales de gouvernement economique d'un royaume agricole to Spanish. His main interest in the works of such authors were ideas that referred to the public good and popular prosperity. As many other South American students, he became interested in physiocracy, which stated that new wealth came from nature, that agriculture
was an economic activity that generated more income than one needed, and that the state should not interfere at all with it. By that time, South America had plenty of natural resources and a very strict state interventionism in the economy. Belgrano developed the idea that the principles of physiocracy and those stated by Adam Smith could be applied together in the viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. In the development of this approach he was influenced by Fernando Galliani, who promoted the study of particular cases over theoric generalisations, and Antonio Genovesi
, who thought that the absolute freedom promoted by physiocrats should be tempered by a moderate intervention by the state, such as the provision of free education
for some. During his time in Europe, Belgrano became president of an Academy within the University of Salamanca devoted to roman legislation, forensic practice and political economy.
as perpetual secretary of the Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires
, a new local institution which dealt with commercial and industrial issues in the name of the crown. This date would be later known in Argentina as the economist day. He would remain in this office up to 1810. Here, he would deal with commercial disputes and promote agriculture, industry, and commerce. Not having enough freedom to make big changes in the economic system, he made big efforts to improve education. Influenced by Campomanes, he believed that the true wealth of countries was human ingenuity, and that the best way to promote industrialisation
was through education.
Belgrano maintained frequent discussions with the vocals of the Consulate, who were all merchants with strong interests involved in the monopolic
commerce with Cadiz
. He made many proposals, influenced by free trade
ideas. By this time, Belgrano thought that "The merchant must have freedom to buy where he can be best accommodated, and it's natural that he does where he is supplied with the best price to be able to earn the best profit". Those proposals were rejected by the vocals; his only supporters were Juan José Castelli
, Juan Larrea, and Domingo Matheu
. However, he managed some successes, such as creating the Nautical school, the Commerce school, and the Geometry and Drawing Academy. He created the Commerce School to influence future merchants to work towards the best interests of the nation, and the nautical and drawing ones to provide the youth with prestigious and lucrative careers. The schools were situated next to the Consulate so that Belgrano could easily supervise their development. The schools were in place for three years before they were closed by a ruling of Manuel Godoy, from the Spanish monarchy, who considered them an unnecessary luxury for a colony. It was felt that Buenos Aires may not be able to maintain them.
He tried to promote the diversification of agriculture via the production of linen and hemp, following experiences with his friend Martín de Altolaguirre. He proposed to keep reserves of wheat to help have control over its price. He tried to make leather recognised as a product of the country, in order to promote its commercial potential. None of those proposals was accepted. He designed a system to give prizes to achievements that would boost the local economy, diversify the agriculture, or deforest the pampas. The system did not work as expected, and no such prize was ever given.
He helped to create the first newspaper of the city, the Telégrafo Mercantil
, directed by Francisco Cabello y Mesa
. He worked with Manuel José de Lavardén, and edited nearly two hundred issues. The newspaper was closed in 1802 because of conflicts with the authorities of the viceroyalty, who did not like the criticisms made in it or the jokes and parodies. He also worked in the Semanario de Agricultura, Comercio e Industria, directed by Hipólito Vieytes
. He used this newspaper to explain his economic ideas: manufacturing and exporting finished goods, import raw materials to manufacture, avoid importing luxury goods or raw materials that could be produced or extracted locally, import only vital products, and own a merchant navy. The newspaper was specialised on the "Philosophy of History, Geography and Statistics". Many revolutionary principles were presented as essays.
Belgrano had symptoms of syphilis
, which he had caught during his time in Europe. This sickness forced him to take long leaves from his work in the Consulate, and to suggest his cousin Juan José Castelli
, with similar ideas, as a possible replacement. Rejection by the vocals delayed the approval of Castelli up to 1796.
, who was instructed by Spain to prepare defences against a possible British
or Portuguese
attack. Belgrano by then worked in the consulate, and was no longer interested in pursuing a military career. Viceroy Rafael de Sobremonte
requested that he create a militia to counter a possible British attack, but he did not take interest in it. His first intervention in a military conflict took place when the British, under William Carr Beresford, arrived with 1,600 men and took Buenos Aires, starting the British invasions of the Río de la Plata
. Belgrano moved to the fortress as soon as he heard the warning, and gathered many men to launch resistance. But without the required knowledge, his men marched in disorder and Belgrano was ordered to disband after a single British cannon shot. Belgrano would write later in his autobiography that he regretted not having by then even the most basic knowledge of militia work.
After the taking of the city, all Spanish authorities were requested to pledge allegiance to the British crown. Belgrano thought that the members of the Consulate should leave the city and join the viceroy, but the others did not agree. They obeyed the British request; Belgrano refused to do so. He said that he wanted "either our old master, or no master at all". To avoid being forced to pledge allegiance, he escaped from Buenos Aires and sought asylum at the chapel of Mercedes, in the Banda Oriental
.
The British army was defeated by an army under the direction of Santiago de Liniers
, and Spanish authority was restored. It was expected that the British would return, and the whole city started to prepare for that possibility. Belgrano returned to Buenos Aires after the reconquest, and put himself under the command of Liniers. He was appointed sergeant of the Patricians Regiment, under the command of Cornelio Saavedra
, and started to study military strategy. After some conflicts with other officials, he resigned as sergeant and served again under the command of Liniers. During the battle he served as field assistant to a division commanded by Balbiani. After the successful resistance, Belgrano resumed his work in the Consulate and discontinued his military studies. Because of his knowledge of French he had a brief interview with the defeated Robert Craufurd
, who proposed British support for an independentist movement. Belgrano rejected the offer, considering that Britain would readily remove their support if they had a more lucrative option in Europe, and in such case they would be helpless against a Spanish counterattack.
Manuel Belgrano was the main proponent of the Carlotist
political movement in the Rio de la Plata. It was a response to recent developments in Europe, where Spain was at war with France
. Through the abdications of Bayonne
, the Spanish king Ferdinand VII was deposed and imprisoned and the Frenchman Joseph Bonaparte
was appointed king of Spain by the French victors. This led to a partial power vacuum
in the viceroyalty, as the legitimacy of the new king was rejected by all parties. The purpose of the Carlotist movement was to replace the authority of the deposed king with that of Carlota Joaquina, sister of Ferdinand, who was then living in Rio de Janeiro
. The project was supported as a means to achieve more autonomy, and perhaps independence, for Spanish colonies in the New World. Belgrano kept a fluent mail communication with Carlota, and convinced many independentists to join him in the project, such as Castelli, Vieytes, Nicolás Rodríguez Peña, and Juan José Paso. The support of Cornelio Saavedra for Carlota is disputed.
The project, however, found strong resistance. As Carlota was married to John VI
, a prince of Portugal, many people though that Carlotism was a trick to conceal Portuguese expansionism. Carlota herself had different political ideas than those of her supporters: Belgrano and the others shared the ideas of enlightenment, but Carlota aspired to keep the full power of an absolutist monarchy. By 1810 the project was forgotten.
A new viceroy, Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros
, arrived from Europe to replace Liniers. Belgrano had failed to convince Liniers of the benefits of the Carlotist plan, so he aimed instead to convince him of refusing to give up the viceroyalty, as Liniers had been confirmed as viceroy by a Spanish king. Cisneros, appointed by the Junta of Seville, lacked such legitimacy. Liniers refused this proposal as well, and handed command to Cisneros without resistance. Belgrano later convinced the new viceroy to allow him to edit a new newspaper, the "Correo de Comercio". This allowed him to gather with other revolutionary leaders with the excuse of discussing the development of the newspaper. He also supported the opening of the port to foreign trade, ruled by Cisneros, but this notion was strongly rejected by Spanish merchants. Some historians like Miguel Ángel Scenna suggest that "The Representation of the Hacendados
", commonly attributed to Mariano Moreno
, was actually Belgrano's work, or a work by Moreno from a draft written by Belgrano. Belgrano may not have been able to present such a work himself, because he held a political office and because his past opposition to Cisneros may had risked its rejection.
He resigned from his work in the Consulate in April 1810 and moved to the countryside. A short time later he received a letter from his friends requesting him to return to Buenos Aires and join the revolutionary movements.
. Under the advice of Cornelio Saavedra
, they waited for the news of the defeat in Spain to take action.
Belgrano and Saavedra, representing the military and the intellectuals, got an interview with Cisneros to request an open cabildo
, but without getting an answer. Cisneros called the military leaders and requested their support, but they refused, under the grounds that his viceroyalty lacked legitimacy. Castelli and other patriots insisted in their request, and Cisneros finally accepted. A massive demonstration the following day ensured that Cisneros would keep his word. The open cabildo was celebrated on 22 May, with all political leaders present, and armed men filling the Plaza and ready to invade the Cabildo in case the peninsulars attempted a disruption, which would be indicated by a signal from Belgrano. He supported the stance of his cousin Castelli, who made a speech explaining the concept of the retroversion of the sovereignty of the people, and that Spanish America was subject to the king of Spain but not to Spain itself. At the time of voting, Castelli's proposal was coupled with the one of Cornelio Saavedra, with Belgrano among its supporters. This joint proposal for the removal of Cisneros and the creation of a government Junta prevailed over the others. However, the Cabildo attempted to keep Cisneros in power in spite of this result, by creating a Junta with Cisneros as its president. This was rejected by the revolutionary leaders and the population. A great state of turmoil ended when the Junta was disbanded on 25 May and replaced by the Primera Junta
. Belgrano was included in this junta, among many other local politicians.
In his autobiography
Belgrano declared that he did not have any previous knowledge of being included in the junta, and that his designation took him by surprise. Nevertheless, he accepted the role. He was part of the political line of Mariano Moreno
; they were expecting to use the government to make big changes in the social order. One of his first rulings was the making of a Maths Academy, located in the building of the Consulate and with the purpose of instructing the military. Belgrano was appointed its protector. He supported the banishment of Cisneros and the members of the Real Audience
, and the execution of Liniers and other counter-revolutionaries defeated in Córdoba. Some historians suggest that he would have promoted the creation of the Operations plan
, a secret document written by Moreno that set harsh ways for the Junta to achieve its goals, while others consider the whole document a literary forgery
done by royalists to discredit the Junta. A few others suspect that some paragraphs or the whole document may have been the result of collaborative writing between Moreno, Belgrano, and Hipólito Vieytes
.
, Paraguay
, and the Banda Oriental
. A few days later his goal was made more specific: he must aim for Paraguay. The Junta had been informed that the patriotic party
was strong, and a small army would suffice to take control. Trusting this information, Belgrano went to Paraguay with two possible goals: get acknowledgment for the Junta in Paraguay or promote a new government that would stay on friendly terms with Buenos Aires. Belgrano was unaware of the news that on 24 July a general assembly in Paraguay discussed the Junta of Buenos Aires, and decided to reject it and pledge allegiance to the Regency Council of Spain.
Belgrano headed north with nearly two hundred men, expecting to gather more people by the end of the Paraná river
. Soldiers from the Blandengues regiments of San Nicolás and Santa Fe joined them en route, and later the Junta sent reinforcements of another two hundred soldiers. The army was welcomed by most of the population found along the way, receiving donations and new recruits. Ultimately the army was composed of nearly 950 men, consisting of infantry and cavalry divided in four divisions with one piece of artillery each.
By the end of October the army stopped at Curuzú Cuatiá
, where Belgrano solved an old border conflict between Corrientes and Yapeyu
. He set which territories would belong to Curuzu Cuatiá and Mandisoví, and organised their urban layout around the chapel and school. By November the army arrived at the coast of Paraná near Apipé island
, and there Belgrano took measures to benefit the natives that were living in missions. With his authority as speaker of the Junta he gave them full civil and political rights, granted lands, authorised commerce with the United Provinces, and lifted their restriction on taking public or religious office. However, the Junta later requested that he should seek authorisation for such changes in the future.
From that point the army moved to Candelaria, which was used as stronghold for the attack into Paraguay. The terrain gave a clear advantage to Velazco against Belgrano: the Paraná River, nearly 1000 metres (3,280.8 ft) wide, was an effective natural barrier
, and once it was crossed the patriotic army would have to move a long distance across a land without supplies. Swamps, hills, rivers, and lakes would force the army to march slowly, making a possible retreat very difficult. The Parana was crossed with several boats on 19 December, and a task force of 54 Paraguayan soldiers was forced to flee during the battle of Campichuelo
. Belgrano saw Velazco's army from the Mbaé hill, and despite being greatly outnumbered, he ordered an attack, trusting in the moral strength of his soldiers. When the battle of Paraguarí
started, the patriots had briefly an upper hand, but eventually Velazco, with superior numbers, prevailed. Even with 10 deaths and 120 soldiers taken prisoner, Belgrano wanted to continue the fight, but his officials convinced him to retreat.
The army left for Tacuarí, being closely watched by the combined armies of Yegros and Cabañas. Those two armies had nearly three thousand soldiers, while Belgrano had barely four hundred. They were attacked from many sides during the battle of Tacuarí
, on 9 March. Greatly outnumbered and losing an unequal fight, Belgrano refused to surrender. He reorganised the remaining 235 men and ordered his secretary to burn all his documents and personal papers to prevent them from falling into enemy hands. Belgrano arranged for the troops and artillery to fire for many minutes, which made the Paraguayan soldiers disperse. When the barrage stopped, Belgrano requested an armistice, telling Cabañas that he had arrived to Paraguay to aid and not to conquer; considering the open hostility with which he was met, he would leave the province. Cabañas accepted, on the grounds that the remaining group must leave the province within a day.
The campaign to Paraguay was a complete defeat for the Primera Junta, but it was not a complete political failure: after it, Paraguay started to consider independentism. By 14 May they declared independence from Spain. However, in the process they broke ties with Buenos Aires: they maintained good relations but were no longer part of the same political entity.
) made a series of conflicting orders. First they requested he should fight the royalists in the Banda Oriental
, then to return to the city and be judged for the defeats. However, no charges were formulated against him. He was appointed as the head of the Regiment of Patricians, replacing the banished Cornelio Saavedra
, but the troops did not accept him and started the Braids Mutiny. After that, the Triumvirate requested him to fortify Rosario against possible royalist attacks from the Banda Oriental. He created two batteries, "Independencia" ("Independence") and "Libertad" ("Freedom"). After realising that both patriots and royalists were fighting under the same colours, he created the cockade of Argentina
, of light blue and white colours, the use of which was approved by the Triumvirate. The reasons for the colours are usually considered to be either loyalty to the House of Bourbon
or his esteem of the Virgin Mary. Belgrano created a flag with the same colours, which was hoisted at Rosario
near the Paraná River. On that same day he was appointed to replace Pueyrredon in the Army of the North, so he travelled to Yatasto. He found desmoralised officials, nearly 1,500 soldiers (a quarter of them hospitalised), minimal artillery, and no money. Some of the officials were Manuel Dorrego
, Gregorio Aráoz de Lamadrid
, Cornelio Zelaya, José María Paz
, Diego Balcarce, and Eustaquio Díaz Vélez
. The cities were much more hostile to the Army than those that Belgrano encountered on his way into Paraguay. Salta was menaced by Goyeneche; Belgrano had orders to take command and retreat without fighting, but he decided to disobey. He prepared a base at Campo Santo, in Salta, where he improved the hospital and created a military tribunal. He later moved to Jujuy, knowing that he did not have the resources to launch an attack to Upper Perú.
The First Triumvirate did not approve the use of the flag created in Rosario, but Belgrano was initially unaware of that. He had the flag blessed by the priest Juan Ignacio de Gorriti at Salta, on the second anniversary of the May Revolution. When he found out the flag was not approved, he put it away. When asked, he would tell that he was keeping it for a great victory.
Three months later royalist general Pío Tristán advanced in the north with more than three thousand men, prepared to invade the United Provinces. Once again outnumbered by larger armies, Belgrano organised a great exodus
of the city of Jujuy: the entire population of the city would have to retreat with the army and not leave behind anything that might be of value to the royalists (such as animals, crops, or housing). By September a proper formation of columns provided them with a victory against a royalist task force of 500 men during the Battle of Las Piedras
. The First Triumvirate commanded Belgrano to retreat to Cordoba without fighting, but he thought that doing so would mean the loss of the northern provinces. Thus, instead of continuing to Cordoba, he was convinced by the people of San Miguel de Tucumán to make a stand there. His forces had increased by then to nearly 1,800 soldiers, still much less than the 3,000 at Tristan's command. Even so, he obtained a victory in the Battle of Tucumán
. By that time, the First Triumvirate was replaced by the Second Triumvirate
, which provided greater support for Belgrano. The Second Triumvirate called the Assembly of Year XIII soon after taking power, which was intended to declare independence and enact a national constitution, but failed to do so because of political disputes between the members. It did not take measures regarding the national flag, but allowed Belgrano to use the blue and white flag as the flag of the Army of the North.
After the defeat in Tucumán, Tristán garrisoned at the city of Salta with 2,500 men. Belgrano, with reinforcements from the government, intended to gather 4,000 men and march to Upper Peru, up to the border of the Viceroyalty of Lima. The Battle of Salta
, the first battle with the new approved banner, was a decisive victory, ending with the capitulation of Pío Tristán and all of his army.
These victories ensured Argentine authority in the northwest and stopped the royalist advance into the central territory. Although there were a number of colonialist 'invasions' from Upper Peru until 1821, Belgrano's campaign is widely considered the decisive one.
with an army of 2,500 men, to prepare an attack on Upper Peru. Goyeneche moved to Oruro
and resigned, being replaced by Joaquín de la Pezuela
. Belgrano administrated the zone and tried to revert the bad impression left by the previous campaign of Juan José Castelli
. Belgrano initiated good relations with the natives as well. Belgrano's plan was to attack the royalists from the front and the sides, with the aid of the armies of Cárdenas and Zelaya. Both armies were near 3,500 men. However, the royalists obtained an important advantage by defeating Cárdenas and getting possession of his papers, which gave them insight into the patriotic plans. Belgrano was taken by surprise at Vilcapugio
on 1 October, and initially gained the upper hand against the royalist troops, who started to flee. However, when Pezuela saw that the patriotic armies were not following, he reorganised his forces, returned to the battle, and won. There were barely 400 survivors. Belgrano said: "Soldiers: we have lost the battle after so much fighting. Victory has betrayed us by going to the enemy ranks during our triumph. It does not matter! The flag of the nation still swings in our hands!". After gathering his army at Macha
, where he received reinforcements from Cochabamba
, Belgrano was ready for another engagement with Pezuela, whose troops were not in a better situation. On 14 November, Belgrano was again vanquished by the royalists at Ayohuma
, and was forced to withdraw the remains of his army towards Potosí and from there to Jujuy.
The Second Triumvirate reacted by sending José de San Martín
to take the command of the Army of the North, with Belgrano as his second in command. San Martín would reinforce the battle-weary Army of the North with his own soldiers. Hastened by Belgrano's illness, San Martín travelled to the rendezvous as quickly as possible; they met at the Posta de Yatasto
, in Salta. Belgrano gave San Martin full freedom to implement changes, and took command of the First Regiment. The Second Triumvirate, and later the Supreme Director Gervasio Posadas, requested Belgrano to return to Buenos Aires and be judged for the defeats at Vilcapugio and Ayohuma, but San Martín refused to send him because of his poor health. San Martín finally agreed to send Belgrano to Córdoba by March 1814. He temporarily settled in Luján
to await outcome of the trial, and during this time he wrote his autobiography
. Soon afterwards, all charges against Belgrano were dismissed, as no definite accusation was formulated against him. The new government, with a better concept of Belgrano, sent him on a diplomatic mission to Europe to negotiate support for the independence of the United Provinces.
were sent to Europe to seek support for the United Provinces from both Spain and Britain. They sought to promote the crowning of Francisco de Paula
, son of Charles IV of Spain
, as regent of the United Provinces, but in the end he refused to act against the interests of the King of Spain. The diplomatic mission failed, but Belgrano learned of changes in ideology that took place in Europe since his previous visit. With the influence of the French Revolution
, there had been a great consensus for making republic
an governments. After the government of Napoleon I
, monarchies
were preferred again, but in the form of Constitutional monarchies
regulated by a Constitution
, such as in Britain. He also noticed that the European powers
approved of the South American revolutions, but the approval was compromised when the countries started to fall into anarchy
.
When the emissaries returned to Buenos Aires, the government was worried by the defeats of Rondeau at Sipe Sipe and the political stir generated by the caudillos José Gervasio Artigas
and Estanislao López
. Alvarez Thomas appointed Belgrano for the army at Rosario, but shortly afterwards Thomas resigned. Pueyrredón became the new Supreme Director. With the signing of the Santo Tomé pact, the aforementioned army was retired from Rosario. Belgrano was then sent back to take command of the Army of the North, with the strong support of San Martín. "In the case of designating who must replace Rondeau, I am decided for Belgrano; he is the most methodical man of all whom I know in America; he is full of integrity and natural talent. He may not have the military knowledge of a Moreau or a Bonaparte as far as the army is concerned, but I think he is the best we have in South America".
Belgrano met with the Congress of Tucuman
on 6 July 1816 to explain the results of his diplomatic mission in Europe. He thought that enacting a local monarchy would help to prevent anarchy, which would not end simply with independence from Spain. He felt a declaration of independence would be more easily accepted by the European powers if it created a monarchic system. To this end he formulated the Inca Plan
: a monarchy ruled by a noble of the Inca civilisation
. He thought that this would generate support from the indigenous populations as well, and repair the actions taken against the Inca by the Spanish colonisation. This proposal was supported by San Martín, Güemes, the deputies from the Upper Peru, and other provinces, but it found a strong rejection from Buenos Aires; they would not accept Cuzco as the capital city. On 9 July the Congress finally signed the Declaration of Independence from Spain. The flag created by Belgrano, which was being used without a law regulating it, was accepted as the National flag
. The Inca Plan was still under discussion, but the Congress delayed it due to several states of emergency in the provinces.
In August Belgrano again took command of the Army of the North, but with very limited people and resources. He was ordered to avoid trying to advance against the royalists in the north, and was to stay in a defensive state at Tucumán. With Güemes in Salta, his task was to prevent the Royalists from moving to the south. The Supreme Director Pueyrredón was supporting an alternative plan designed by José de San Martín
: create the Army of the Andes
at Cuyo and, after making the Crossing of the Andes
, defeat the royalists in Chile, get control of the Chilean navy, and attack the royalist stronghold of Lima
with it.
and Estanislao López
, and requested San Martín and Belgrano to return with their armies to take part in the conflict. San Martín refused to do so, but Belgrano accepted. However, before his arrival the governors Estanislao López and Juan José Viamonte
signed an eight-day truce to start peace negotiations. His health was in a very bad state by this point, but he refused to resign, considering that the morale of the Army would suffer without his presence. He moved to the frontier between Santa Fe and Córdoba, from where he would be able to move to either the litoral or the north if needed. His health continued to worsen, and he was given an unlimited leave from work by the Supreme Director. He handed command to Fernández de la Cruz and moved to Tucumán, where he met his daughter Manuela Mónica, just one year old. The governor of Tucuman, Feliciano de la Motta, was deposed during his stay, and he was taken prisoner. Abraham González
led the uprising and attempted to put Belgrano into a Shrew's fiddle
, but his doctor Josef Redhead objected, because of his delicate health, and his sentence was changed to simple imprisonment. When Bernabé Araoz took control of the government of Tucumán, Belgrano was immediately released.
He returned to Buenos Aires, to his parent's house. By that time the Battle of Cepeda
had ended the authority of the Supreme Directors
, starting the period known as Anarchy of the year 20. On 20 June 1820, at the age of 50, he died of dropsy
. Due to his poverty, he paid his doctor with his clock and his carriage, some of the few possessions he still had. As requested, he was shrouded into the robes of the Dominican Order
, and buried in the Santo Domingo convent. Before dying, Belgrano said "Ay, Patria mía" (in Spanish, "Oh, my motherland").
Due to the state of anarchy being experienced by the city, Belgrano's death was largely unnoticed. The only newspaper of the time to note his death was El Despertador Teofilantrópico, written by Francisco de Paula Castañeda, and there was not any government representation at his funeral. Former students of his educative institutions would arrive in the following days with obsequies, when the news started to be known. The following year the political context was less chaotic and Bernardino Rivadavia
, who was minister by then, organised a massive state funeral
.
In 1902, during Julio Argentino Roca
presidency, his body was exhumed from the atrium of Santo Domingo
, to be moved into a mausoleum. This was done on 4 September, by a government commission which included Dr. Joaquín V. González
(ministry of interior), Pablo Riccheri (ministry of war), Gabriel L. Souto (president of the commission), Fray Modesto Becco (from the convent), Carlos Vega Belgrano and coronel Manuel Belgrano (descendants of Belgrano), Dr. Armando Claros (subsecretary of the Interior), Dr. Marcial Quiroga (Health Inspector of the Army), Dr. Carlos Malbrán (president of the National Department of Health), Coronel Justo Domínguez, and doctors Luis Peluffo and C. Massot (Arsenal of War). The exhumation revealed a number of preserved bones, pieces of wood, and nails. The bones were placed on a silver plate, and the following day there was a great controversy in the press: the newspaper La Prensa
annnounced that Joaquín V. González and Riccheri had stolen a pair of teeth. Both were returned the following day. Gonzalez declared that he intended to show the tooth to his friends, and Riccheri that he took one to Belgrano's biographer, Bartolomé Mitre
.
, at the age of 22. His father, Juan Ignacio Ezcurra, did not approve of their relationship because of the bankruptcy of Domingo Belgrano, Manuel's father. Juan Ignacio arranged the wedding of his daughter with Juan Esteban Ezcurra, a distant relative from Pamplona that worked selling clothes. Juan Ignacio opposed the May Revolution and returned to Spain, leaving his wife in Buenos Aires, which allowed her to return to her former relationship with Belgrano.
When Belgrano was dispatched to Upper Peru, María Josefa followed him to Jujuy. She took part in the Jujuy Exodus and saw the battle of Tucumán. It is thought that she was pregnant by this time. Her son, Pedro Pablo, was born on 30 July 1813. Pedro Pablo was adopted by Encarnación Ezcurra and her husband, Juan Manuel de Rosas
, who she had married shortly before.
Belgrano also met María Dolores Helguero in Tucumán, and briefly considered getting married, but the war forced a postponement. María married another man; the relationship ended, but was briefly restarted in 1818. While he was near the frontiers of Córdoba, Santa Fe, and Buenos Aires, and in a delicate state of health, he learned that María Dolores had given birth to his daughter, Manuela Mónica del Sagrado Corazón, who was born on 4 May 1819.
Neither of these children were recognised by Belgrano in his will, where he said he had no children. However, it is thought that he did not mention them in order to protect their mothers, as both children were the result of relations that the moral standards of the society of the day would not have accepted. Nevertheless, he requested that his brother, Joaquín Eulogio Estanislao Belgrano, who was appointed as his heir, should look after his newborn daughter.
and San Isidro
. He was treated with salts and iodines, and his condition eventually improved. It is also suspected that he may have had rheumatism
. By the year 1800 he had a growing lacrimal fistula in one of his eyes and was invited by the King to move to Spain for a cure. He was offered a one year leave with paid wages, but he rejected it, giving priority to his work for the nation over his own personal health. The fistula would later stabilise at a safe and unnoticeable size.
During his military career he had blood vomits
, such as before the Battle of Salta
; he was almost too ill to participate in the battle. It is thought that those vomits originated in the digestive system
and caused by were stress
, and not in the respiratory system
, because the vomits were sporadic, the condition did not became chronic, and it eventually cured itself. Nothing was revealed in the autopsy
.
Belgrano also exprerienced paludism during the second campaign to Upper Peru. On 3 May 1815 he informed the government of his disease, which made it difficult for him to work or even talk. He was treated by doctor Joseph Readhead, who employed a local species of the Cinchona
medicinal plant. The disease lasted up to his stay in Britain, when his health improved because of the treatment and by having left the endemic
zone.
He also experimented stomach disease
, having a low production
of gastric acid
s. This was worsened by harsh military conditions, including long periods with little food. The first references to the disease that would lead to his death, a case of edema
, are from a year before, in a letter directed to Álvarez Thomas. He declared having problems in the chest, a lung, and his right leg. A later letter to Sarratea confirmed his situation, and specified that it started on 23 April 1819. The gravity of his condition led the doctor Francisco de Paula Rivero to diagnose an advanced dropsy. Belgrano refused to move to the city of Córdoba to be healed. He argued that the morale of the army depended of his presence, and said that in the case of his death he may be buried at a nearby chapel. Finally, he resigned his commission, gave the command to Fernández de la Cruz, and moved to Tucuman, where he was jailed for a short time. Once free, he returned to his house in Buenos Aires, where he died on 20 June. He was embalmed by Joseph Redhead and Juan Sullivan and buried at the Santo Domingo chapel. Sullivan performed the autopsy; it revealed high levels of fluid in multiple edemas and a tumor
in the right epigastrium
. The liver and spleen
had grown beyond normal levels there were disorganised kidneys and problems with the lungs and heart.
, and was a versatile polyglot
, capable of understanding Spanish, English, French, Italian, and some indigenous languages. This allowed him to read many influential books of the Age of Enlightenment
, and understand the social, economic, technical, educative, political, cultural, and religious changes that were being prompted by the new ideas. He helped to promote those ideas using the press and with his work in the Consulate. He rejected localist perspectives, favouring a Latin Americanist
one. He was driven by the concept of the common good
, which he regarded as an ethical value
. He considered public health, education, and work as part of the common good, as well as religion. He did not share completely the ideas of the French Revolution
, but instead the tempered ones of the Spanish Enlightenment: most notably, he remained a monarchist and held strong religious beliefs, being Roman Catholic and a devotee of Marian theology. His monarchism was not a conservative one, as he agreed that the existing state of things should be modified, but not towards a republic
as in France or the United States, but towards a Constitutional monarchy
, like in Britain.
In the economic fields, he was influenced by the principles of Physiocracy, an economic doctrine that considered that nature was the source of wealth. As a result, much of his works and reform proposals at the Consulate were oriented towards improving agriculture, livestock, manufacturing, and free trade
. He maintained a fluent contact with the consulates of other cities, developing a view of the viceroyalty as a whole. This led to an increased work in cartography
of the largely unpopulated areas of the territory; the maps designed during this period would later prove a great help for José de San Martín
during the Crossing of the Andes
. He introduced new crops, boosted the livestock production of local fauna, and protected weaving manufacturing.
. He did so at the first report he made as head of the Consulate of Commerce, suggesting the creating of schools of agriculture
and commerce
. A school of agriculture would teach about important topics such as crop rotation
, the specific ways to work with each crop, methods of seeding and harvesting, preservation
of seeds, and identification of pests. Until that time, the only previous attempts to teach agriculture was done by the Jesuits, who were banished in 1767.
He was not only concerned about higher education
, but also about primary education
, and promoted the creation of free schools
for poor children. In those schools, students would learn to read
and learn basic maths and the catechism
. He thought that this would help to raise people willing to work, and reduce laziness.
He also promoted the creation of schools for women, where they would learn about weaving
, as well as reading. However, he did not aim to generate intellectual women, but just to prevent ignorance and laziness, and have them learn things valuable for daily living. Being a strong Catholic himself, he was aligned with the Catholic perspective that rejected mixed-sex education, in contrast with Protestantism.
His concern with public education was not interrupted by his military campaigns. In 1813 he was rewarded with 40,000 pesos for his victories at Salta and Tucumán, an amount that would equal almost 80 gold kilograms
. Belgrano rejected taking the prize money for himself, considering that a patriot should not seek money or wealth. He gave it back to the XIII year Assembly
, with instructions to build primary schools at Tarija
, Jujuy
, San Miguel de Tucumán, and Santiago del Estero
. He laid out a series of instructions about the methods and requirements for the selection of the teachers. However, the schools were not built, and by 1823 Bernardino Rivadavia
declared that the money was lost; Juan Ramón Balcarce
included it in the debt of the Buenos Aires province
a decade later.
stated that Manuel Belgrano held a deep admiration for George Washington
, leader of the American Revolution
and first President of the United States. Because of this, he worked on a translation of George Washington's Farewell Address
into the Spanish language
. He started working on it during the Paraguay Campaign, but before the battle of Tacuarí he destroyed all his papers, including the unfinished translation, to prevent them from falling into enemy hands. Belgrano resumed work on it afterwards and finished it before the Battle of Salta. He sent it to Buenos Aires for publication. George Washington's Farewell Address is considered, along with Gettysburg Address
, one of the most important texts in the history of the United States. It talks about the importance of keeping national unity as the key to maintain independence, prosperity, and freedom—ideas that were shared by Belgrano regarding the population of Hispanic America.
Belgrano is considered one of the greatest heroes in Argentina's history. A monument complex (Monumento Nacional a la Bandera, National Flag Memorial
) was built in 1957 in honour of the flag, in Rosario. The Flag Memorial and the park that surround it are the seat of national celebrations every Flag Day
, on 20 June, the anniversary of Belgrano's death. Jujuy Province
is declared the honorary capital of Argentina each 23 August since 2002, in reference to the Jujuy Exodus
.
The cruiser ARA General Belgrano
, which was sunk during the Falklands War
, was named after him,
as was Puerto Belgrano
, which is the largest base of the Argentinian navy. A small town in the province of Córdoba, Argentina, Villa General Belgrano
, also bears his name, as well as many other small towns and departments. Avenida Belgrano in the City of Buenos Aires and part of the avenue that leads to the Flag Memorial in Rosario (also Avenida Belgrano) bear his name. Additionally, there is a northern neighbourhood within Buenos Aires city that carries the name Belgrano.
In the museum Casa de la Libertad at Sucre, Bolivia, there is an Argentine flag, protected by a glass case and in a deteriorated condition, which they claim to be the original one raised by Belgrano for first time in 1812. The ensign was one of two abandoned and hidden inside a small church near Macha after the battle of Ayohuma, during the retreat from Upper Peru in 1813. The other flag was given back to Argentina by the Bolivian authorities in 1896.
In Genoa
, Italy, there is a commemorative statue of Belgrano, at the end of the Corso Buenos Aires.
of Manuel Belgrano was his autobiography
, which he wrote by the time he was stationed in Lujan. It long remained unpublished. His first biography written by someone else was "Bosquejo histórico del General Don Manuel Belgrano" (Historical stub on General Don Manuel Belgrano), authored by José Ignacio Álvarez Thomas. Álvarez Thomas wrote it during his exile at Colonia del Sacramento
, and his work had a high political bias.
The historian Bartolomé Mitre
wrote Historia de Belgrano y de la Independencia Argentina
(History of Belgrano and of the Independence of Argentina), whose scope expanded on the simple biography of Belgrano himself, and detailed instead the Argentine War of Independence
as a whole. This book included as well the autobiography of Belgrano, which was discovered by Mitre. The book was criticised by other contemporary Argentine authors, such as Dalmacio Vélez Sarsfield
, Vicente Fidel López
, and Juan Bautista Alberdi
, with whom Mitre had important discussions. Vélez Sarsfield criticised the work of Mitre at "Rectificaciones históricas: General Belgrano, General Güemes" (Historical rectifications: General Belgrano, General Güemes) which dealt with Martín Miguel de Güemes
as well, and Mitre would answer at "Estudios históricos sobre la Revolución de Mayo: Belgrano y Güemes" (Historical studies about the May Revolution: Belgrano and Güemes). Both books were written in 1864. Vicente López provided a biography of Belgrano from a different angle, focusing on a small group of specific people rather than on the nation as a whole. His book was "Debate histórico, refutaciones a las comprobaciones históricas sobre la Historia de Belgrano" (Historical debate, rebuttals to the historical checkings about the history of Belgrano), and Mitre replied with "Nuevas comprobaciones sobre historia argentina" (New checkings about the history of Argentina). These disputes about Belgrano are considered the starting point of the Historiography of Argentina
. Historiographical studies of Manuel Belgrano are currently held by the Belgranian National Institute
.
, in effect from 1970 to 1983. He was later included on the 10,000 pesos banknotes of the pesos argentinos
, the highest banknote value in circulation. The Argentine austral
had a number of political and military figures that did not include Belgrano, but later the 10,000 pesos argentinos banknotes were allowed to be used as australes. The current Argentine peso
displays Belgrano on 10-peso banknote. The 1997 and 2002 series only modified small details.
Argentina
Argentina , officially the Argentine Republic , is the second largest country in South America by land area, after Brazil. It is constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires...
economist, lawyer, politician, and military leader. He took part in the Argentine Wars of Independence and created the Flag of Argentina
Flag of Argentina
The national flag of Argentina is a triband, composed of three equally wide horizontal bands coloured light blue, white and light blue. There are multiple interpretations on the reasons for those colors...
. He is regarded as one of the main Libertadores
Libertadores
Libertadores refers to the principal leaders of the Latin American wars of independence from Spain. They are named that way in contrast with the Conquistadors, who were so far the only Spanish peoples recorded in the South American history...
of the country.
Belgrano was born in Buenos Aires
Buenos Aires
Buenos Aires is the capital and largest city of Argentina, and the second-largest metropolitan area in South America, after São Paulo. It is located on the western shore of the estuary of the Río de la Plata, on the southeastern coast of the South American continent...
, the fourth child of the Italian businessman Domingo Belgrano y Peri and Josefa Casero. He came into contact with the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment
Age of Enlightenment
The Age of Enlightenment was an elite cultural movement of intellectuals in 18th century Europe that sought to mobilize the power of reason in order to reform society and advance knowledge. It promoted intellectual interchange and opposed intolerance and abuses in church and state...
while at university in Spain around the time of the French Revolution
French Revolution
The French Revolution , sometimes distinguished as the 'Great French Revolution' , was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France and Europe. The absolute monarchy that had ruled France for centuries collapsed in three years...
. Upon his return to the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata
Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata
The Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, , was the last and most short-lived Viceroyalty of the Spanish Empire in America.The Viceroyalty was established in 1776 out of several former Viceroyalty of Perú dependencies that mainly extended over the Río de la Plata basin, roughly the present day...
, where he became a notable member of the criollo
Criollo people
The Criollo class ranked below that of the Iberian Peninsulares, the high-born permanent residence colonists born in Spain. But Criollos were higher status/rank than all other castes—people of mixed descent, Amerindians, and enslaved Africans...
population of Buenos Aires, he tried to promote some of the new political and economic ideals, but found severe resistance from local peninsulars
Peninsulares
In the colonial caste system of Spanish America, a peninsular was a Spanish-born Spaniard or mainland Spaniard residing in the New World, as opposed to a person of full Spanish descent born in the Americas or Philippines...
. This rejection led him to work towards a greater autonomy for his country from the Spanish colonial regime
Spanish Empire
The Spanish Empire comprised territories and colonies administered directly by Spain in Europe, in America, Africa, Asia and Oceania. It originated during the Age of Exploration and was therefore one of the first global empires. At the time of Habsburgs, Spain reached the peak of its world power....
. At first, he unsuccessfully promoted the aspirations of Carlota Joaquina to become a regent ruler for the Viceroy
Viceroy
A viceroy is a royal official who runs a country, colony, or province in the name of and as representative of the monarch. The term derives from the Latin prefix vice-, meaning "in the place of" and the French word roi, meaning king. A viceroy's province or larger territory is called a viceroyalty...
alty during the period the Spanish King Ferdinand VII was imprisoned during the Peninsular War
Peninsular War
The Peninsular War was a war between France and the allied powers of Spain, the United Kingdom, and Portugal for control of the Iberian Peninsula during the Napoleonic Wars. The war began when French and Spanish armies crossed Spain and invaded Portugal in 1807. Then, in 1808, France turned on its...
(1807–1814). He favoured the May Revolution
May Revolution
The May Revolution was a week-long series of events that took place from May 18 to 25, 1810, in Buenos Aires, capital of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish colony that included roughly the territories of present-day Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay...
, which removed the viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros
Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros
Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros de la Torre was a Spanish naval officer born in Cartagena. He took part in the Battle of Cape St Vincent and the Battle of Trafalgar, and in the Spanish resistance against Napoleon's invasion in 1808. He was later appointed Viceroy of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la...
from power on 25 May 1810. He was elected as a voting member of the Primera Junta
Primera Junta
The Primera Junta or First Assembly is the most common name given to the first independent government of Argentina. It was created on 25 May 1810, as a result of the events of the May Revolution. The Junta initially had representatives from only Buenos Aires...
that took power after the ouster.
As a delegate for the Junta, he led the ill-fated Paraguay campaign
Paraguay campaign
The Paraguay campaign was the attempt by a Buenos Aires sponsored militia, commanded by Manuel Belgrano, to win the Intendency of Paraguay for the revolutionary cause. The first battle was fought in Campichuelo and the Argentines claimed victory. However, they were completely vanquished in the...
. His troops were defeated by Bernardo Velazco at the battles of Campichuelo
Battle of Campichuelo
The Battle of Campichuelo was a battle fought on 19 December 1810 between revolutionary forces led by Manuel Belgrano and Royalist troops on the right bank of the Paraná river, as part of the Paraguay campaign of the Argentine War of Independence...
and Paraguarí
Battle of Paraguarí
The battle of Paraguarí took place on January 19, 1811, in Paraguarí , between the patriot army led by Manuel Belgrano and the Royalist army located in Paraguay...
. Though he was defeated, the campaign initiated the chain of events that led to the Independence of Paraguay
History of Paraguay
The history of Paraguay is poorly documented, as almost no archaeological research has been done and little is known of Paraguay's pre-Columbian history. What is certain is that the eastern part of the country was occupied by Guaraní peoples for at least 1,000 years before the Spanish colonization...
in May 1811. He retreated to the vicinity of Rosario
Rosario
Rosario is the largest city in the province of Santa Fe, Argentina. It is located northwest of Buenos Aires, on the western shore of the Paraná River and has 1,159,004 residents as of the ....
, to fortify it against a possible royalist
Royalist (Spanish American Revolutions)
The royalists were the American and European supporters of the various governing bodies of the Spanish Monarchy, during the Spanish American wars of independence, which lasted from 1808 until the king's death in 1833...
attack from the Eastern Band of the Uruguay River
Banda Oriental
The Banda Oriental del Uruguay was the South American territory east of the Uruguay River and north of the Río de la Plata, coinciding approximately with the modern nation of Uruguay, the Brazilian State of Rio Grande do Sul and some parts of Santa Catarina...
. While there, he created the flag of Argentina
Flag of Argentina
The national flag of Argentina is a triband, composed of three equally wide horizontal bands coloured light blue, white and light blue. There are multiple interpretations on the reasons for those colors...
. The First Triumvirate
First Triumvirate (Argentina)
The First Triumvirate was the executive body of government that replaced the Junta Grande in the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata...
did not approve the flag, but because of slow communications, Belgrano would only learn of that many weeks later, while reinforcing the Army of the North
Army of the North
The Army of the North , contemporaneously called Army of Peru, was one of the armies deployed by the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata in the Spanish American wars of independence. Its objective was freeing the Argentine Northwest and the Upper Peru from the royalist troops of the Spanish...
at Jujuy. There, knowing he was at a strategic disadvantage against the royalist armies coming from Upper Peru
Upper Peru
Upper Peru was the region in the Viceroyalty of Peru, and after 1776, the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, comprising the governorships of Potosí, La Paz, Cochabamba, Los Chiquitos, Moxos and Charcas...
, Belgrano ordered the Jujuy Exodus
Jujuy Exodus
The Jujuy Exodus was an episode of the Argentine War of Independence. It was a massive forced displacement of people from the Jujuy Province, under by General Manuel Belgrano, conducted by his patriot forces that were battling a Royalist army...
, which evacuated the entire population of Jujuy Province
Jujuy Province
Jujuy is a province of Argentina, located in the extreme northwest of the country, at the borders with Chile and Bolivia. The only neighboring Argentine province is Salta to the east and south.-History:...
to San Miguel de Tucumán. His counter-offensive at the Battle of Tucumán
Battle of Tucumán
The Battle of Tucumán was a battle fought on 24 and 25 September 1812 near the Argentine city of San Miguel de Tucumán, during the Argentine War of Independence. The Army of the North, commanded by General Manuel Belgrano, defeated the royalist troops commanded by General Pío de Tristán, who had a...
resulted in a key strategic victory, and it was soon followed by a complete victory over the royalist army of Pío Tristán at the Battle of Salta
Battle of Salta
The Battle of Salta took place on February 20, 1813 on the plains of Castañares, near the present-day Argentina city of Salta, during the Argentine War of Independence. The Army of the North, under the command of general Manuel Belgrano, defeated for the second time the royalist troops of general...
. However, his deeper incursions into Upper Perú led to defeats at Vilcapugio
Battle of Vilcapugio
The Battle of Vilcapugio was an action fought on October 1, 1813 during the second Campaign of Upper Peru in the Argentine War of Independence, where the republican forces led by General Manuel Belgrano were defeated by a pro-Spanish royalist army, led by Joaquin de la Pezuela.The campaign was...
and Ayohuma
Battle of Ayohuma
The Battle of Ayohuma was an action fought on 14 November 1813, during the second Upper Peru Campaign of the Argentine War of Independence...
, leading the Second Triumvirate
Second Triumvirate (Argentina)
The Second Triumvirate was the governing body of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata that followed the First Triumvirate in 1812, shortly after the May Revolution, and lasted 2 years....
to order his replacement as Commander of the Army of the North by the newly arrived José de San Martín
José de San Martín
José Francisco de San Martín, known simply as Don José de San Martín , was an Argentine general and the prime leader of the southern part of South America's successful struggle for independence from Spain.Born in Yapeyú, Corrientes , he left his mother country at the...
. By then, the Asamblea del Año XIII
Asamblea del Año XIII
The Assembly of Year XIII was a meeting called by the Second Triumvirate governing the young republic of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata on October 1812....
had approved the use of Belgrano's flag as the national war flag
War flag
A war flag is a variant of a national flag for use by the nation's military forces on land. The nautical equivalent is a naval ensign — the battle ensign...
.
Belgrano then went on a diplomatic mission to Europe along with Bernardino Rivadavia
Bernardino Rivadavia
Bernardino de la Trinidad Gónzalez Rivadavia y Rivadavia was the first president of Argentina, from February 8, 1826 to July 7, 1827 . He was a politician of the United Provinces of Río de la Plata, Argentina today...
to seek support for the revolutionary government. He returned in time to take part in the Congress of Tucumán
Congress of Tucumán
The Congress of Tucumán was the representative assembly, initially meeting in Tucumán, that declared the independence of the United Provinces of South America on July 9, 1816, from the Spanish Empire....
, which declared Argentine Independence
Argentine Declaration of Independence
What today is commonly referred as the Independence of Argentina was declared on July 9, 1816 by the Congress of Tucumán. In reality, the congressmen that were assembled in Tucumán declared the independence of the United Provinces of South America, which is still today one of the legal names of the...
(1816). He promoted the Inca plan
Inca plan
The Inca plan was a proposal formulated in 1816 by Manuel Belgrano to the Congress of Tucumán, aiming to crown an Inca. After the Declaration of Independence of the United Provinces of South America , the Congress discussed the form of government that should be used. Belgrano proposed that the...
to create a constitutional monarchy
Constitutional monarchy
Constitutional monarchy is a form of government in which a monarch acts as head of state within the parameters of a constitution, whether it be a written, uncodified or blended constitution...
with an Inca descendant as Head of State. This proposal had the support of San Martín, Martín Miguel de Güemes
Martín Miguel de Güemes
Martín Miguel de Güemes was a military leader and popular caudillo who defended northwestern Argentina from the Spanish during the Argentine War of Independence.-Biography:...
, and many provincial delegates, but was strongly rejected by Buenos Aires
Buenos Aires
Buenos Aires is the capital and largest city of Argentina, and the second-largest metropolitan area in South America, after São Paulo. It is located on the western shore of the estuary of the Río de la Plata, on the southeastern coast of the South American continent...
. The Congress of Tucumán approved the use of his flag as the national flag
National flag
A national flag is a flag that symbolizes a country. The flag is flown by the government, but usually can also be flown by citizens of the country.Both public and private buildings such as schools and courthouses may fly the national flag...
. After this, Belgrano again took command of the Army of the North, but his mission was limited to protect San Miguel de Tucumán from royalist advances while San Martín prepared the Army of the Andes
Army of the Andes
The Army of the Andes was a military force created by the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata and mustered by general José de San Martín in his campaign to free Chile from the Spanish Empire...
for an alternate offensive across the Andes
Crossing of the Andes
The Crossing of the Andes was one of the most important feats in the Argentine and Chilean wars of independence, in which a combined army of Argentine soldiers and Chilean exiles invaded Chile leading to Chile's liberation from Spanish rule...
. When Buenos Aires entered war
Argentine Civil War
The Argentine Civil Wars were a series of internecine wars that took place in Argentina from 1814 to 1876. These conflicts were separate from the Argentine War of Independence , though they first arose during this period....
with José Gervasio Artigas
José Gervasio Artigas
José Gervasio Artigas is a national hero of Uruguay, sometimes called "the father of Uruguayan nationhood".-Early life:Artigas was born in Montevideo on June 19, 1764...
and Estanislao López
Estanislao López
Estanislao López was a governor and caudillo of the , between 1818 and 1838, a hero of provincial federalism and an ally of Juan Manuel de Rosas during the Argentine Civil War.-Biography:...
, he moved the Army southwards, but his troops mutinied
Arequito Revolt
The Arequito Revolt , was a military revolt by officers of the Army of the North, through which they recused themselves from the fight in the civil war against the federals. Their intention was to return to the front of the war against the royalists in Upper Peru, an objective they could not...
in January 1820. Belgrano died of dropsy
Edema
Edema or oedema ; both words from the Greek , oídēma "swelling"), formerly known as dropsy or hydropsy, is an abnormal accumulation of fluid beneath the skin or in one or more cavities of the body that produces swelling...
on 20 June 1820. His last words reportedly were: "¡Ay, Patria mía!" ("Alas, my country!).
Ancestry
Manuel José Joaquín del Corazón de Jesús Belgrano was born in Buenos Aires on 3 June 1770, at his father's house. It was located near the Santo Domingo convent, at Santo Domingo street, between the streets Martín de Tours and Santísima Trinidad (the modern names of those streets are "Belgrano", "Defensa", and "Bolívar" respectively). Though the city was still rather small, the Belgranos lived at one of the wealthiest neighbourhoods. Manuel Belgrano was baptised at the Buenos Aires Metropolitan CathedralBuenos Aires Metropolitan Cathedral
The Buenos Aires Metropolitan Cathedral is the main Catholic church in Buenos Aires, Argentina. It is located in the city center, overlooking Plaza de Mayo, on the corner of San Martín and Rivadavia streets, in the San Nicolás neighbourhood...
the following day. As he was born in America he was considered a criollo
Criollo people
The Criollo class ranked below that of the Iberian Peninsulares, the high-born permanent residence colonists born in Spain. But Criollos were higher status/rank than all other castes—people of mixed descent, Amerindians, and enslaved Africans...
, a social class below the Peninsulars.
His father Domenico was Liguria
Liguria
Liguria is a coastal region of north-western Italy, the third smallest of the Italian regions. Its capital is Genoa. It is a popular region with tourists for its beautiful beaches, picturesque little towns, and good food.-Geography:...
n, from the town of Imperia
Imperia
Imperia may be:* Imperia , an Italian city* Province of Imperia, the Italian province of the above city of Imperia* IMPERIA, a vodka produced by Russian Standard* Imperia , a statue in Constance, Germany...
. His last name was Peri, which he translated to the Spanish form Pérez, but later changed it to Belgrano - literally "Fairwheat", a name that denoted good cereal production. He was a European merchant authorised by the King of Spain to move to America, and had contacts in Spain, Río de Janeiro, and Britain. He promoted the establishment of the Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires
Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires
The Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires was one of the most important institutions of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, along with the viceroy, the Cabildo and the religious ones.The Consulate was built in 1794 at the request of local merchants...
, which his son Manuel would lead years later. Belgrano's mother was María Josefa González Islas y Casero, born in the city of Santiago del Estero
Santiago del Estero
Santiago del Estero is the capital of Santiago del Estero Province in northern Argentina. It has a population of 244,733 inhabitants, making it the twelfth largest city in the country, with a surface area of 2,116 km². It lies on the Dulce River and on National Route 9, at a distance of...
. The family was the second richest in Buenos Aires, after the Escaladas. They had 16 sons, but four of them died. Domingo Belgrano Pérez managed a family business
Family business
A family business is a business in which one or more members of one or more families have a significant ownership interest and significant commitments toward the business’ overall well-being....
, and arranged
Arranged marriage
An arranged marriage is a practice in which someone other than the couple getting married makes the selection of the persons to be wed, meanwhile curtailing or avoiding the process of courtship. Such marriages had deep roots in royal and aristocratic families around the world...
his four daughters to be married to merchants who would become his trusted agents at the Banda Oriental
Banda Oriental
The Banda Oriental del Uruguay was the South American territory east of the Uruguay River and north of the Río de la Plata, coinciding approximately with the modern nation of Uruguay, the Brazilian State of Rio Grande do Sul and some parts of Santa Catarina...
, Misiones Province
Misiones Province
Misiones is one of the 23 provinces of Argentina, located in the northeastern corner of the country in the Mesopotamiсa region. It is surrounded by Paraguay to the northwest, Brazil to the north, east and south, and Corrientes Province of Argentina to the southwest.- History :The province was...
, and Spain. The eight male sons followed different paths: Domingo José Estanislao became canon at the local cathedral, while Carlos José and José Gregorio joined the military. Manuel Belgrano was meant to follow his father's work, but when he took other interests, it was his brother Francisco José María de Indias who kept working with his father.
European studies
He made his first studies at the San Carlos school, where he learned latinLatin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
, philosophy
Philosophy
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational...
, logic
Logic
In philosophy, Logic is the formal systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning. Logic is used in most intellectual activities, but is studied primarily in the disciplines of philosophy, mathematics, semantics, and computer science...
, physics
Physics
Physics is a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.Physics is one of the oldest academic...
, metaphysics
Metaphysics
Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy concerned with explaining the fundamental nature of being and the world, although the term is not easily defined. Traditionally, metaphysics attempts to answer two basic questions in the broadest possible terms:...
, and literature
Literature
Literature is the art of written works, and is not bound to published sources...
, and graduated in 1786. Domingo had sufficient success as merchant to send his two sons Francisco and Manuel to study in Europe. He expected them to study commerce, but Manuel decided to study law. Belgrano was so successful and attained such prestige that Pope Pius VI
Pope Pius VI
Pope Pius VI , born Count Giovanni Angelo Braschi, was Pope from 1775 to 1799.-Early years:Braschi was born in Cesena...
allowed him to study all kinds of forbidden literature
Index Librorum Prohibitorum
The Index Librorum Prohibitorum was a list of publications prohibited by the Catholic Church. A first version was promulgated by Pope Paul IV in 1559, and a revised and somewhat relaxed form was authorized at the Council of Trent...
, even books deemed as heretic
Heresy
Heresy is a controversial or novel change to a system of beliefs, especially a religion, that conflicts with established dogma. It is distinct from apostasy, which is the formal denunciation of one's religion, principles or cause, and blasphemy, which is irreverence toward religion...
, excepting only the astrological
Astrology
Astrology consists of a number of belief systems which hold that there is a relationship between astronomical phenomena and events in the human world...
and obscene
Obscenity
An obscenity is any statement or act which strongly offends the prevalent morality of the time, is a profanity, or is otherwise taboo, indecent, abhorrent, or disgusting, or is especially inauspicious...
books. In this way he came into contact with authors like Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Filangieri
Gaetano Filangieri
Gaetano Filangieri , Italian jurist and philosopher, was born in San Sebastiano al Vesuvio, a country near Naples....
, who were forbidden in Spain.
Belgrano studied near the intellectual elite of Spain, and by that time there were heated discussions about the ongoing French Revolution
French Revolution
The French Revolution , sometimes distinguished as the 'Great French Revolution' , was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France and Europe. The absolute monarchy that had ruled France for centuries collapsed in three years...
. Critics of the divine right of kings
Divine Right of Kings
The divine right of kings or divine-right theory of kingship is a political and religious doctrine of royal and political legitimacy. It asserts that a monarch is subject to no earthly authority, deriving his right to rule directly from the will of God...
, the principles of equality
Egalitarianism
Egalitarianism is a trend of thought that favors equality of some sort among moral agents, whether persons or animals. Emphasis is placed upon the fact that equality contains the idea of equity of quality...
and freedom, and the universal scope of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen is a fundamental document of the French Revolution, defining the individual and collective rights of all the estates of the realm as universal. Influenced by the doctrine of "natural right", the rights of man are held to be universal: valid...
were constant topics of debate. Among these people it was thought that Spain should be remade under similar principles, and critics of such ideas were rejected as tyrants or proponents of outdated ideas. However, the Spanish Enlightenment was slightly different from the French one as it still respected religion and the monarchy. Thus, despite the new influences, Belgrano remained a strong Catholic and monarchist
Monarchism
Monarchism is the advocacy of the establishment, preservation, or restoration of a monarchy as a form of government in a nation. A monarchist is an individual who supports this form of government out of principle, independent from the person, the Monarch.In this system, the Monarch may be the...
.
Belgrano also studied living languages, political economy
Political economy
Political economy originally was the term for studying production, buying, and selling, and their relations with law, custom, and government, as well as with the distribution of national income and wealth, including through the budget process. Political economy originated in moral philosophy...
, and public rights
Public rights
In America, public rights, as compared to private rights, belong to citizens but are vested in and vindicated by political entities. Public rights cannot be vindicated by private citizens. A right must normally be a private right to be vindicated in court....
. The authors that most influenced him were Pedro Rodríguez de Campomanes
Pedro Rodríguez, Conde de Campomanes
Pedro Rodríguez, Conde de Campomanes , Spanish statesman and writer, was born at Santa Eulalia de Sorribia, in Asturias....
, Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos
Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos
Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos was an Asturian-born Spanish neoclassical statesman, author, philosopher and a major figure of the Age of Enlightenment in Spain.-Life:...
, Adam Smith
Adam Smith
Adam Smith was a Scottish social philosopher and a pioneer of political economy. One of the key figures of the Scottish Enlightenment, Smith is the author of The Theory of Moral Sentiments and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations...
, and François Quesnay
François Quesnay
François Quesnay was a French economist of the Physiocratic school. He is known for publishing the "Tableau économique" in 1758, which provided the foundations of the ideas of the Physiocrats...
. Belgrano translated Quesnay's book Maximes générales de gouvernement economique d'un royaume agricole to Spanish. His main interest in the works of such authors were ideas that referred to the public good and popular prosperity. As many other South American students, he became interested in physiocracy, which stated that new wealth came from nature, that agriculture
Agriculture
Agriculture is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi and other life forms for food, fiber, and other products used to sustain life. Agriculture was the key implement in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the...
was an economic activity that generated more income than one needed, and that the state should not interfere at all with it. By that time, South America had plenty of natural resources and a very strict state interventionism in the economy. Belgrano developed the idea that the principles of physiocracy and those stated by Adam Smith could be applied together in the viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. In the development of this approach he was influenced by Fernando Galliani, who promoted the study of particular cases over theoric generalisations, and Antonio Genovesi
Antonio Genovesi
Antonio Genovesi was an Italian writer on philosophy and political economy.-Biography:Genovesi was born at Castiglione, near Salerno....
, who thought that the absolute freedom promoted by physiocrats should be tempered by a moderate intervention by the state, such as the provision of free education
Free education
Free education refers to education that is funded through taxation, or charitable organizations rather than tuition fees. Although primary school and other comprehensive or compulsory education is free in many countries, for example, all education is mostly free including...
for some. During his time in Europe, Belgrano became president of an Academy within the University of Salamanca devoted to roman legislation, forensic practice and political economy.
Work in the Consulate
A short time before his return to Buenos Aires on 3 June 1794, Belgrano was elected by Don Diego de GardoquiDon Diego de Gardoqui
Don Diego María de Gardoqui y Arriquibar Gardoqui-Gardoki Translation: Basque - Fernery was a Spanish-born politician and diplomat.-Biography:Diego de Gardoqui, the fourth of eight children, was the financial intermediary between the...
as perpetual secretary of the Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires
Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires
The Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires was one of the most important institutions of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, along with the viceroy, the Cabildo and the religious ones.The Consulate was built in 1794 at the request of local merchants...
, a new local institution which dealt with commercial and industrial issues in the name of the crown. This date would be later known in Argentina as the economist day. He would remain in this office up to 1810. Here, he would deal with commercial disputes and promote agriculture, industry, and commerce. Not having enough freedom to make big changes in the economic system, he made big efforts to improve education. Influenced by Campomanes, he believed that the true wealth of countries was human ingenuity, and that the best way to promote industrialisation
Industrialisation
Industrialization is the process of social and economic change that transforms a human group from an agrarian society into an industrial one...
was through education.
Monopsony
In economics, a monopsony is a market form in which only one buyer faces many sellers. It is an example of imperfect competition, similar to a monopoly, in which only one seller faces many buyers...
commerce with Cadiz
Cádiz
Cadiz is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the homonymous province, one of eight which make up the autonomous community of Andalusia....
. He made many proposals, influenced by free trade
Free trade
Under a free trade policy, prices emerge from supply and demand, and are the sole determinant of resource allocation. 'Free' trade differs from other forms of trade policy where the allocation of goods and services among trading countries are determined by price strategies that may differ from...
ideas. By this time, Belgrano thought that "The merchant must have freedom to buy where he can be best accommodated, and it's natural that he does where he is supplied with the best price to be able to earn the best profit". Those proposals were rejected by the vocals; his only supporters were Juan José Castelli
Juan José Castelli
Juan José Castelli was an Argentine lawyer. He was one of the leaders of the May Revolution, which started the Argentine War of Independence...
, Juan Larrea, and Domingo Matheu
Domingo Matheu
Domingo Matheu was a Spanish businessman and politician. He was a member of the Primera Junta, the first national government of modern Argentina.- Biography :...
. However, he managed some successes, such as creating the Nautical school, the Commerce school, and the Geometry and Drawing Academy. He created the Commerce School to influence future merchants to work towards the best interests of the nation, and the nautical and drawing ones to provide the youth with prestigious and lucrative careers. The schools were situated next to the Consulate so that Belgrano could easily supervise their development. The schools were in place for three years before they were closed by a ruling of Manuel Godoy, from the Spanish monarchy, who considered them an unnecessary luxury for a colony. It was felt that Buenos Aires may not be able to maintain them.
He tried to promote the diversification of agriculture via the production of linen and hemp, following experiences with his friend Martín de Altolaguirre. He proposed to keep reserves of wheat to help have control over its price. He tried to make leather recognised as a product of the country, in order to promote its commercial potential. None of those proposals was accepted. He designed a system to give prizes to achievements that would boost the local economy, diversify the agriculture, or deforest the pampas. The system did not work as expected, and no such prize was ever given.
He helped to create the first newspaper of the city, the Telégrafo Mercantil
Telégrafo Mercantil
The "Telégrafo Mercantil, Rural, Político, Económico e Historiográfico del Río de la Plata" was the first newspaper edited in Buenos Aires...
, directed by Francisco Cabello y Mesa
Francisco Cabello y Mesa
Francisco Antonio de Cabello y Mesa was a Spanish soldier and writer. He edited the first newspapers of the current nations of Peru, Argentina and Uruguay and founded El telégrafo Mercantil in Buenos Aires in 1801. He wrote under the pseudonym Jaime Bausate y Meza.Born in Extremadura, he joined...
. He worked with Manuel José de Lavardén, and edited nearly two hundred issues. The newspaper was closed in 1802 because of conflicts with the authorities of the viceroyalty, who did not like the criticisms made in it or the jokes and parodies. He also worked in the Semanario de Agricultura, Comercio e Industria, directed by Hipólito Vieytes
Hipólito Vieytes
Juan Hipólito Vieytes, was an Argentine merchant and soldier. He was born in San Antonio de Areco, Buenos Aires Province on 6 August 1762, son of Juan Vieytes and Petrona Mora Fernández de Agüero...
. He used this newspaper to explain his economic ideas: manufacturing and exporting finished goods, import raw materials to manufacture, avoid importing luxury goods or raw materials that could be produced or extracted locally, import only vital products, and own a merchant navy. The newspaper was specialised on the "Philosophy of History, Geography and Statistics". Many revolutionary principles were presented as essays.
Belgrano had symptoms of syphilis
Syphilis
Syphilis is a sexually transmitted infection caused by the spirochete bacterium Treponema pallidum subspecies pallidum. The primary route of transmission is through sexual contact; however, it may also be transmitted from mother to fetus during pregnancy or at birth, resulting in congenital syphilis...
, which he had caught during his time in Europe. This sickness forced him to take long leaves from his work in the Consulate, and to suggest his cousin Juan José Castelli
Juan José Castelli
Juan José Castelli was an Argentine lawyer. He was one of the leaders of the May Revolution, which started the Argentine War of Independence...
, with similar ideas, as a possible replacement. Rejection by the vocals delayed the approval of Castelli up to 1796.
British invasions
Belgrano was appointed as captain of the urban militias in 1797 by viceroy Pedro de MeloPedro de Melo
Pedro de Melo de Portugal y Vilhena was a Spanish soldier and politician, who sered as viceroy in the Rio de la Plata-Biography:...
, who was instructed by Spain to prepare defences against a possible British
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the...
or Portuguese
Portuguese Empire
The Portuguese Empire , also known as the Portuguese Overseas Empire or the Portuguese Colonial Empire , was the first global empire in history...
attack. Belgrano by then worked in the consulate, and was no longer interested in pursuing a military career. Viceroy Rafael de Sobremonte
Rafael de Sobremonte
Don Rafael de Sobremonte y Núñez del Castillo, 3rd Marquis of Sobremonte , third Marquis of Sobremonte, was an aristocrat, military man and Spanish colonial administrator, and Viceroy of the Río de la Plata...
requested that he create a militia to counter a possible British attack, but he did not take interest in it. His first intervention in a military conflict took place when the British, under William Carr Beresford, arrived with 1,600 men and took Buenos Aires, starting the British invasions of the Río de la Plata
British invasions of the Río de la Plata
The British invasions of the Río de la Plata were a series of unsuccessful British attempts to seize control of the Spanish colonies located around the La Plata Basin in South America . The invasions took place between 1806 and 1807, as part of the Napoleonic Wars, when Spain was an ally of...
. Belgrano moved to the fortress as soon as he heard the warning, and gathered many men to launch resistance. But without the required knowledge, his men marched in disorder and Belgrano was ordered to disband after a single British cannon shot. Belgrano would write later in his autobiography that he regretted not having by then even the most basic knowledge of militia work.
After the taking of the city, all Spanish authorities were requested to pledge allegiance to the British crown. Belgrano thought that the members of the Consulate should leave the city and join the viceroy, but the others did not agree. They obeyed the British request; Belgrano refused to do so. He said that he wanted "either our old master, or no master at all". To avoid being forced to pledge allegiance, he escaped from Buenos Aires and sought asylum at the chapel of Mercedes, in the Banda Oriental
Banda Oriental
The Banda Oriental del Uruguay was the South American territory east of the Uruguay River and north of the Río de la Plata, coinciding approximately with the modern nation of Uruguay, the Brazilian State of Rio Grande do Sul and some parts of Santa Catarina...
.
The British army was defeated by an army under the direction of Santiago de Liniers
Santiago de Liniers
Jacques de Liniers was a French officer in the Spanish military service, and a viceroy of the Spanish colonies of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. He is more widely known by the Spanish form of his name, Santiago de Liniers...
, and Spanish authority was restored. It was expected that the British would return, and the whole city started to prepare for that possibility. Belgrano returned to Buenos Aires after the reconquest, and put himself under the command of Liniers. He was appointed sergeant of the Patricians Regiment, under the command of Cornelio Saavedra
Cornelio Saavedra
Cornelio Judas Tadeo de Saavedra y Rodríguez was a military officer and statesman from the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata...
, and started to study military strategy. After some conflicts with other officials, he resigned as sergeant and served again under the command of Liniers. During the battle he served as field assistant to a division commanded by Balbiani. After the successful resistance, Belgrano resumed his work in the Consulate and discontinued his military studies. Because of his knowledge of French he had a brief interview with the defeated Robert Craufurd
Robert Craufurd
Major-General Robert Craufurd was a Scottish soldier and Member of Parliament . After a military career which took him from India to the Netherlands, he was given command of the Light Division in the Napoleonic Peninsular War under the Duke of Wellington...
, who proposed British support for an independentist movement. Belgrano rejected the offer, considering that Britain would readily remove their support if they had a more lucrative option in Europe, and in such case they would be helpless against a Spanish counterattack.
Carlotism
Manuel Belgrano was the main proponent of the Carlotist
Carlotism
Carlotism was a political movement that took place in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata between 1808 and 1812; it intended to make Carlota Joaquina of Spain its queen. After Napoleon's invasion of Spain, Fernando VII was forced to abdicate and give the throne to Joseph Bonaparte...
political movement in the Rio de la Plata. It was a response to recent developments in Europe, where Spain was at war with France
Peninsular War
The Peninsular War was a war between France and the allied powers of Spain, the United Kingdom, and Portugal for control of the Iberian Peninsula during the Napoleonic Wars. The war began when French and Spanish armies crossed Spain and invaded Portugal in 1807. Then, in 1808, France turned on its...
. Through the abdications of Bayonne
Abdications of Bayonne
The Abdications of Bayonne is the name given to a series of abdications of kings of Spain that led to the Peninsular War.The Mutiny of Aranjuez forced king Charles IV to abdicate and give the throne to his son, Ferdinand VII. Napoleon Bonaparte forced Ferdinand to abdicate as well, ending the...
, the Spanish king Ferdinand VII was deposed and imprisoned and the Frenchman Joseph Bonaparte
Joseph Bonaparte
Joseph-Napoléon Bonaparte was the elder brother of Napoleon Bonaparte, who made him King of Naples and Sicily , and later King of Spain...
was appointed king of Spain by the French victors. This led to a partial power vacuum
Power vacuum
A power vacuum is, in its broadest sense, an expression for a condition that exists when someone has lost control of something and no one has replaced them. It is usually used to refer to a political situation that can occur when a government has no identifiable central authority...
in the viceroyalty, as the legitimacy of the new king was rejected by all parties. The purpose of the Carlotist movement was to replace the authority of the deposed king with that of Carlota Joaquina, sister of Ferdinand, who was then living in Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro , commonly referred to simply as Rio, is the capital city of the State of Rio de Janeiro, the second largest city of Brazil, and the third largest metropolitan area and agglomeration in South America, boasting approximately 6.3 million people within the city proper, making it the 6th...
. The project was supported as a means to achieve more autonomy, and perhaps independence, for Spanish colonies in the New World. Belgrano kept a fluent mail communication with Carlota, and convinced many independentists to join him in the project, such as Castelli, Vieytes, Nicolás Rodríguez Peña, and Juan José Paso. The support of Cornelio Saavedra for Carlota is disputed.
The project, however, found strong resistance. As Carlota was married to John VI
John VI of Portugal
John VI John VI John VI (full name: João Maria José Francisco Xavier de Paula Luís António Domingos Rafael; (13 May 1767 – 10 March 1826) was King of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves (later changed to just King of Portugal and the Algarves, after Brazil was recognized...
, a prince of Portugal, many people though that Carlotism was a trick to conceal Portuguese expansionism. Carlota herself had different political ideas than those of her supporters: Belgrano and the others shared the ideas of enlightenment, but Carlota aspired to keep the full power of an absolutist monarchy. By 1810 the project was forgotten.
A new viceroy, Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros
Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros
Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros de la Torre was a Spanish naval officer born in Cartagena. He took part in the Battle of Cape St Vincent and the Battle of Trafalgar, and in the Spanish resistance against Napoleon's invasion in 1808. He was later appointed Viceroy of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la...
, arrived from Europe to replace Liniers. Belgrano had failed to convince Liniers of the benefits of the Carlotist plan, so he aimed instead to convince him of refusing to give up the viceroyalty, as Liniers had been confirmed as viceroy by a Spanish king. Cisneros, appointed by the Junta of Seville, lacked such legitimacy. Liniers refused this proposal as well, and handed command to Cisneros without resistance. Belgrano later convinced the new viceroy to allow him to edit a new newspaper, the "Correo de Comercio". This allowed him to gather with other revolutionary leaders with the excuse of discussing the development of the newspaper. He also supported the opening of the port to foreign trade, ruled by Cisneros, but this notion was strongly rejected by Spanish merchants. Some historians like Miguel Ángel Scenna suggest that "The Representation of the Hacendados
The Representation of the Hacendados
The Representation of the Landowners is an 1809 economic report written by Mariano Moreno that described the economy of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. It was written by Moreno on behalf of the Hacendados , to request the then viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros to reconsider the...
", commonly attributed to Mariano Moreno
Mariano Moreno
Mariano Moreno was an Argentine lawyer, journalist, and politician. He played a decisive role in the Primera Junta, the first national government of Argentina, created after the May Revolution....
, was actually Belgrano's work, or a work by Moreno from a draft written by Belgrano. Belgrano may not have been able to present such a work himself, because he held a political office and because his past opposition to Cisneros may had risked its rejection.
He resigned from his work in the Consulate in April 1810 and moved to the countryside. A short time later he received a letter from his friends requesting him to return to Buenos Aires and join the revolutionary movements.
May Revolution
The Peninsular War was not developing favourably for Spain, and by May 1810 a ship arrived with the news of the defeat of Seville and the disbanding of the Junta of Seville. Without either a recognised Spanish king or the Junta that had appointed Cisneros, many people thought that the viceroy had no longer any authority. He tried to conceal the news by gathering all the newspapers brought by the ship, but Belgrano and Castelli managed to get one. Cisneros then explained the European developments to the public. Belgrano and the members of the Carlotist party, despite having given up their original idea, plotted to remove the viceroy and replace him with a JuntaJunta (Peninsular War)
In the Napoleonic era, junta was the name chosen by several local administrations formed in Spain during the Peninsular War as a patriotic alternative to the official administration toppled by the French invaders...
. Under the advice of Cornelio Saavedra
Cornelio Saavedra
Cornelio Judas Tadeo de Saavedra y Rodríguez was a military officer and statesman from the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata...
, they waited for the news of the defeat in Spain to take action.
Belgrano and Saavedra, representing the military and the intellectuals, got an interview with Cisneros to request an open cabildo
Open cabildo
The open cabildo was a special mode of assembly of the inhabitants of Latin American cities during the Spanish colonial period, in case of emergencies or disasters. Usually, the colonial cities were governed by a Cabildo, municipal-type institutions composed of officials appointed by the colonial...
, but without getting an answer. Cisneros called the military leaders and requested their support, but they refused, under the grounds that his viceroyalty lacked legitimacy. Castelli and other patriots insisted in their request, and Cisneros finally accepted. A massive demonstration the following day ensured that Cisneros would keep his word. The open cabildo was celebrated on 22 May, with all political leaders present, and armed men filling the Plaza and ready to invade the Cabildo in case the peninsulars attempted a disruption, which would be indicated by a signal from Belgrano. He supported the stance of his cousin Castelli, who made a speech explaining the concept of the retroversion of the sovereignty of the people, and that Spanish America was subject to the king of Spain but not to Spain itself. At the time of voting, Castelli's proposal was coupled with the one of Cornelio Saavedra, with Belgrano among its supporters. This joint proposal for the removal of Cisneros and the creation of a government Junta prevailed over the others. However, the Cabildo attempted to keep Cisneros in power in spite of this result, by creating a Junta with Cisneros as its president. This was rejected by the revolutionary leaders and the population. A great state of turmoil ended when the Junta was disbanded on 25 May and replaced by the Primera Junta
Primera Junta
The Primera Junta or First Assembly is the most common name given to the first independent government of Argentina. It was created on 25 May 1810, as a result of the events of the May Revolution. The Junta initially had representatives from only Buenos Aires...
. Belgrano was included in this junta, among many other local politicians.
In his autobiography
Autobiography of Manuel Belgrano
The autobiography of Manuel Belgrano was written in 1814. It is part of his Memories and it was first published by Bartolomé Mitre in 1877 as part of the book Historia de Belgrano y de la Independencia Argentina...
Belgrano declared that he did not have any previous knowledge of being included in the junta, and that his designation took him by surprise. Nevertheless, he accepted the role. He was part of the political line of Mariano Moreno
Mariano Moreno
Mariano Moreno was an Argentine lawyer, journalist, and politician. He played a decisive role in the Primera Junta, the first national government of Argentina, created after the May Revolution....
; they were expecting to use the government to make big changes in the social order. One of his first rulings was the making of a Maths Academy, located in the building of the Consulate and with the purpose of instructing the military. Belgrano was appointed its protector. He supported the banishment of Cisneros and the members of the Real Audience
Real Audiencia of Buenos Aires
The Real Audiencia de Buenos Aires, were two audiencias, or highest courts, of the Spanish crown, which resided in Buenos Aires. The authority of the first extended to the territory of the Governorate of the Río de la Plata and operated from 1661 to 1671...
, and the execution of Liniers and other counter-revolutionaries defeated in Córdoba. Some historians suggest that he would have promoted the creation of the Operations plan
Operations plan
Operations plan is a secret document attributed to Mariano Moreno, that set harsh ways for the Primera Junta to achieve its goals...
, a secret document written by Moreno that set harsh ways for the Junta to achieve its goals, while others consider the whole document a literary forgery
Literary forgery
Literary forgery refers to writing, such as a manuscript or a literary work either deliberately misattributed to a historical or invented author, or a purported memoir presented as genuine.- History :The common, or popularly known, instance of literary forgery may involve for example the work of a...
done by royalists to discredit the Junta. A few others suspect that some paragraphs or the whole document may have been the result of collaborative writing between Moreno, Belgrano, and Hipólito Vieytes
Hipólito Vieytes
Juan Hipólito Vieytes, was an Argentine merchant and soldier. He was born in San Antonio de Areco, Buenos Aires Province on 6 August 1762, son of Juan Vieytes and Petrona Mora Fernández de Agüero...
.
Expedition to Paraguay
Three months after the creation of the Primera Junta, Manuel Belgrano was appointed Chief Commander of an army sent to gather support at Corrientes, Santa FeSanta Fe, Argentina
Santa Fe is the capital city of province of Santa Fe, Argentina. It sits in northeastern Argentina, near the junction of the Paraná and Salado rivers. It lies opposite the city of Paraná, to which it is linked by the Hernandarias Subfluvial Tunnel. The city is also connected by canal with the...
, Paraguay
Paraguay
Paraguay , officially the Republic of Paraguay , is a landlocked country in South America. It is bordered by Argentina to the south and southwest, Brazil to the east and northeast, and Bolivia to the northwest. Paraguay lies on both banks of the Paraguay River, which runs through the center of the...
, and the Banda Oriental
Banda Oriental
The Banda Oriental del Uruguay was the South American territory east of the Uruguay River and north of the Río de la Plata, coinciding approximately with the modern nation of Uruguay, the Brazilian State of Rio Grande do Sul and some parts of Santa Catarina...
. A few days later his goal was made more specific: he must aim for Paraguay. The Junta had been informed that the patriotic party
Patriot (Spanish American Revolution)
Patriots was the name the peoples of the Spanish America, who rebelled against Spanish control during the Spanish American wars of independence, called themselves. They supported the principles of the Age of Enlightenment and sought to replace the existing governing structures with Juntas...
was strong, and a small army would suffice to take control. Trusting this information, Belgrano went to Paraguay with two possible goals: get acknowledgment for the Junta in Paraguay or promote a new government that would stay on friendly terms with Buenos Aires. Belgrano was unaware of the news that on 24 July a general assembly in Paraguay discussed the Junta of Buenos Aires, and decided to reject it and pledge allegiance to the Regency Council of Spain.
Belgrano headed north with nearly two hundred men, expecting to gather more people by the end of the Paraná river
Paraná River
The Paraná River is a river in south Central South America, running through Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina for some . It is second in length only to the Amazon River among South American rivers. The name Paraná is an abbreviation of the phrase "para rehe onáva", which comes from the Tupi language...
. Soldiers from the Blandengues regiments of San Nicolás and Santa Fe joined them en route, and later the Junta sent reinforcements of another two hundred soldiers. The army was welcomed by most of the population found along the way, receiving donations and new recruits. Ultimately the army was composed of nearly 950 men, consisting of infantry and cavalry divided in four divisions with one piece of artillery each.
By the end of October the army stopped at Curuzú Cuatiá
Curuzú Cuatiá
Curuzú Cuatiá is a city in the south of the province of Corrientes in the Argentine Mesopotamia. It has about 36,000 inhabitants as of the , and is the head town of the Curuzú Cuatiá Department....
, where Belgrano solved an old border conflict between Corrientes and Yapeyu
Yapeyú, Corrientes
Yapeyú is a town in the province of Corrientes, Argentina, in the San Martín Department. It has about 2,000 inhabitants as per the , and it is known throughout the country because it was the birthplace of General José de San Martín , hero of the War of Independence.-Etymology:The word Yapeyú comes...
. He set which territories would belong to Curuzu Cuatiá and Mandisoví, and organised their urban layout around the chapel and school. By November the army arrived at the coast of Paraná near Apipé island
Isla Apipé
Isla Apipé or Isla Apipé Grande is an about 25 km long Argentine island in the Paraná River, on the border with Paraguay.Isla Apipé is part of Corrientes Province, but the island is separated from the rest of the province by a channel of the Paraná River, which belongs to Paraguay...
, and there Belgrano took measures to benefit the natives that were living in missions. With his authority as speaker of the Junta he gave them full civil and political rights, granted lands, authorised commerce with the United Provinces, and lifted their restriction on taking public or religious office. However, the Junta later requested that he should seek authorisation for such changes in the future.
From that point the army moved to Candelaria, which was used as stronghold for the attack into Paraguay. The terrain gave a clear advantage to Velazco against Belgrano: the Paraná River, nearly 1000 metres (3,280.8 ft) wide, was an effective natural barrier
Natural barrier
The most common use of the term "natural barrier" is in geography, where it refers to a naturally occurring obstacle to movement, especially of people and especially at modest technological levels....
, and once it was crossed the patriotic army would have to move a long distance across a land without supplies. Swamps, hills, rivers, and lakes would force the army to march slowly, making a possible retreat very difficult. The Parana was crossed with several boats on 19 December, and a task force of 54 Paraguayan soldiers was forced to flee during the battle of Campichuelo
Battle of Campichuelo
The Battle of Campichuelo was a battle fought on 19 December 1810 between revolutionary forces led by Manuel Belgrano and Royalist troops on the right bank of the Paraná river, as part of the Paraguay campaign of the Argentine War of Independence...
. Belgrano saw Velazco's army from the Mbaé hill, and despite being greatly outnumbered, he ordered an attack, trusting in the moral strength of his soldiers. When the battle of Paraguarí
Battle of Paraguarí
The battle of Paraguarí took place on January 19, 1811, in Paraguarí , between the patriot army led by Manuel Belgrano and the Royalist army located in Paraguay...
started, the patriots had briefly an upper hand, but eventually Velazco, with superior numbers, prevailed. Even with 10 deaths and 120 soldiers taken prisoner, Belgrano wanted to continue the fight, but his officials convinced him to retreat.
The army left for Tacuarí, being closely watched by the combined armies of Yegros and Cabañas. Those two armies had nearly three thousand soldiers, while Belgrano had barely four hundred. They were attacked from many sides during the battle of Tacuarí
Battle of Tacuarí
The Battle of Tacuarí was a battle in Southern Paraguay between revolutionary forces under the command of General Manuel Belgrano, member of the Primera Junta government of Argentina, and Paraguayan troops under colonel Manuel Atanasio Cabañas, at the time at the service of the royalists.- History...
, on 9 March. Greatly outnumbered and losing an unequal fight, Belgrano refused to surrender. He reorganised the remaining 235 men and ordered his secretary to burn all his documents and personal papers to prevent them from falling into enemy hands. Belgrano arranged for the troops and artillery to fire for many minutes, which made the Paraguayan soldiers disperse. When the barrage stopped, Belgrano requested an armistice, telling Cabañas that he had arrived to Paraguay to aid and not to conquer; considering the open hostility with which he was met, he would leave the province. Cabañas accepted, on the grounds that the remaining group must leave the province within a day.
The campaign to Paraguay was a complete defeat for the Primera Junta, but it was not a complete political failure: after it, Paraguay started to consider independentism. By 14 May they declared independence from Spain. However, in the process they broke ties with Buenos Aires: they maintained good relations but were no longer part of the same political entity.
Creation of the flag of Argentina
After the defeat in Tacuarí, the government of Buenos Aires (which by then was the First TriumvirateFirst Triumvirate (Argentina)
The First Triumvirate was the executive body of government that replaced the Junta Grande in the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata...
) made a series of conflicting orders. First they requested he should fight the royalists in the Banda Oriental
Banda Oriental
The Banda Oriental del Uruguay was the South American territory east of the Uruguay River and north of the Río de la Plata, coinciding approximately with the modern nation of Uruguay, the Brazilian State of Rio Grande do Sul and some parts of Santa Catarina...
, then to return to the city and be judged for the defeats. However, no charges were formulated against him. He was appointed as the head of the Regiment of Patricians, replacing the banished Cornelio Saavedra
Cornelio Saavedra
Cornelio Judas Tadeo de Saavedra y Rodríguez was a military officer and statesman from the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata...
, but the troops did not accept him and started the Braids Mutiny. After that, the Triumvirate requested him to fortify Rosario against possible royalist attacks from the Banda Oriental. He created two batteries, "Independencia" ("Independence") and "Libertad" ("Freedom"). After realising that both patriots and royalists were fighting under the same colours, he created the cockade of Argentina
Cockade of Argentina
The Argentine cockade is one of the national symbols of Argentina, instituted by decree on February 18, 1812 by the First Triumvirate, who determined that "the national cockade of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata shall be of colours white and light blue [...]".The National Cockade Day...
, of light blue and white colours, the use of which was approved by the Triumvirate. The reasons for the colours are usually considered to be either loyalty to the House of Bourbon
House of Bourbon
The House of Bourbon is a European royal house, a branch of the Capetian dynasty . Bourbon kings first ruled Navarre and France in the 16th century. By the 18th century, members of the Bourbon dynasty also held thrones in Spain, Naples, Sicily, and Parma...
or his esteem of the Virgin Mary. Belgrano created a flag with the same colours, which was hoisted at Rosario
Rosario
Rosario is the largest city in the province of Santa Fe, Argentina. It is located northwest of Buenos Aires, on the western shore of the Paraná River and has 1,159,004 residents as of the ....
near the Paraná River. On that same day he was appointed to replace Pueyrredon in the Army of the North, so he travelled to Yatasto. He found desmoralised officials, nearly 1,500 soldiers (a quarter of them hospitalised), minimal artillery, and no money. Some of the officials were Manuel Dorrego
Manuel Dorrego
Manuel Dorrego was an Argentine statesman and soldier. He was governor of Buenos Aires in 1820, and then again from 1827 to 1828....
, Gregorio Aráoz de Lamadrid
Gregorio Aráoz de Lamadrid
Comandante General Gregorio Aráoz de Lamadrid was an Argentine military leader and, briefly, governor of several provinces like Córdoba, Mendoza and his native province of Tucumán.Lamadrid fought beside General Belgrano and General San Martín during the Argentine War of Independence, as a prominent...
, Cornelio Zelaya, José María Paz
José María Paz
Brigadier General José María Paz y Haedo was an Argentine military figure, notable in the Argentine War of Independence and the Argentine Civil War.-Childhood:...
, Diego Balcarce, and Eustaquio Díaz Vélez
Eustaquio Díaz Vélez
Eustaquio Díaz Vélez was an Argentine soldier who fought in the Argentine War of Independence and in the civil wars of his country.-Beginnings:...
. The cities were much more hostile to the Army than those that Belgrano encountered on his way into Paraguay. Salta was menaced by Goyeneche; Belgrano had orders to take command and retreat without fighting, but he decided to disobey. He prepared a base at Campo Santo, in Salta, where he improved the hospital and created a military tribunal. He later moved to Jujuy, knowing that he did not have the resources to launch an attack to Upper Perú.
The First Triumvirate did not approve the use of the flag created in Rosario, but Belgrano was initially unaware of that. He had the flag blessed by the priest Juan Ignacio de Gorriti at Salta, on the second anniversary of the May Revolution. When he found out the flag was not approved, he put it away. When asked, he would tell that he was keeping it for a great victory.
Three months later royalist general Pío Tristán advanced in the north with more than three thousand men, prepared to invade the United Provinces. Once again outnumbered by larger armies, Belgrano organised a great exodus
Jujuy Exodus
The Jujuy Exodus was an episode of the Argentine War of Independence. It was a massive forced displacement of people from the Jujuy Province, under by General Manuel Belgrano, conducted by his patriot forces that were battling a Royalist army...
of the city of Jujuy: the entire population of the city would have to retreat with the army and not leave behind anything that might be of value to the royalists (such as animals, crops, or housing). By September a proper formation of columns provided them with a victory against a royalist task force of 500 men during the Battle of Las Piedras
Battle of Las Piedras
The Battle of Las Piedras was fought on May 18, 1811 as part of the Uruguayan struggle for independence.-Background and development of events:...
. The First Triumvirate commanded Belgrano to retreat to Cordoba without fighting, but he thought that doing so would mean the loss of the northern provinces. Thus, instead of continuing to Cordoba, he was convinced by the people of San Miguel de Tucumán to make a stand there. His forces had increased by then to nearly 1,800 soldiers, still much less than the 3,000 at Tristan's command. Even so, he obtained a victory in the Battle of Tucumán
Battle of Tucumán
The Battle of Tucumán was a battle fought on 24 and 25 September 1812 near the Argentine city of San Miguel de Tucumán, during the Argentine War of Independence. The Army of the North, commanded by General Manuel Belgrano, defeated the royalist troops commanded by General Pío de Tristán, who had a...
. By that time, the First Triumvirate was replaced by the Second Triumvirate
Second Triumvirate (Argentina)
The Second Triumvirate was the governing body of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata that followed the First Triumvirate in 1812, shortly after the May Revolution, and lasted 2 years....
, which provided greater support for Belgrano. The Second Triumvirate called the Assembly of Year XIII soon after taking power, which was intended to declare independence and enact a national constitution, but failed to do so because of political disputes between the members. It did not take measures regarding the national flag, but allowed Belgrano to use the blue and white flag as the flag of the Army of the North.
After the defeat in Tucumán, Tristán garrisoned at the city of Salta with 2,500 men. Belgrano, with reinforcements from the government, intended to gather 4,000 men and march to Upper Peru, up to the border of the Viceroyalty of Lima. The Battle of Salta
Battle of Salta
The Battle of Salta took place on February 20, 1813 on the plains of Castañares, near the present-day Argentina city of Salta, during the Argentine War of Independence. The Army of the North, under the command of general Manuel Belgrano, defeated for the second time the royalist troops of general...
, the first battle with the new approved banner, was a decisive victory, ending with the capitulation of Pío Tristán and all of his army.
These victories ensured Argentine authority in the northwest and stopped the royalist advance into the central territory. Although there were a number of colonialist 'invasions' from Upper Peru until 1821, Belgrano's campaign is widely considered the decisive one.
Campaign to Upper Peru
By June 1813 Belgrano set up a base in PotosíPotosí
Potosí is a city and the capital of the department of Potosí in Bolivia. It is one of the highest cities in the world by elevation at a nominal . and it was the location of the Spanish colonial mint, now the National Mint of Bolivia...
with an army of 2,500 men, to prepare an attack on Upper Peru. Goyeneche moved to Oruro
Oruro, Bolivia
Oruro is a city in Bolivia with a population of 235,393 , located about equidistant between La Paz and Sucre at approximately 3710 meters above sea level. It is the capital of the department of Oruro....
and resigned, being replaced by Joaquín de la Pezuela
Joaquín de la Pezuela
Joaquín de la Pezuela Griñán y Sánchez Muñoz de Velasco, 1st marquis of Viluma was a Spanish military officer and viceroy of Peru during the War of Independence.-Background:...
. Belgrano administrated the zone and tried to revert the bad impression left by the previous campaign of Juan José Castelli
Juan José Castelli
Juan José Castelli was an Argentine lawyer. He was one of the leaders of the May Revolution, which started the Argentine War of Independence...
. Belgrano initiated good relations with the natives as well. Belgrano's plan was to attack the royalists from the front and the sides, with the aid of the armies of Cárdenas and Zelaya. Both armies were near 3,500 men. However, the royalists obtained an important advantage by defeating Cárdenas and getting possession of his papers, which gave them insight into the patriotic plans. Belgrano was taken by surprise at Vilcapugio
Battle of Vilcapugio
The Battle of Vilcapugio was an action fought on October 1, 1813 during the second Campaign of Upper Peru in the Argentine War of Independence, where the republican forces led by General Manuel Belgrano were defeated by a pro-Spanish royalist army, led by Joaquin de la Pezuela.The campaign was...
on 1 October, and initially gained the upper hand against the royalist troops, who started to flee. However, when Pezuela saw that the patriotic armies were not following, he reorganised his forces, returned to the battle, and won. There were barely 400 survivors. Belgrano said: "Soldiers: we have lost the battle after so much fighting. Victory has betrayed us by going to the enemy ranks during our triumph. It does not matter! The flag of the nation still swings in our hands!". After gathering his army at Macha
Santiago de Macha
Santiago de Macha is a Bolivian city of the department of Potosí, in the province of Chayanta. The town had reached a population of nearly 10,000 people by 2008. Most of the young adult works abroad, and the village's marketplace opens only on Sunday...
, where he received reinforcements from Cochabamba
Cochabamba
Cochabamba is a city in central Bolivia, located in a valley bearing the same name in the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cochabamba Department and is the fourth largest city in Bolivia with an urban population of 608,276 and a metropolitan population of more than 1,000,000 people...
, Belgrano was ready for another engagement with Pezuela, whose troops were not in a better situation. On 14 November, Belgrano was again vanquished by the royalists at Ayohuma
Battle of Ayohuma
The Battle of Ayohuma was an action fought on 14 November 1813, during the second Upper Peru Campaign of the Argentine War of Independence...
, and was forced to withdraw the remains of his army towards Potosí and from there to Jujuy.
The Second Triumvirate reacted by sending José de San Martín
José de San Martín
José Francisco de San Martín, known simply as Don José de San Martín , was an Argentine general and the prime leader of the southern part of South America's successful struggle for independence from Spain.Born in Yapeyú, Corrientes , he left his mother country at the...
to take the command of the Army of the North, with Belgrano as his second in command. San Martín would reinforce the battle-weary Army of the North with his own soldiers. Hastened by Belgrano's illness, San Martín travelled to the rendezvous as quickly as possible; they met at the Posta de Yatasto
Posta de Yatasto
The Posta de Yatasto is a estate located near San José de Metán, Salta Province, Argentina. It is known for historical meetings that took place at the site during the Argentine War of Independence, and was designated a National Monument of Argentina in 1942....
, in Salta. Belgrano gave San Martin full freedom to implement changes, and took command of the First Regiment. The Second Triumvirate, and later the Supreme Director Gervasio Posadas, requested Belgrano to return to Buenos Aires and be judged for the defeats at Vilcapugio and Ayohuma, but San Martín refused to send him because of his poor health. San Martín finally agreed to send Belgrano to Córdoba by March 1814. He temporarily settled in Luján
Luján, Buenos Aires
Luján is a city in the Buenos Aires province of Argentina, located 68 kilometres north west of the city of Buenos Aires. The city was founded in 1755 and has a population of 94,000 ....
to await outcome of the trial, and during this time he wrote his autobiography
Autobiography of Manuel Belgrano
The autobiography of Manuel Belgrano was written in 1814. It is part of his Memories and it was first published by Bartolomé Mitre in 1877 as part of the book Historia de Belgrano y de la Independencia Argentina...
. Soon afterwards, all charges against Belgrano were dismissed, as no definite accusation was formulated against him. The new government, with a better concept of Belgrano, sent him on a diplomatic mission to Europe to negotiate support for the independence of the United Provinces.
Declaration of Independence
By 1814 the Spanish King Ferdinand VII had returned to the throne and started the Absolutist Restauration, which had grave consequences for the governments in the Americas. Belgrano and Bernardino RivadaviaBernardino Rivadavia
Bernardino de la Trinidad Gónzalez Rivadavia y Rivadavia was the first president of Argentina, from February 8, 1826 to July 7, 1827 . He was a politician of the United Provinces of Río de la Plata, Argentina today...
were sent to Europe to seek support for the United Provinces from both Spain and Britain. They sought to promote the crowning of Francisco de Paula
Infante Francisco de Paula of Spain
Infante Francisco de Paula of Spain was the youngest son of Charles IV of Spain and Maria Luisa of Parma.-Marriage and children:...
, son of Charles IV of Spain
Charles IV of Spain
Charles IV was King of Spain from 14 December 1788 until his abdication on 19 March 1808.-Early life:...
, as regent of the United Provinces, but in the end he refused to act against the interests of the King of Spain. The diplomatic mission failed, but Belgrano learned of changes in ideology that took place in Europe since his previous visit. With the influence of the French Revolution
French Revolution
The French Revolution , sometimes distinguished as the 'Great French Revolution' , was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France and Europe. The absolute monarchy that had ruled France for centuries collapsed in three years...
, there had been a great consensus for making republic
Republic
A republic is a form of government in which the people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over the government and where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people. In modern times, a common simplified definition of a republic is a government where the head of...
an governments. After the government of Napoleon I
Napoleon I
Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military and political leader during the latter stages of the French Revolution.As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 to 1815...
, monarchies
Monarchy
A monarchy is a form of government in which the office of head of state is usually held until death or abdication and is often hereditary and includes a royal house. In some cases, the monarch is elected...
were preferred again, but in the form of Constitutional monarchies
Constitutional monarchy
Constitutional monarchy is a form of government in which a monarch acts as head of state within the parameters of a constitution, whether it be a written, uncodified or blended constitution...
regulated by a Constitution
Constitution
A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed. These rules together make up, i.e. constitute, what the entity is...
, such as in Britain. He also noticed that the European powers
Superpower
A superpower is a state with a dominant position in the international system which has the ability to influence events and its own interests and project power on a worldwide scale to protect those interests...
approved of the South American revolutions, but the approval was compromised when the countries started to fall into anarchy
Anarchy
Anarchy , has more than one colloquial definition. In the United States, the term "anarchy" typically is meant to refer to a society which lacks publicly recognized government or violently enforced political authority...
.
When the emissaries returned to Buenos Aires, the government was worried by the defeats of Rondeau at Sipe Sipe and the political stir generated by the caudillos José Gervasio Artigas
José Gervasio Artigas
José Gervasio Artigas is a national hero of Uruguay, sometimes called "the father of Uruguayan nationhood".-Early life:Artigas was born in Montevideo on June 19, 1764...
and Estanislao López
Estanislao López
Estanislao López was a governor and caudillo of the , between 1818 and 1838, a hero of provincial federalism and an ally of Juan Manuel de Rosas during the Argentine Civil War.-Biography:...
. Alvarez Thomas appointed Belgrano for the army at Rosario, but shortly afterwards Thomas resigned. Pueyrredón became the new Supreme Director. With the signing of the Santo Tomé pact, the aforementioned army was retired from Rosario. Belgrano was then sent back to take command of the Army of the North, with the strong support of San Martín. "In the case of designating who must replace Rondeau, I am decided for Belgrano; he is the most methodical man of all whom I know in America; he is full of integrity and natural talent. He may not have the military knowledge of a Moreau or a Bonaparte as far as the army is concerned, but I think he is the best we have in South America".
Belgrano met with the Congress of Tucuman
Congress of Tucumán
The Congress of Tucumán was the representative assembly, initially meeting in Tucumán, that declared the independence of the United Provinces of South America on July 9, 1816, from the Spanish Empire....
on 6 July 1816 to explain the results of his diplomatic mission in Europe. He thought that enacting a local monarchy would help to prevent anarchy, which would not end simply with independence from Spain. He felt a declaration of independence would be more easily accepted by the European powers if it created a monarchic system. To this end he formulated the Inca Plan
Inca plan
The Inca plan was a proposal formulated in 1816 by Manuel Belgrano to the Congress of Tucumán, aiming to crown an Inca. After the Declaration of Independence of the United Provinces of South America , the Congress discussed the form of government that should be used. Belgrano proposed that the...
: a monarchy ruled by a noble of the Inca civilisation
Inca civilization
The Andean civilizations made up a loose patchwork of different cultures that developed from the highlands of Colombia to the Atacama Desert. The Andean civilizations are mainly based on the cultures of Ancient Peru and some others such as Tiahuanaco. The Inca Empire was the last sovereign...
. He thought that this would generate support from the indigenous populations as well, and repair the actions taken against the Inca by the Spanish colonisation. This proposal was supported by San Martín, Güemes, the deputies from the Upper Peru, and other provinces, but it found a strong rejection from Buenos Aires; they would not accept Cuzco as the capital city. On 9 July the Congress finally signed the Declaration of Independence from Spain. The flag created by Belgrano, which was being used without a law regulating it, was accepted as the National flag
National flag
A national flag is a flag that symbolizes a country. The flag is flown by the government, but usually can also be flown by citizens of the country.Both public and private buildings such as schools and courthouses may fly the national flag...
. The Inca Plan was still under discussion, but the Congress delayed it due to several states of emergency in the provinces.
In August Belgrano again took command of the Army of the North, but with very limited people and resources. He was ordered to avoid trying to advance against the royalists in the north, and was to stay in a defensive state at Tucumán. With Güemes in Salta, his task was to prevent the Royalists from moving to the south. The Supreme Director Pueyrredón was supporting an alternative plan designed by José de San Martín
José de San Martín
José Francisco de San Martín, known simply as Don José de San Martín , was an Argentine general and the prime leader of the southern part of South America's successful struggle for independence from Spain.Born in Yapeyú, Corrientes , he left his mother country at the...
: create the Army of the Andes
Army of the Andes
The Army of the Andes was a military force created by the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata and mustered by general José de San Martín in his campaign to free Chile from the Spanish Empire...
at Cuyo and, after making the Crossing of the Andes
Crossing of the Andes
The Crossing of the Andes was one of the most important feats in the Argentine and Chilean wars of independence, in which a combined army of Argentine soldiers and Chilean exiles invaded Chile leading to Chile's liberation from Spanish rule...
, defeat the royalists in Chile, get control of the Chilean navy, and attack the royalist stronghold of Lima
Lima
Lima is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón, Rímac and Lurín rivers, in the central part of the country, on a desert coast overlooking the Pacific Ocean. Together with the seaport of Callao, it forms a contiguous urban area known as the Lima...
with it.
Last years
In 1819 Buenos Aires was at war with José Gervasio ArtigasJosé Gervasio Artigas
José Gervasio Artigas is a national hero of Uruguay, sometimes called "the father of Uruguayan nationhood".-Early life:Artigas was born in Montevideo on June 19, 1764...
and Estanislao López
Estanislao López
Estanislao López was a governor and caudillo of the , between 1818 and 1838, a hero of provincial federalism and an ally of Juan Manuel de Rosas during the Argentine Civil War.-Biography:...
, and requested San Martín and Belgrano to return with their armies to take part in the conflict. San Martín refused to do so, but Belgrano accepted. However, before his arrival the governors Estanislao López and Juan José Viamonte
Juan José Viamonte
Juan José Viamonte González was an Argentine general in the early 19th century.-Biography:Viamonte was born in Buenos Aires and entered the army in his youth following in his father's footsteps...
signed an eight-day truce to start peace negotiations. His health was in a very bad state by this point, but he refused to resign, considering that the morale of the Army would suffer without his presence. He moved to the frontier between Santa Fe and Córdoba, from where he would be able to move to either the litoral or the north if needed. His health continued to worsen, and he was given an unlimited leave from work by the Supreme Director. He handed command to Fernández de la Cruz and moved to Tucumán, where he met his daughter Manuela Mónica, just one year old. The governor of Tucuman, Feliciano de la Motta, was deposed during his stay, and he was taken prisoner. Abraham González
Abraham González
Abraham González Casavantes was the provisional and constitutional governor of the Mexican state of Chihuahua during the early period of the Mexican Revolution...
led the uprising and attempted to put Belgrano into a Shrew's fiddle
Shrew's fiddle
A shrew's fiddle or neck violin is a variation of the yoke, pillory or rigid irons whereby the wrists are locked in front of the bound person by a hinged board or steel bar...
, but his doctor Josef Redhead objected, because of his delicate health, and his sentence was changed to simple imprisonment. When Bernabé Araoz took control of the government of Tucumán, Belgrano was immediately released.
He returned to Buenos Aires, to his parent's house. By that time the Battle of Cepeda
Battle of Cepeda (1820)
The Battle of Cepeda of 1820 took place on February 1 in Cañada de Cepeda, Santa Fe, Argentina.It was the first major battle that saw Unitarians and Federals as two constituted sides. Federal League Provinces of Santa Fe and Entre Ríos joined forces to topple the 1819 centralist Constitution, and...
had ended the authority of the Supreme Directors
Supreme Director of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata
The Supreme Director of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata , was a title given to the executive officers of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, according to the form of government established in 1814 by the Asamblea del Año XIII...
, starting the period known as Anarchy of the year 20. On 20 June 1820, at the age of 50, he died of dropsy
Edema
Edema or oedema ; both words from the Greek , oídēma "swelling"), formerly known as dropsy or hydropsy, is an abnormal accumulation of fluid beneath the skin or in one or more cavities of the body that produces swelling...
. Due to his poverty, he paid his doctor with his clock and his carriage, some of the few possessions he still had. As requested, he was shrouded into the robes of the Dominican Order
Dominican Order
The Order of Preachers , after the 15th century more commonly known as the Dominican Order or Dominicans, is a Catholic religious order founded by Saint Dominic and approved by Pope Honorius III on 22 December 1216 in France...
, and buried in the Santo Domingo convent. Before dying, Belgrano said "Ay, Patria mía" (in Spanish, "Oh, my motherland").
Due to the state of anarchy being experienced by the city, Belgrano's death was largely unnoticed. The only newspaper of the time to note his death was El Despertador Teofilantrópico, written by Francisco de Paula Castañeda, and there was not any government representation at his funeral. Former students of his educative institutions would arrive in the following days with obsequies, when the news started to be known. The following year the political context was less chaotic and Bernardino Rivadavia
Bernardino Rivadavia
Bernardino de la Trinidad Gónzalez Rivadavia y Rivadavia was the first president of Argentina, from February 8, 1826 to July 7, 1827 . He was a politician of the United Provinces of Río de la Plata, Argentina today...
, who was minister by then, organised a massive state funeral
State funeral
A state funeral is a public funeral ceremony, observing the strict rules of protocol, held to honor heads of state or other important people of national significance. State funerals usually include much pomp and ceremony as well as religious overtones and distinctive elements of military tradition...
.
In 1902, during Julio Argentino Roca
Julio Argentino Roca
Alejo Julio Argentino Roca Paz was an army general who served as President of Argentina from 12 October 1880 to 12 October 1886 and again from 12 October 1898 to 12 October 1904.-Upbringing and early career:...
presidency, his body was exhumed from the atrium of Santo Domingo
Santo Domingo convent
The Santo Domingo Convent, or Basilic of Our Lady of the Rosary and Convent of Santo Domingo is a convent for Our Lady of the Rosary located at the city of Buenos Aires. Built during the colonial times, it was the scenario of a military conflict during the British invasions of the Río de la Plata....
, to be moved into a mausoleum. This was done on 4 September, by a government commission which included Dr. Joaquín V. González
Joaquín V. González
Joaquín Víctor González was an Argentine educator, political scientist, writer, magistrate, and politician.- Early life :...
(ministry of interior), Pablo Riccheri (ministry of war), Gabriel L. Souto (president of the commission), Fray Modesto Becco (from the convent), Carlos Vega Belgrano and coronel Manuel Belgrano (descendants of Belgrano), Dr. Armando Claros (subsecretary of the Interior), Dr. Marcial Quiroga (Health Inspector of the Army), Dr. Carlos Malbrán (president of the National Department of Health), Coronel Justo Domínguez, and doctors Luis Peluffo and C. Massot (Arsenal of War). The exhumation revealed a number of preserved bones, pieces of wood, and nails. The bones were placed on a silver plate, and the following day there was a great controversy in the press: the newspaper La Prensa
La Prensa (Buenos Aires)
La Prensa is an Argentine daily newspaper.Based in Buenos Aires, it was founded on 18 October 1869 by José C. Paz. La Prensa ranked among the most widely circulated dailies in Argentina in subsequent decades, earning a reputation for conservatism and support for British interests in Argentina...
annnounced that Joaquín V. González and Riccheri had stolen a pair of teeth. Both were returned the following day. Gonzalez declared that he intended to show the tooth to his friends, and Riccheri that he took one to Belgrano's biographer, Bartolomé Mitre
Bartolomé Mitre
Bartolomé Mitre Martínez was an Argentine statesman, military figure, and author. He was the President of Argentina from 1862 to 1868.-Life and times:...
.
Personal life
Manuel Belgrano met María Josefa Ezcurra, sister of Encarnación EzcurraEncarnación Ezcurra
Encarnación Ezcurra was an Argentine politician, wife of Juan Manuel de Rosas.She was the daughter of Juan Ignacio Ezcurra and Teodora de Arguibel. She married Rosas on March 16, 1813. She became her husband's most faithful follower, helping him in many difficult circumstances...
, at the age of 22. His father, Juan Ignacio Ezcurra, did not approve of their relationship because of the bankruptcy of Domingo Belgrano, Manuel's father. Juan Ignacio arranged the wedding of his daughter with Juan Esteban Ezcurra, a distant relative from Pamplona that worked selling clothes. Juan Ignacio opposed the May Revolution and returned to Spain, leaving his wife in Buenos Aires, which allowed her to return to her former relationship with Belgrano.
When Belgrano was dispatched to Upper Peru, María Josefa followed him to Jujuy. She took part in the Jujuy Exodus and saw the battle of Tucumán. It is thought that she was pregnant by this time. Her son, Pedro Pablo, was born on 30 July 1813. Pedro Pablo was adopted by Encarnación Ezcurra and her husband, Juan Manuel de Rosas
Juan Manuel de Rosas
Juan Manuel de Rosas , was an argentine militar and politician, who was elected governor of the province of Buenos Aires in 1829 to 1835, and then of the Argentine Confederation from 1835 until 1852...
, who she had married shortly before.
Belgrano also met María Dolores Helguero in Tucumán, and briefly considered getting married, but the war forced a postponement. María married another man; the relationship ended, but was briefly restarted in 1818. While he was near the frontiers of Córdoba, Santa Fe, and Buenos Aires, and in a delicate state of health, he learned that María Dolores had given birth to his daughter, Manuela Mónica del Sagrado Corazón, who was born on 4 May 1819.
Neither of these children were recognised by Belgrano in his will, where he said he had no children. However, it is thought that he did not mention them in order to protect their mothers, as both children were the result of relations that the moral standards of the society of the day would not have accepted. Nevertheless, he requested that his brother, Joaquín Eulogio Estanislao Belgrano, who was appointed as his heir, should look after his newborn daughter.
Diseases
There are no records of diseases experienced by Belgrano during his youth or adolescence. His first illness dates from the time of his return to Buenos Aires, when he worked in the Consulate; he experienced symptoms of syphilis caught during his stay in Spain. He was treated by the most prestigious physicians of the city: Miguel Gorman from the Protomedicato of Buenos Aires, Miguel García de Rojas, and José Ignacio de Arocha. This disease forced him to take long leaves from his work at the Consulate and take repose stays at MaldonadoMaldonado, Uruguay
Maldonado is the capital of Maldonado Department of Uruguay. It is located on Route 39 and shares borders with Punta del Este to the south, Pinares - Las Delicias to the south and to the east and suburb La Sonrisa to the north. Together they all for a unified metropolitan area. East of the city...
and San Isidro
San Isidro, Buenos Aires
San Isidro, Buenos Aires is a municipality in Greater Buenos Aires and one of the most affluent municipalities in Argentina. It is located in San Isidro Partido in the Buenos Aires Province....
. He was treated with salts and iodines, and his condition eventually improved. It is also suspected that he may have had rheumatism
Rheumatism
Rheumatism or rheumatic disorder is a non-specific term for medical problems affecting the joints and connective tissue. The study of, and therapeutic interventions in, such disorders is called rheumatology.-Terminology:...
. By the year 1800 he had a growing lacrimal fistula in one of his eyes and was invited by the King to move to Spain for a cure. He was offered a one year leave with paid wages, but he rejected it, giving priority to his work for the nation over his own personal health. The fistula would later stabilise at a safe and unnoticeable size.
During his military career he had blood vomits
Hematemesis
Hematemesis or haematemesis is the vomiting of blood. The source is generally the upper gastrointestinal tract. Patients can easily confuse it with hemoptysis , although the latter is more common.-Signs:...
, such as before the Battle of Salta
Battle of Salta
The Battle of Salta took place on February 20, 1813 on the plains of Castañares, near the present-day Argentina city of Salta, during the Argentine War of Independence. The Army of the North, under the command of general Manuel Belgrano, defeated for the second time the royalist troops of general...
; he was almost too ill to participate in the battle. It is thought that those vomits originated in the digestive system
Digestion
Digestion is the mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into smaller components that are more easily absorbed into a blood stream, for instance. Digestion is a form of catabolism: a breakdown of large food molecules to smaller ones....
and caused by were stress
Stress (biology)
Stress is a term in psychology and biology, borrowed from physics and engineering and first used in the biological context in the 1930s, which has in more recent decades become commonly used in popular parlance...
, and not in the respiratory system
Respiratory system
The respiratory system is the anatomical system of an organism that introduces respiratory gases to the interior and performs gas exchange. In humans and other mammals, the anatomical features of the respiratory system include airways, lungs, and the respiratory muscles...
, because the vomits were sporadic, the condition did not became chronic, and it eventually cured itself. Nothing was revealed in the autopsy
Autopsy
An autopsy—also known as a post-mortem examination, necropsy , autopsia cadaverum, or obduction—is a highly specialized surgical procedure that consists of a thorough examination of a corpse to determine the cause and manner of death and to evaluate any disease or injury that may be present...
.
Belgrano also exprerienced paludism during the second campaign to Upper Peru. On 3 May 1815 he informed the government of his disease, which made it difficult for him to work or even talk. He was treated by doctor Joseph Readhead, who employed a local species of the Cinchona
Cinchona
Cinchona or Quina is a genus of about 38 species in the family Rubiaceae, native to tropical South America. They are large shrubs or small trees growing 5–15 metres in height with evergreen foliage. The leaves are opposite, rounded to lanceolate and 10–40 cm long. The flowers are white, pink...
medicinal plant. The disease lasted up to his stay in Britain, when his health improved because of the treatment and by having left the endemic
Endemic (epidemiology)
In epidemiology, an infection is said to be endemic in a population when that infection is maintained in the population without the need for external inputs. For example, chickenpox is endemic in the UK, but malaria is not...
zone.
He also experimented stomach disease
Stomach disease
The stomach is an important organ in the body. It plays a vital role in digestion of foods, releases various enzymes and also protects the lower intestine from harmful organisms. The stomach connects to the esophagus above and to the small intestine below. It is intricately related to the pancreas,...
, having a low production
Achlorhydria
Achlorhydria or hypochlorhydria refers to states where the production of gastric acid in the stomach is absent or low, respectively. It is associated with various other medical problems.-Signs and symptoms:...
of gastric acid
Gastric acid
Gastric acid is a digestive fluid, formed in the stomach. It has a pH of 1 to 2 and is composed of hydrochloric acid , and large quantities of potassium chloride and sodium chloride...
s. This was worsened by harsh military conditions, including long periods with little food. The first references to the disease that would lead to his death, a case of edema
Edema
Edema or oedema ; both words from the Greek , oídēma "swelling"), formerly known as dropsy or hydropsy, is an abnormal accumulation of fluid beneath the skin or in one or more cavities of the body that produces swelling...
, are from a year before, in a letter directed to Álvarez Thomas. He declared having problems in the chest, a lung, and his right leg. A later letter to Sarratea confirmed his situation, and specified that it started on 23 April 1819. The gravity of his condition led the doctor Francisco de Paula Rivero to diagnose an advanced dropsy. Belgrano refused to move to the city of Córdoba to be healed. He argued that the morale of the army depended of his presence, and said that in the case of his death he may be buried at a nearby chapel. Finally, he resigned his commission, gave the command to Fernández de la Cruz, and moved to Tucuman, where he was jailed for a short time. Once free, he returned to his house in Buenos Aires, where he died on 20 June. He was embalmed by Joseph Redhead and Juan Sullivan and buried at the Santo Domingo chapel. Sullivan performed the autopsy; it revealed high levels of fluid in multiple edemas and a tumor
Tumor
A tumor or tumour is commonly used as a synonym for a neoplasm that appears enlarged in size. Tumor is not synonymous with cancer...
in the right epigastrium
Epigastrium
The epigastrium is the upper central region of the abdomen. It is located between the costal margins and the subcostal plane....
. The liver and spleen
Spleen
The spleen is an organ found in virtually all vertebrate animals with important roles in regard to red blood cells and the immune system. In humans, it is located in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen. It removes old red blood cells and holds a reserve of blood in case of hemorrhagic shock...
had grown beyond normal levels there were disorganised kidneys and problems with the lungs and heart.
Father's side
Mother's side
Political thought
Manuel Belgrano had a vast intellectual awareness of most important topics of his age. He studied in Europe during the Atlantic RevolutionsAtlantic Revolutions
"Atlantic Revolutions" is a cover term for a wave of late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century revolutions associated with Atlantic history during the The Age of Enlightenment.* Corsican Revolution * American Revolution...
, and was a versatile polyglot
Multilingualism
Multilingualism is the act of using, or promoting the use of, multiple languages, either by an individual speaker or by a community of speakers. Multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the world's population. Multilingualism is becoming a social phenomenon governed by the needs of...
, capable of understanding Spanish, English, French, Italian, and some indigenous languages. This allowed him to read many influential books of the Age of Enlightenment
Age of Enlightenment
The Age of Enlightenment was an elite cultural movement of intellectuals in 18th century Europe that sought to mobilize the power of reason in order to reform society and advance knowledge. It promoted intellectual interchange and opposed intolerance and abuses in church and state...
, and understand the social, economic, technical, educative, political, cultural, and religious changes that were being prompted by the new ideas. He helped to promote those ideas using the press and with his work in the Consulate. He rejected localist perspectives, favouring a Latin Americanist
Latin American integration
The integration of Latin America has a history going back to Spanish American and Brazilian independence, when there was discussion of creating a regional state or confederation of Latin American nations to protect the area's newly won autonomy...
one. He was driven by the concept of the common good
Common good
The common good is a term that can refer to several different concepts. In the popular meaning, the common good describes a specific "good" that is shared and beneficial for all members of a given community...
, which he regarded as an ethical value
Ethics
Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy that addresses questions about morality—that is, concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime, etc.Major branches of ethics include:...
. He considered public health, education, and work as part of the common good, as well as religion. He did not share completely the ideas of the French Revolution
French Revolution
The French Revolution , sometimes distinguished as the 'Great French Revolution' , was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France and Europe. The absolute monarchy that had ruled France for centuries collapsed in three years...
, but instead the tempered ones of the Spanish Enlightenment: most notably, he remained a monarchist and held strong religious beliefs, being Roman Catholic and a devotee of Marian theology. His monarchism was not a conservative one, as he agreed that the existing state of things should be modified, but not towards a republic
Republic
A republic is a form of government in which the people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over the government and where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people. In modern times, a common simplified definition of a republic is a government where the head of...
as in France or the United States, but towards a Constitutional monarchy
Constitutional monarchy
Constitutional monarchy is a form of government in which a monarch acts as head of state within the parameters of a constitution, whether it be a written, uncodified or blended constitution...
, like in Britain.
In the economic fields, he was influenced by the principles of Physiocracy, an economic doctrine that considered that nature was the source of wealth. As a result, much of his works and reform proposals at the Consulate were oriented towards improving agriculture, livestock, manufacturing, and free trade
Free trade
Under a free trade policy, prices emerge from supply and demand, and are the sole determinant of resource allocation. 'Free' trade differs from other forms of trade policy where the allocation of goods and services among trading countries are determined by price strategies that may differ from...
. He maintained a fluent contact with the consulates of other cities, developing a view of the viceroyalty as a whole. This led to an increased work in cartography
Cartography
Cartography is the study and practice of making maps. Combining science, aesthetics, and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality can be modeled in ways that communicate spatial information effectively.The fundamental problems of traditional cartography are to:*Set the map's...
of the largely unpopulated areas of the territory; the maps designed during this period would later prove a great help for José de San Martín
José de San Martín
José Francisco de San Martín, known simply as Don José de San Martín , was an Argentine general and the prime leader of the southern part of South America's successful struggle for independence from Spain.Born in Yapeyú, Corrientes , he left his mother country at the...
during the Crossing of the Andes
Crossing of the Andes
The Crossing of the Andes was one of the most important feats in the Argentine and Chilean wars of independence, in which a combined army of Argentine soldiers and Chilean exiles invaded Chile leading to Chile's liberation from Spanish rule...
. He introduced new crops, boosted the livestock production of local fauna, and protected weaving manufacturing.
Promotion of education
Manuel Belgrano was one of the first politicians to advocate the development of an important educative systemEducation
Education in its broadest, general sense is the means through which the aims and habits of a group of people lives on from one generation to the next. Generally, it occurs through any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts...
. He did so at the first report he made as head of the Consulate of Commerce, suggesting the creating of schools of agriculture
Agriculture
Agriculture is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi and other life forms for food, fiber, and other products used to sustain life. Agriculture was the key implement in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the...
and commerce
Commerce
While business refers to the value-creating activities of an organization for profit, commerce means the whole system of an economy that constitutes an environment for business. The system includes legal, economic, political, social, cultural, and technological systems that are in operation in any...
. A school of agriculture would teach about important topics such as crop rotation
Crop rotation
Crop rotation is the practice of growing a series of dissimilar types of crops in the same area in sequential seasons.Crop rotation confers various benefits to the soil. A traditional element of crop rotation is the replenishment of nitrogen through the use of green manure in sequence with cereals...
, the specific ways to work with each crop, methods of seeding and harvesting, preservation
Food preservation
Food preservation is the process of treating and handling food to stop or slow down spoilage and thus allow for longer storage....
of seeds, and identification of pests. Until that time, the only previous attempts to teach agriculture was done by the Jesuits, who were banished in 1767.
He was not only concerned about higher education
Higher education
Higher, post-secondary, tertiary, or third level education refers to the stage of learning that occurs at universities, academies, colleges, seminaries, and institutes of technology...
, but also about primary education
Primary education
A primary school is an institution in which children receive the first stage of compulsory education known as primary or elementary education. Primary school is the preferred term in the United Kingdom and many Commonwealth Nations, and in most publications of the United Nations Educational,...
, and promoted the creation of free schools
Free education
Free education refers to education that is funded through taxation, or charitable organizations rather than tuition fees. Although primary school and other comprehensive or compulsory education is free in many countries, for example, all education is mostly free including...
for poor children. In those schools, students would learn to read
Reading skills acquisition
Learning to read is the process of acquiring the skills necessary for reading; that is, the ability to acquire meaning from print. Learning to read is paradoxical in some ways...
and learn basic maths and the catechism
Catechism
A catechism , i.e. to indoctrinate) is a summary or exposition of doctrine, traditionally used in Christian religious teaching from New Testament times to the present...
. He thought that this would help to raise people willing to work, and reduce laziness.
He also promoted the creation of schools for women, where they would learn about weaving
Weaving
Weaving is a method of fabric production in which two distinct sets of yarns or threads are interlaced at right angles to form a fabric or cloth. The other methods are knitting, lace making and felting. The longitudinal threads are called the warp and the lateral threads are the weft or filling...
, as well as reading. However, he did not aim to generate intellectual women, but just to prevent ignorance and laziness, and have them learn things valuable for daily living. Being a strong Catholic himself, he was aligned with the Catholic perspective that rejected mixed-sex education, in contrast with Protestantism.
His concern with public education was not interrupted by his military campaigns. In 1813 he was rewarded with 40,000 pesos for his victories at Salta and Tucumán, an amount that would equal almost 80 gold kilograms
Gold standard
The gold standard is a monetary system in which the standard economic unit of account is a fixed mass of gold. There are distinct kinds of gold standard...
. Belgrano rejected taking the prize money for himself, considering that a patriot should not seek money or wealth. He gave it back to the XIII year Assembly
Asamblea del Año XIII
The Assembly of Year XIII was a meeting called by the Second Triumvirate governing the young republic of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata on October 1812....
, with instructions to build primary schools at Tarija
Tarija, Bolivia
Tarija or San Bernardo de la Frontera de Tarixa is a city in southern Bolivia. Founded in 1574, Tarija is both the capital and largest city within the Tarija Department, with an airport offering regular service to primary Bolivian cities, as well as a regional bus terminal with domestic and...
, Jujuy
San Salvador de Jujuy
San Salvador de Jujuy , commonly known as Jujuy and locally often referred to as San Salvador, is the capital city of Jujuy Province in northwest Argentina. It lies near the southern end of the Humahuaca Canyon where wooded hills meet the lowlands....
, San Miguel de Tucumán, and Santiago del Estero
Santiago del Estero
Santiago del Estero is the capital of Santiago del Estero Province in northern Argentina. It has a population of 244,733 inhabitants, making it the twelfth largest city in the country, with a surface area of 2,116 km². It lies on the Dulce River and on National Route 9, at a distance of...
. He laid out a series of instructions about the methods and requirements for the selection of the teachers. However, the schools were not built, and by 1823 Bernardino Rivadavia
Bernardino Rivadavia
Bernardino de la Trinidad Gónzalez Rivadavia y Rivadavia was the first president of Argentina, from February 8, 1826 to July 7, 1827 . He was a politician of the United Provinces of Río de la Plata, Argentina today...
declared that the money was lost; Juan Ramón Balcarce
Juan Ramón Balcarce
Juan Ramón González de Balcarce was an Argentine military leader and politician.Juan was the older brother of Antonio González de Balcarce and of Marcos González de Balcarce. He fought against the British in 1807, and in the 1812 military campaign in Peru under General Manuel Belgrano. He was...
included it in the debt of the Buenos Aires province
Buenos Aires Province
The Province of Buenos Aires is the largest and most populous province of Argentina. It takes the name from the city of Buenos Aires, which used to be the provincial capital until it was federalized in 1880...
a decade later.
Translations
The historian Bartolomé MitreBartolomé Mitre
Bartolomé Mitre Martínez was an Argentine statesman, military figure, and author. He was the President of Argentina from 1862 to 1868.-Life and times:...
stated that Manuel Belgrano held a deep admiration for George Washington
George Washington
George Washington was the dominant military and political leader of the new United States of America from 1775 to 1799. He led the American victory over Great Britain in the American Revolutionary War as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army from 1775 to 1783, and presided over the writing of...
, leader of the American Revolution
American Revolution
The American Revolution was the political upheaval during the last half of the 18th century in which thirteen colonies in North America joined together to break free from the British Empire, combining to become the United States of America...
and first President of the United States. Because of this, he worked on a translation of George Washington's Farewell Address
George Washington's Farewell Address
George Washington's Farewell Address was written to "The People of the United States" near the end of his second term as President of the United States and before his retirement to his home at Mount Vernon....
into the Spanish language
Spanish language
Spanish , also known as Castilian , is a Romance language in the Ibero-Romance group that evolved from several languages and dialects in central-northern Iberia around the 9th century and gradually spread with the expansion of the Kingdom of Castile into central and southern Iberia during the...
. He started working on it during the Paraguay Campaign, but before the battle of Tacuarí he destroyed all his papers, including the unfinished translation, to prevent them from falling into enemy hands. Belgrano resumed work on it afterwards and finished it before the Battle of Salta. He sent it to Buenos Aires for publication. George Washington's Farewell Address is considered, along with Gettysburg Address
Gettysburg Address
The Gettysburg Address is a speech by U.S. President Abraham Lincoln and is one of the most well-known speeches in United States history. It was delivered by Lincoln during the American Civil War, on the afternoon of Thursday, November 19, 1863, at the dedication of the Soldiers' National Cemetery...
, one of the most important texts in the history of the United States. It talks about the importance of keeping national unity as the key to maintain independence, prosperity, and freedom—ideas that were shared by Belgrano regarding the population of Hispanic America.
Legacy
National Flag Memorial (Argentina)
The National Flag Memorial in Rosario, Argentina, is a monumental complex built near the shore of the Paraná River...
) was built in 1957 in honour of the flag, in Rosario. The Flag Memorial and the park that surround it are the seat of national celebrations every Flag Day
Flag Day (Argentina)
The Day of the National Flag is the holiday dedicated to the Argentine flag and to the commemoration of its creator, Manuel Belgrano. It is celebrated on June 20, the anniversary of Belgrano's death in 1820...
, on 20 June, the anniversary of Belgrano's death. Jujuy Province
Jujuy Province
Jujuy is a province of Argentina, located in the extreme northwest of the country, at the borders with Chile and Bolivia. The only neighboring Argentine province is Salta to the east and south.-History:...
is declared the honorary capital of Argentina each 23 August since 2002, in reference to the Jujuy Exodus
Jujuy Exodus
The Jujuy Exodus was an episode of the Argentine War of Independence. It was a massive forced displacement of people from the Jujuy Province, under by General Manuel Belgrano, conducted by his patriot forces that were battling a Royalist army...
.
The cruiser ARA General Belgrano
ARA General Belgrano
The ARA General Belgrano was an Argentine Navy light cruiser in service from 1951 until 1982. Formerly the , she saw action in the Pacific theater of World War II before being sold to Argentina. After almost 31 years of service, she was sunk during the Falklands War by the Royal Navy submarine ...
, which was sunk during the Falklands War
Falklands War
The Falklands War , also called the Falklands Conflict or Falklands Crisis, was fought in 1982 between Argentina and the United Kingdom over the disputed Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands...
, was named after him,
as was Puerto Belgrano
Puerto Belgrano
Base Naval Puerto Belgrano is the largest naval base of the Argentine Navy, situated next to Punta Alta, near Bahía Blanca, about south of Buenos Aires...
, which is the largest base of the Argentinian navy. A small town in the province of Córdoba, Argentina, Villa General Belgrano
Villa General Belgrano
Villa General Belgrano, a small mountain village of 6,260 inhabitants is named after the creator of the Argentine flag Manuel Belgrano and located in a lush green valley of Calamuchita in the hills in the Province of Córdoba in central Argentina.-History:...
, also bears his name, as well as many other small towns and departments. Avenida Belgrano in the City of Buenos Aires and part of the avenue that leads to the Flag Memorial in Rosario (also Avenida Belgrano) bear his name. Additionally, there is a northern neighbourhood within Buenos Aires city that carries the name Belgrano.
In the museum Casa de la Libertad at Sucre, Bolivia, there is an Argentine flag, protected by a glass case and in a deteriorated condition, which they claim to be the original one raised by Belgrano for first time in 1812. The ensign was one of two abandoned and hidden inside a small church near Macha after the battle of Ayohuma, during the retreat from Upper Peru in 1813. The other flag was given back to Argentina by the Bolivian authorities in 1896.
In Genoa
Genoa
Genoa |Ligurian]] Zena ; Latin and, archaically, English Genua) is a city and an important seaport in northern Italy, the capital of the Province of Genoa and of the region of Liguria....
, Italy, there is a commemorative statue of Belgrano, at the end of the Corso Buenos Aires.
Historiography
The first biographyBiography
A biography is a detailed description or account of someone's life. More than a list of basic facts , biography also portrays the subject's experience of those events...
of Manuel Belgrano was his autobiography
Autobiography of Manuel Belgrano
The autobiography of Manuel Belgrano was written in 1814. It is part of his Memories and it was first published by Bartolomé Mitre in 1877 as part of the book Historia de Belgrano y de la Independencia Argentina...
, which he wrote by the time he was stationed in Lujan. It long remained unpublished. His first biography written by someone else was "Bosquejo histórico del General Don Manuel Belgrano" (Historical stub on General Don Manuel Belgrano), authored by José Ignacio Álvarez Thomas. Álvarez Thomas wrote it during his exile at Colonia del Sacramento
Colonia del Sacramento
Colonia del Sacramento is a city in southwestern Uruguay, by the Río de la Plata, facing Buenos Aires, Argentina. It is the oldest town in Uruguay and capital of the departamento of Colonia. It has a population of around 22,000.It is renowned for its historic quarter, a World Heritage Site...
, and his work had a high political bias.
The historian Bartolomé Mitre
Bartolomé Mitre
Bartolomé Mitre Martínez was an Argentine statesman, military figure, and author. He was the President of Argentina from 1862 to 1868.-Life and times:...
wrote Historia de Belgrano y de la Independencia Argentina
Historia de Belgrano y de la Independencia Argentina
Historia de Belgrano y de la Independencia Argentina is an Argentine history book written by Bartolomé Mitre. It is mainly a biography of Manuel Belgrano, but the author expanded the scope into the whole Argentine War of Independence, where Belgrano was involved...
(History of Belgrano and of the Independence of Argentina), whose scope expanded on the simple biography of Belgrano himself, and detailed instead the Argentine War of Independence
Argentine War of Independence
The Argentine War of Independence was fought from 1810 to 1818 by Argentine patriotic forces under Manuel Belgrano, Juan José Castelli and José de San Martín against royalist forces loyal to the Spanish crown...
as a whole. This book included as well the autobiography of Belgrano, which was discovered by Mitre. The book was criticised by other contemporary Argentine authors, such as Dalmacio Vélez Sarsfield
Dalmacio Vélez Sársfield
Dalmacio Vélez Sársfield was an Argentine lawyer and politician who wrote the Argentine Civil Code of 1869, the vast majority of which remains in use to this day.-Life and times:...
, Vicente Fidel López
Vicente Fidel López
Vicente Fidel López was an Argentine historian, lawyer and politician. He was a son of writer and politician Vicente López y Planes.-Biography:...
, and Juan Bautista Alberdi
Juan Bautista Alberdi
Juan Bautista Alberdi was an Argentine political theorist and diplomat. Although he lived most of his life in exile in Montevideo and Chile, he was one of the most influential Argentine liberals of his age.-Biography:...
, with whom Mitre had important discussions. Vélez Sarsfield criticised the work of Mitre at "Rectificaciones históricas: General Belgrano, General Güemes" (Historical rectifications: General Belgrano, General Güemes) which dealt with Martín Miguel de Güemes
Martín Miguel de Güemes
Martín Miguel de Güemes was a military leader and popular caudillo who defended northwestern Argentina from the Spanish during the Argentine War of Independence.-Biography:...
as well, and Mitre would answer at "Estudios históricos sobre la Revolución de Mayo: Belgrano y Güemes" (Historical studies about the May Revolution: Belgrano and Güemes). Both books were written in 1864. Vicente López provided a biography of Belgrano from a different angle, focusing on a small group of specific people rather than on the nation as a whole. His book was "Debate histórico, refutaciones a las comprobaciones históricas sobre la Historia de Belgrano" (Historical debate, rebuttals to the historical checkings about the history of Belgrano), and Mitre replied with "Nuevas comprobaciones sobre historia argentina" (New checkings about the history of Argentina). These disputes about Belgrano are considered the starting point of the Historiography of Argentina
Historiography of Argentina
The Historiography of Argentina is composed of the works of the various authors that have written about the History of Argentina. Despite the existence of authors who had written about events they were directly involved in, or which were contemporary to them, the first real historiographical works...
. Historiographical studies of Manuel Belgrano are currently held by the Belgranian National Institute
Belgranian National Institute
The Belgranian National Institute is an institute of Argentina focused in the historiography of Manuel Belgrano.-History:...
.
Numismatics
Belgrano appears on a number of currencies in the numismatic history of Argentina. He appeared for the first time on the banknotes of 1, 5, and 10 pesos according to the Peso Ley 18.188Argentine peso ley
The peso ley 18.188, usually known as either peso or, to distinguish it from the earlier peso moneda nacional, informally as peso ley, was the currency of Argentina between January 1, 1970 and May 5, 1983. It was subdivided into 100 centavos. Its symbol was $, sometimes $L. Its name comes from law...
, in effect from 1970 to 1983. He was later included on the 10,000 pesos banknotes of the pesos argentinos
Argentine peso argentino
The peso argentino was the currency of Argentina between June 6, 1983 and June 14, 1985. It was subdivided into 100 centavos. The symbol was $a. The ISO 4217 code was ARP.-History:...
, the highest banknote value in circulation. The Argentine austral
Argentine austral
The austral was the currency of Argentina between June 15, 1985 and December 31, 1991. It was subdivided into 100 centavos. The symbol was an uppercase A with an extra horizontal line . This symbol appeared on all coins issued in this currency , to distinguish them from earlier currencies...
had a number of political and military figures that did not include Belgrano, but later the 10,000 pesos argentinos banknotes were allowed to be used as australes. The current Argentine peso
Argentine peso
The peso is the currency of Argentina, identified by the symbol $ preceding the amount in the same way as many countries using dollar currencies. It is subdivided into 100 centavos. Its ISO 4217 code is ARS...
displays Belgrano on 10-peso banknote. The 1997 and 2002 series only modified small details.