Military leadership in the American Revolutionary War
Encyclopedia
Many military leaders played a role in the American Revolutionary War
. This list is a compilation of some of the most important leaders among all of the many participants in the war. In order to be listed here, an individual must satisfy one of the following criteria:
Some individuals simultaneously held positions in more than one organization; a number of Continental Army generals also held high-ranking positions in their state militia organizations.
"). Each colony had traditionally provided for its own defenses through the use of local militia
, which had their own command hierarchy. Some states, most notably Pennsylvania
and Massachusetts
, also had their own navies.
Seeking to coordinate military efforts, the Continental Congress
established (on paper) a regular army—the Continental Army
—in June 1775, and appointed George Washington
as commander-in-chief
. The development of the Continental Army was always a work in progress, and Washington reluctantly augmented the regular troops with militia throughout the war.
with the title of General on the Staff. He was succeeded in February, 1782 by Henry Seymour Conway
.
Next in importance to the Commander-in-Chief was the Secretary at War
, who served as head of the War Office
, and was bidden "to observe and follow such orders and directions as he should from time to time receive from the king or the general of the forces". Not until 1783 was he a minister responsible to parliament. At the start of part of the war the secretary was Lord Barrington. He was replaced in 1778 by Charles Jenkinson, 1st Earl of Liverpool
who held this position until the fall of Lord North's government.
.
. The largest number arrived in 1776 pursuant to agreements signed in late 1775 or early 1776, but additional forces were recruited in 1778, with only limited success. The single largest contingent came from Hesse-Kassel
.
played a significant economic role in the war, but its military participation was limited, in part due to internal political divisions.
American Revolutionary War
The American Revolutionary War , the American War of Independence, or simply the Revolutionary War, began as a war between the Kingdom of Great Britain and thirteen British colonies in North America, and ended in a global war between several European great powers.The war was the result of the...
. This list is a compilation of some of the most important leaders among all of the many participants in the war. In order to be listed here, an individual must satisfy one of the following criteria:
- was a nation's top civilian responsible for directing military affairs
- held a commission of at least major generalMajor GeneralMajor general or major-general is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the older rank of sergeant major general. A major general is a high-ranking officer, normally subordinate to the rank of lieutenant general and senior to the ranks of brigadier and brigadier general...
or rear admiralRear AdmiralRear admiral is a naval commissioned officer rank above that of a commodore and captain, and below that of a vice admiral. It is generally regarded as the lowest of the "admiral" ranks, which are also sometimes referred to as "flag officers" or "flag ranks"...
in an organized military during the conflict - was the highest ranking member of a given nation's force that participated in the conflict (if that rank was not at least major general)
- was the highest ranking member of a given state/colonial militia
- was a provincial or territorial governor who is documented to have directed a military action
- was a Native American tribal leader who is documented to have had a leadership position in a military action
Some individuals simultaneously held positions in more than one organization; a number of Continental Army generals also held high-ranking positions in their state militia organizations.
United States
When the war began, the American colonists did not have a regular army (also known as a "standing armyStanding army
A standing army is a professional permanent army. It is composed of full-time career soldiers and is not disbanded during times of peace. It differs from army reserves, who are activated only during wars or natural disasters...
"). Each colony had traditionally provided for its own defenses through the use of local militia
Militia
The term militia is commonly used today to refer to a military force composed of ordinary citizens to provide defense, emergency law enforcement, or paramilitary service, in times of emergency without being paid a regular salary or committed to a fixed term of service. It is a polyseme with...
, which had their own command hierarchy. Some states, most notably Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania is a U.S. state that is located in the Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The state borders Delaware and Maryland to the south, West Virginia to the southwest, Ohio to the west, New York and Ontario, Canada, to the north, and New Jersey to...
and Massachusetts
Massachusetts
The Commonwealth of Massachusetts is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. It is bordered by Rhode Island and Connecticut to the south, New York to the west, and Vermont and New Hampshire to the north; at its east lies the Atlantic Ocean. As of the 2010...
, also had their own navies.
Seeking to coordinate military efforts, the Continental Congress
Continental Congress
The Continental Congress was a convention of delegates called together from the Thirteen Colonies that became the governing body of the United States during the American Revolution....
established (on paper) a regular army—the Continental Army
Continental Army
The Continental Army was formed after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War by the colonies that became the United States of America. Established by a resolution of the Continental Congress on June 14, 1775, it was created to coordinate the military efforts of the Thirteen Colonies in...
—in June 1775, and appointed George Washington
George Washington
George Washington was the dominant military and political leader of the new United States of America from 1775 to 1799. He led the American victory over Great Britain in the American Revolutionary War as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army from 1775 to 1783, and presided over the writing of...
as commander-in-chief
Commander-in-Chief
A commander-in-chief is the commander of a nation's military forces or significant element of those forces. In the latter case, the force element may be defined as those forces within a particular region or those forces which are associated by function. As a practical term it refers to the military...
. The development of the Continental Army was always a work in progress, and Washington reluctantly augmented the regular troops with militia throughout the war.
Commander-in-Chief
- George WashingtonGeorge WashingtonGeorge Washington was the dominant military and political leader of the new United States of America from 1775 to 1799. He led the American victory over Great Britain in the American Revolutionary War as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army from 1775 to 1783, and presided over the writing of...
was the commander-in-chiefCommander-in-ChiefA commander-in-chief is the commander of a nation's military forces or significant element of those forces. In the latter case, the force element may be defined as those forces within a particular region or those forces which are associated by function. As a practical term it refers to the military...
of the Continental ArmyContinental ArmyThe Continental Army was formed after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War by the colonies that became the United States of America. Established by a resolution of the Continental Congress on June 14, 1775, it was created to coordinate the military efforts of the Thirteen Colonies in...
, reporting to the Second Continental CongressSecond Continental CongressThe Second Continental Congress was a convention of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that started meeting on May 10, 1775, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, soon after warfare in the American Revolutionary War had begun. It succeeded the First Continental Congress, which met briefly during 1774,...
. His activities, including command of the Main Army, direction of the overall war effort on behalf of the United States, and administration of the entire army, were overseen by the Board of WarBoard of WarThe Board of War was created by the Second Continental Congress as a special standing committee to oversee the American Continental Army's administration and to make recommendations regarding the army to Congress. On January 24, 1776, Congressional delegate Edward Rutledge, echoing Gen. George...
, established in June 1776. He held the rank of Major GeneralMajor general (United States)In the United States Army, United States Marine Corps, and United States Air Force, major general is a two-star general-officer rank, with the pay grade of O-8. Major general ranks above brigadier general and below lieutenant general...
during the war, was promoted to Lieutenant GeneralLieutenant General (United States)In the United States Army, the United States Air Force and the United States Marine Corps, lieutenant general is a three-star general officer rank, with the pay grade of O-9. Lieutenant general ranks above major general and below general...
in 1798, and was posthumously awarded the rank of General of the Armies of the United States in 1976.
Continental Army
Major generals
- William Alexander spent most of the war with the Main Army under Washington. Captured during the 1776 Battle of Long IslandBattle of Long IslandThe Battle of Long Island, also known as the Battle of Brooklyn or the Battle of Brooklyn Heights, fought on August 27, 1776, was the first major battle in the American Revolutionary War following the United States Declaration of Independence, the largest battle of the entire conflict, and the...
, he was exchanged for Montfort BrowneMontfort BrowneMontfort Browne was a British Army officer and Tory, and a major landowner and developer of British West Florida in the 1760s and 1770s. He commanded the Prince of Wales' American Regiment, a Loyalist regiment, in the American Revolutionary War...
not long after, and served with distinction in many battles in New Jersey and Pennsylvania. He died in 1783 shortly before the end of the war. - Benedict ArnoldBenedict ArnoldBenedict Arnold V was a general during the American Revolutionary War. He began the war in the Continental Army but later defected to the British Army. While a general on the American side, he obtained command of the fort at West Point, New York, and plotted to surrender it to the British forces...
was a leading force in the early days of the war, participating in the 1775 capture of Fort TiconderogaCapture of Fort TiconderogaThe Capture of Fort Ticonderoga occurred during the American Revolutionary War on May 10, 1775, when a small force of Green Mountain Boys led by Ethan Allen and Colonel Benedict Arnold overcame a small British garrison at the fort and looted the personal belongings of the garrison...
and the invasion of QuebecInvasion of Canada (1775)The Invasion of Canada in 1775 was the first major military initiative by the newly formed Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. The objective of the campaign was to gain military control of the British Province of Quebec, and convince the French-speaking Canadiens to join the...
, and played a crucial role in the 1777 Battles of Saratoga, in which he was severely wounded. In 1780 he acquired the command of the Highlands Department with the intent of surrendering West Point to the British. The plot was uncovered, and he fled to join the British, for whom he served until the end of 1781 as a brigadier general. - James ClintonJames ClintonJames Clinton was an American Revolutionary War soldier who obtained the rank of major general.He was born in Ulster County in the colony of New York, in a location now part of Orange County, New York...
was active in his native New YorkNew YorkNew York is a state in the Northeastern region of the United States. It is the nation's third most populous state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and by Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east...
, and was a leading figure of the 1779 Sullivan ExpeditionSullivan ExpeditionThe Sullivan Expedition, also known as the Sullivan-Clinton Expedition, was an American campaign led by Major General John Sullivan and Brigadier General James Clinton against Loyalists and the four nations of the Iroquois who had sided with the British in the American Revolutionary War.The...
to destroy Iroquois settlements in that state. He also served in Quebec and at Yorktown, and commanded American troops at Fort ClintonFort ClintonFort Clinton was an American Revolutionary War fortification in present-day Highlands, Orange County, New York. It was a companion to Fort Montgomery. Its garrison of 300 was smaller than that of Fort Montgomery, but Fort Clinton was built on a ridge at the mouth of the Popolopen Gorge, overlooking...
in their 1777 defeat thereBattle of Forts Clinton and MontgomeryThe Battle of Forts Clinton and Montgomery was an American Revolutionary War battle fought in the highlands of the Hudson River valley, not far from West Point, on October 6, 1777. British forces under the command of General Sir Henry Clinton captured Fort Clinton and Fort Montgomery, and then...
. - Louis Lebègue Duportail was French military engineer who served as the Continental Army's chief engineer. He oversaw the improvement of defenses throughout the states, and directed the engineering efforts at Yorktown. He was a brigadier general until November 1781, when he received a brevet promotion to major general.
- Horatio GatesHoratio GatesHoratio Lloyd Gates was a retired British soldier who served as an American general during the Revolutionary War. He took credit for the American victory at the Battle of Saratoga – Benedict Arnold, who led the attack, was finally forced from the field when he was shot in the leg – and...
served at first as Washington's adjutant, and then in the Northern Department. There he was in command during the pivotal battles at Saratoga in 1777, following which he lobbied Congress as a potential replacement for Washington. He was afterward given command of the Southern Department, where his army was disastrously defeated at CamdenBattle of CamdenThe Battle of Camden was a major victory for the British in the Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War...
in 1780, ending his field leadership. - Nathanael GreeneNathanael GreeneNathanael Greene was a major general of the Continental Army in the American Revolutionary War. When the war began, Greene was a militia private, the lowest rank possible; he emerged from the war with a reputation as George Washington's most gifted and dependable officer. Many places in the United...
was one of the best strategists in the Continental Army. He served under Washington in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, and served for a time as the army's Quartermaster General. He led the ultimately successful campaign in 1780 and 1781 against the British "Southern Strategy" as commander of the Southern Department. - Edward HandEdward Hand-Early life and career:Hand was born in Clyduff, King's County, Ireland January 10, 1742, and was baptised in Shinrone. His father was John Hand. Among his immediate neighbours were the Kearney family, ancestors of U.S. President Barack Obamba [1]...
spent much of the war defending Pennsylvania, serving as the commander at Fort PittFort Pitt (Pennsylvania)Fort Pitt was a fort built at the location of Pittsburgh, Allegheny County, Pennsylvania.-French and Indian War:The fort was built from 1759 to 1761 during the French and Indian War , next to the site of former Fort Duquesne, at the confluence the Allegheny River and the Monongahela River...
for a time. He was present at Yorktown, and was given a brevet promotion to major general as the war was coming to an end in 1783. - William HeathWilliam HeathWilliam Heath was an American farmer, soldier, and political leader from Massachusetts who served as a major general in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War....
was a Massachusetts general with a prominent role training troops in the early days of the war at the Siege of BostonSiege of BostonThe Siege of Boston was the opening phase of the American Revolutionary War, in which New England militiamen—who later became part of the Continental Army—surrounded the town of Boston, Massachusetts, to prevent movement by the British Army garrisoned within...
. He spent most of the war leading the Highland Department, since Washington was apparently not confident of his ability in the field. - Robert HoweRobert Howe (soldier)Robert Howe was a major general in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War.-Early life:His great-grandfather was James Moore, colonial governor of South Carolina...
was a major general from North Carolina. As commander of the Southern Department, he led a campaign against East FloridaEast FloridaEast Florida was a colony of Great Britain from 1763–1783 and of Spain from 1783–1822. East Florida was established by the British colonial government in 1763; as its name implies it consisted of the eastern part of the region of Florida, with West Florida comprising the western parts. Its capital...
that failed due to disagreements with state militia commanders, and was forced to surrender SavannahCapture of SavannahThe Battle of Savannah, or sometimes the First Battle of Savannah due to a siege later in the campaign, was an American Revolutionary War battle fought on December 29, 1778 between local American Patriot militia and Continental Army units holding the city and a British invasion force under the...
. He then served under Anthony Wayne in the Highlands Department, seeing action at Stony PointBattle of Stony PointThe Battle of Stony Point was a battle of the American Revolutionary War fought on the night of July 15–16, 1779. A select force of Continental Army infantry made a coordinated surprise night attack and stormed a fortified position of the British Army on the Hudson River south of West Point, New...
, and under Washington in the Main Army, where he put down a mutiny in 1781. - Johann de KalbJohann de KalbJohann von Robais, Baron de Kalb , born Johann Kalb, was a German soldier who served as a major general in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War.-Early life:...
was a German who served as major general. He served under Washington at Valley Forge, and was sent to the Southern Department with Horatio Gates when he took over that department. De Kalb was killed in the Battle of CamdenBattle of CamdenThe Battle of Camden was a major victory for the British in the Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War...
in August 1780. - Henry KnoxHenry KnoxHenry Knox was a military officer of the Continental Army and later the United States Army, and also served as the first United States Secretary of War....
was the chief artillery officer of the Continental Army. Active with Washington throughout most of the war, he brought Ticonderoga's cannons to BostonNoble train of artilleryThe noble train of artillery, also known as the Knox Expedition, was an expedition led by Continental Army Colonel Henry Knox to transport heavy weaponry that had been captured at Fort Ticonderoga to the Continental Army camps outside Boston, Massachusetts during the winter of 1775–1776.Knox went...
in early 1776, and saw much action from New York to Yorktown. He oversaw the creation of an artillery training center that was a precursor to the United States Military AcademyUnited States Military AcademyThe United States Military Academy at West Point is a four-year coeducational federal service academy located at West Point, New York. The academy sits on scenic high ground overlooking the Hudson River, north of New York City...
, and later served as the first United States Secretary of WarUnited States Secretary of WarThe Secretary of War was a member of the United States President's Cabinet, beginning with George Washington's administration. A similar position, called either "Secretary at War" or "Secretary of War," was appointed to serve the Congress of the Confederation under the Articles of Confederation...
. - Gilbert du Motier, marquis de La FayetteGilbert du Motier, marquis de La FayetteMarie-Joseph Paul Yves Roch Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de La Fayette , often known as simply Lafayette, was a French aristocrat and military officer born in Chavaniac, in the province of Auvergne in south central France...
was a young French nobleman who served as major general. He served with Washington in the Philadelphia campaign, fought in the Battle of Rhode IslandBattle of Rhode IslandThe Battle of Rhode Island, also known as the Battle of Quaker Hill and the Siege of Newport, took place on August 29, 1778. Continental Army and militia forces under the command of General John Sullivan were withdrawing to the northern part of Aquidneck Island after abandoning their siege of...
, and successfully resisted significant engagements with British forces in Virginia before the armies of Washington and Rochambeau arrived. He was a favorite of Washington's, who treated him like a son. - Charles LeeCharles Lee (general)Charles Lee was a British soldier who later served as a General of the Continental Army during the American War of Independence. Lee served in the British army during the Seven Years War. After the war he sold his commission and served for a time in the Polish army of King Stanislaus II...
was an experienced British military officer who had hoped to be appointed commander-in-chief instead of Washington. He was a somewhat difficult subordinate of Washington's, delaying execution of orders or deliberately flouting them at times. During the retreat across New Jersey from New York, Lee was captured by the British in a surprised raid. Quickly exchanged, he participated in the Philadelphia campaign. After he was convicted by a court martial for disobeying orders during the Battle of MonmouthBattle of MonmouthThe Battle of Monmouth was an American Revolutionary War battle fought on June 28, 1778 in Monmouth County, New Jersey. The Continental Army under General George Washington attacked the rear of the British Army column commanded by Lieutenant General Sir Henry Clinton as they left Monmouth Court...
, he resigned from the army in 1780. - Benjamin LincolnBenjamin LincolnBenjamin Lincoln was an American army officer. He served as a major general in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War...
was a major general from Massachusetts, who was present at three major surrenders during the war. Active in the New York campaign, Washington sent him to assist Horatio Gates in the Northern Department, where he was wounded in the Battle of Bemis Heights, and was present at Burgoyne's surrender. Next put in command of the Southern Department, he was forced to surrender is surrounded army to Sir Henry Clinton at Charleston in 1780. Exchanged later that year, he was present at Yorktown, where as second-in-command to Washington he accepted Cornwallis' sword, which Cornwallis had sent his second-in-command to deliver. From 1781 to 1783 he served as Secretary of War. - Lachlan McIntoshLachlan McIntoshLachlan McIntosh was a British-born American military and political leader during the American Revolution and the early United States. In a 1777 duel, he shot dead Button Gwinnett, a signer of the Declaration of Independence.-Arrival in Georgia:Lachlan McIntosh was born near Raits, Badenoch,...
was a Georgia general. Injured in a duel with Button GwinnettButton GwinnettButton Gwinnett was an English-born American political leader who, as a representative of Georgia to the Continental Congress, was the second of the signatories on the United States Declaration of Independence...
in 1777, he served as head of the Western Department in 1778 and 1779 before returning to the south. He was captured in the 1780 siege of Charleston, and was not released until after hostilities had effectively ended in 1782. - Alexander McDougallAlexander McDougallAlexander McDougall was an American seaman, merchant, a Sons of Liberty leader from New York City before and during the American Revolution, and a military leader during the Revolutionary War. He served as a major general in the Continental Army, and as a delegate to the Continental Congress...
was a major general from New York. Active in the New York and Philadelphia campaigns, he spent most of the war in the Highlands Department under Michael Heath. - Richard MontgomeryRichard MontgomeryRichard Montgomery was an Irish-born soldier who first served in the British Army. He later became a brigadier-general in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is most famous for leading the failed 1775 invasion of Canada.Montgomery was born and raised in Ireland...
was a major general from New York. He led the Invasion of CanadaInvasion of Canada (1775)The Invasion of Canada in 1775 was the first major military initiative by the newly formed Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. The objective of the campaign was to gain military control of the British Province of Quebec, and convince the French-speaking Canadiens to join the...
in 1775 as a brigadier, and was killed in the Battle of QuebecBattle of Quebec (1775)The Battle of Quebec was fought on December 31, 1775 between American Continental Army forces and the British defenders of the city of Quebec, early in the American Revolutionary War. The battle was the first major defeat of the war for the Americans, and it came at a high price...
, without knowing that he had been promoted to major general following the Siege of Fort St. Jean. - Peter MuhlenbergPeter MuhlenbergJohn Peter Gabriel Muhlenberg was an American clergyman, Continental Army soldier during the American Revolutionary War, and political figure in the newly-independent United States...
was a Virginia general who led the 8th Virginia Regiment8th Virginia RegimentThe 8th Virginia Regiment was raised on January 11, 1776 at Suffolk Court House, Virginia for service with the Continental Army under the command of Peter Muhlenberg. The regiment would see action at the Battle of Brandywine, the Battle of Germantown and the Battle of Monmouth...
. First assigned to coastal defenses in the South, he also saw action in the Philadelphia campaignPhiladelphia campaignThe Philadelphia campaign was a British initiative in the American Revolutionary War to gain control of Philadelphia, which was then the seat of the Second Continental Congress...
. He was then sent to lead the defense of VirginiaVirginiaThe Commonwealth of Virginia , is a U.S. state on the Atlantic Coast of the Southern United States. Virginia is nicknamed the "Old Dominion" and sometimes the "Mother of Presidents" after the eight U.S. presidents born there...
, leading mainly militia forces, but then led forward light infantry companies at Yorktown under Lafayette. - John Paterson was a Massachusetts general active in the most of the early northern campaigns, from Quebec to Philadelphia. He received a brevet promotion to major general in 1783.
- Israel PutnamIsrael PutnamIsrael Putnam was an American army general and Freemason who fought with distinction at the Battle of Bunker Hill during the American Revolutionary War...
was the most senior general in the Continental Army, only outranked by Washington. Active from the first days of the revolution, he led the forces in the field at the Battle of Bunker HillBattle of Bunker HillThe Battle of Bunker Hill took place on June 17, 1775, mostly on and around Breed's Hill, during the Siege of Boston early in the American Revolutionary War...
. After performing poorly in the Battle of Long IslandBattle of Long IslandThe Battle of Long Island, also known as the Battle of Brooklyn or the Battle of Brooklyn Heights, fought on August 27, 1776, was the first major battle in the American Revolutionary War following the United States Declaration of Independence, the largest battle of the entire conflict, and the...
, Washington assigned him to do primarily recruiting in the Highlands Department. He suffered a stroke in 1779, which ended his military career. - Philip SchuylerPhilip SchuylerPhilip John Schuyler was a general in the American Revolution and a United States Senator from New York. He is usually known as Philip Schuyler, while his son is usually known as Philip J. Schuyler.-Early life:...
was a New York major general. As head of the Northern Department, he planned the 1775 invasion of QuebecInvasion of Canada (1775)The Invasion of Canada in 1775 was the first major military initiative by the newly formed Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. The objective of the campaign was to gain military control of the British Province of Quebec, and convince the French-speaking Canadiens to join the...
, but was prevented by illness from leading it. He was active in the defense of New York in 1777, but the withdrawal from Ticonderoga led Congress to replace him with Horatio Gates. He was also active in Indian relations, cultivating the neutrality or support of tribes in New York. - William SmallwoodWilliam SmallwoodWilliam Smallwood was an American planter, soldier and politician from Charles County, Maryland. He served in the American Revolutionary War, rising to the rank of major general...
led forces from Maryland in the war. He served with distinction in the New York campaign, and was twice wounded at White PlainsBattle of White PlainsThe Battle of White Plains was a battle in the New York and New Jersey campaign of the American Revolutionary War fought on October 28, 1776, near White Plains, New York. Following the retreat of George Washington's Continental Army northward from New York City, British General William Howe landed...
. He then served in the Philadelphia campaignPhiladelphia campaignThe Philadelphia campaign was a British initiative in the American Revolutionary War to gain control of Philadelphia, which was then the seat of the Second Continental Congress...
, and was in the debacle at CamdenBattle of CamdenThe Battle of Camden was a major victory for the British in the Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War...
in 1780. Unhappy with the presence of foreign officers, he refused to serve under von Steuben, and spent the rest of the war directing the defense of Maryland. - Arthur St. ClairArthur St. ClairArthur St. Clair was an American soldier and politician. Born in Scotland, he served in the British Army during the French and Indian War before settling in Pennsylvania, where he held local office...
was a large landholder in western Pennsylvania when the war began. He led troops during the Quebec, New York, and New Jersey campaigns, and was then put in command of Fort TiconderogaFort TiconderogaFort Ticonderoga, formerly Fort Carillon, is a large 18th-century fort built by the Canadians and the French at a narrows near the south end of Lake Champlain in upstate New York in the United States...
, where he made the critical decision to retreat before Burgoyne's advancing army. Publicly criticized for this step, which saved his army, he held no more field commands, serving as an aide to Washington for the rest of the war. - Adam StephenAdam StephenAdam Stephen was a Scottish-born doctor and military officer. He came to North America, where he served in the Virginia colonial militia under George Washington during the French and Indian War. He served under Washington again in the American Revolutionary War, rising to lead a division of the...
was general from Virginia, who led forces under Washington in the New York, New Jersey, and Philadelphia campaigns. Following a misstep in the Battle of GermantownBattle of GermantownThe Battle of Germantown, a battle in the Philadelphia campaign of the American Revolutionary War, was fought on October 4, 1777, at Germantown, Pennsylvania between the British army led by Sir William Howe and the American army under George Washington...
in which, against orders, he advanced his troops to a point where they accidentally exchanged friendly fireFriendly fireFriendly fire is inadvertent firing towards one's own or otherwise friendly forces while attempting to engage enemy forces, particularly where this results in injury or death. A death resulting from a negligent discharge is not considered friendly fire...
with forces of Anthony Wayne, Stephen was court martialed and cashiered out of the army. - Friedrich von Steuben was a PrussiaPrussiaPrussia was a German kingdom and historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organized and effective army. Prussia shaped the history...
n aristocrat and military officer. His military drills and instruction, especially at Valley ForgeValley ForgeValley Forge in Pennsylvania was the site of the military camp of the American Continental Army over the winter of 1777–1778 in the American Revolutionary War.-History:...
, are generally credited with significantly improving the performance of the Continental Army. He served in active roles in the Philadelphia campaign, and under Nathanael Greene in his southern campaign, before returning to Washington's army at Yorktown. He authored the Revolutionary War Drill ManualRevolutionary War Drill ManualThe Revolutionary War Drill Manual was written by Major General Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben in 1778 and 1779, during the American Revolution. Commissioned to train troops at Valley Forge, Steuben formed a model drill company of 100 men, who were to in turn train others, thus causing the new drill...
, the United States Army's training guide until the War of 1812War of 1812The War of 1812 was a military conflict fought between the forces of the United States of America and those of the British Empire. The Americans declared war in 1812 for several reasons, including trade restrictions because of Britain's ongoing war with France, impressment of American merchant...
. - John SullivanJohn SullivanJohn Sullivan was the third son of Irish immigrants, a United States general in the Revolutionary War, a delegate in the Continental Congress and a United States federal judge....
was from New HampshireNew HampshireNew Hampshire is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. The state was named after the southern English county of Hampshire. It is bordered by Massachusetts to the south, Vermont to the west, Maine and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Canadian...
. Active from the first days of the war, he led a relief column and ended up in command of the invasion of Quebec during its final weeks in 1776. He then served under Washington in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. He led American forces in the failed Battle of Rhode IslandBattle of Rhode IslandThe Battle of Rhode Island, also known as the Battle of Quaker Hill and the Siege of Newport, took place on August 29, 1778. Continental Army and militia forces under the command of General John Sullivan were withdrawing to the northern part of Aquidneck Island after abandoning their siege of...
, and then led the 1779 Sullivan ExpeditionSullivan ExpeditionThe Sullivan Expedition, also known as the Sullivan-Clinton Expedition, was an American campaign led by Major General John Sullivan and Brigadier General James Clinton against Loyalists and the four nations of the Iroquois who had sided with the British in the American Revolutionary War.The...
, which destroyed Indian villages in New York. - John ThomasJohn Thomas (general)John Thomas was an American doctor and soldier from Massachusetts who became a major general in the Continental Army. He was a leader during the siege of Boston. Thomas briefly commanded the withdrawal from Canada after the unsuccessful invasion by the Continental Army. He died from smallpox...
was a Massachusetts general active from the beginning of the war in Boston, where he commanded the besieging forces at Roxbury. Sent to take over the forces besieging Quebec CityQuebec CityQuebec , also Québec, Quebec City or Québec City is the capital of the Canadian province of Quebec and is located within the Capitale-Nationale region. It is the second most populous city in Quebec after Montreal, which is about to the southwest...
, he died of smallpoxSmallpoxSmallpox was an infectious disease unique to humans, caused by either of two virus variants, Variola major and Variola minor. The disease is also known by the Latin names Variola or Variola vera, which is a derivative of the Latin varius, meaning "spotted", or varus, meaning "pimple"...
during the army's retreat in June 1776. - Artemas WardArtemas WardArtemas Ward was an American major general in the American Revolutionary War and a Congressman from Massachusetts...
was the first overall leader of the assembled militia forces outside Boston after the war began, and ranked second in seniority to Washington in the Continental Army. He commanded the Eastern Department, which was largely responsible for containing the British at Newport, until 1777, when he resigned due to poor health. - "Mad" Anthony WayneAnthony WayneAnthony Wayne was a United States Army general and statesman. Wayne adopted a military career at the outset of the American Revolutionary War, where his military exploits and fiery personality quickly earned him a promotion to the rank of brigadier general and the sobriquet of Mad Anthony.-Early...
was a Pennsylvania general. Active in the Quebec invasion, he was stationed at Fort Ticonderoga during the winter of 1776-1777. He then participated in the Philadelphia campaign, playing a key role in the Battle of MonmouthBattle of MonmouthThe Battle of Monmouth was an American Revolutionary War battle fought on June 28, 1778 in Monmouth County, New Jersey. The Continental Army under General George Washington attacked the rear of the British Army column commanded by Lieutenant General Sir Henry Clinton as they left Monmouth Court...
. He held a variety of commands thereafter, and negotiated peace agreements with Indians along the southern frontiers. He was promoted to major general in 1783. - David WoosterDavid WoosterDavid Wooster was an American general who served in the French and Indian War and in the American Revolutionary War. He died of wounds sustained during the Battle of Ridgefield, Connecticut. Cities, schools, and public places were named after him...
participated in the Quebec invasion, serving as military governor of Montreal. He led the Canadian Department after the death of Richard Montgomery. Following the retreat from Quebec, he returned to his native Connecticut, where he led the state militia. He was killed in the 1777 Battle of RidgefieldBattle of RidgefieldThe Battle of Ridgefield was a battle and a series of skirmishes between American and British forces during the American Revolutionary War. The main battle was fought in the village of Ridgefield, Connecticut on April 27, 1777 and more skirmishing occurred the next day between Ridgefield and the...
.
Brigadier generals
- Daniel BrodheadDaniel Brodhead IVDaniel Brodhead IV was an American military and political leader during the American Revolutionary War and early days of the United States.-Early life:...
- George ClintonGeorge Clinton (vice president)George Clinton was an American soldier and politician, considered one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He was the first Governor of New York, and then the fourth Vice President of the United States , serving under Presidents Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. He and John C...
- Elias DaytonElias DaytonElias Dayton was the Mayor of Elizabethtown, New Jersey-Biography:He was born in Elizabeth, Union County, New Jersey....
- Mordecai GistMordecai GistMordecai Gist was a member of a prominent Maryland family who became a general in command of the Maryland Line in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War....
- Moses HazenMoses HazenMoses Hazen was a Brigadier General in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. Born in the Province of Massachusetts Bay, he saw action in the French and Indian War with Rogers' Rangers. His service included particularly brutal raids during the Expulsion of the Acadians and...
- William IrvineWilliam Irvine (physician)William Irvine was an Irish-American physician, soldier, and statesman from Carlisle, Pennsylvania.Irvine was born near Enniskillen, County Fermanagh in Ireland...
- Jean Baptiste Joseph, chevalier de LaumoyJean Baptiste Joseph, chevalier de LaumoyJean Baptiste Joseph, chevalier de Laumoy French engineer, fought in the American Revolutionary War, and was on the staff of Lafayette and was captured with him, by the Austrians....
- Hugh MercerHugh MercerHugh Mercer was a soldier and physician. He initially served with British forces during the Seven Years War but later became a brigadier general in the Continental Army and a close friend to George Washington...
- Kazimierz Pułaski
- Rufus PutnamRufus PutnamRufus Putnam was a colonial military officer during the French and Indian War, and a general in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War...
- William ThompsonWilliam Thompson (general)William Thompson was a soldier from Pennsylvania and a brigadier general in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War.Thompson was born in Ireland and emigrated to Carlisle, Pennsylvania...
- Charles Armand Tuffin, marquis de la RouerieCharles Armand Tuffin, marquis de la RouerieCharles Armand Tuffin, marquis de la Rouërie , also known in the United States as "Colonel Armand", was a Breton cavalry officer who served under the American flag during the American War of Independence. He was promoted to brigadier general after the Battle of Yorktown...
- John StarkJohn StarkJohn Stark was a New Hampshire native who served as a major general in the Continental Army during the American Revolution. He became widely known as the "Hero of Bennington" for his exemplary service at the Battle of Bennington in 1777.-Early life:John Stark was born in Londonderry, New...
(not promoted to major general until 1786) - George WeedonGeorge WeedonGeorge Weedon was an American soldier during the Revolutionary War from Fredericksburg, Virginia.He served as a Brigadier General in the Continental Army and later in the Virginia militia....
- James WilkinsonJames WilkinsonJames Wilkinson was an American soldier and statesman, who was associated with several scandals and controversies. He served in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, but was twice compelled to resign...
(brevet to brigadier in 1777, promoted to major general in 1812)
Militia
- Delaware
- Caesar RodneyCaesar RodneyCaesar Rodney was an American lawyer and politician from St. Jones Neck in Dover Hundred, Kent County, Delaware, east of Dover...
, a signer of the Declaration of IndependenceUnited States Declaration of IndependenceThe Declaration of Independence was a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, which announced that the thirteen American colonies then at war with Great Britain regarded themselves as independent states, and no longer a part of the British Empire. John Adams put forth a...
, led the Delaware state militia until 1781, when he resigned due to poor health. He was active suppressing Loyalist dissent, and raising men and provisions for the national effort. - Thomas CollinsThomas Collins (governor)Thomas Collins was an American planter and politician from Smyrna, in Kent County, Delaware. He was an officer of the Delaware militia during the American Revolution, and served in the Delaware General Assembly and as President of Delaware.-Early life and family:Collins was born in Duck Creek, now...
led the Delaware militia following Rodney's resignation, and served as president of the state after the war. - Rhode Island
- William West (Rhode Island politician)
- New York
- John Morin ScottJohn Morin ScottJohn Morin Scott was a lawyer, military officer, and statesman before, during and after the American Revolution.-Ancestry:...
- South Carolina
- Francis MarionFrancis MarionFrancis Marion was a military officer who served in the American Revolutionary War. Acting with Continental Army and South Carolina militia commissions, he was a persistent adversary of the British in their occupation of South Carolina in 1780 and 1781, even after the Continental Army was driven...
Continental Navy
- Esek HopkinsEsek HopkinsCommodore Esek Hopkins was the first and only Commander in Chief of the Continental Navy during the American Revolutionary War. He was also an accomplished merchant captain and privateer.-Early life and career:...
- Dudley SaltonstallDudley SaltonstallDudley Saltonstall was an American naval commander during the American Revolutionary War. He is best known as the commander of the naval forces of the 1779 Penobscot Expedition, which ended in complete disaster, with all ships lost...
- Nicholas Biddle (naval officer)Nicholas Biddle (naval officer)Nicholas Biddle was one of the first five captains of the Continental Navy, which was raised by the Americans during the American Revolutionary War.-Early life:Nicholas Biddle was born in Philadelphia....
- James Nicholson (naval officer)James Nicholson (naval officer)James Nicholson was an officer in the Continental Navy during the American Revolutionary War.The son of Joseph and Hannah Scott Nicholson, he was born in Chestertown, Maryland. James Nicholson served in the colonial Navy with the British in the assault on Havana in 1762, and was commissioned...
- John Manley (naval officer)John Manley (naval officer)John Manley was an officer in the Continental Navy and the United States Navy.-Early life:Tradition holds that John Manley was born in 1733 near Torquay, Devonshire, in south west England. As a young man, he settled in Marblehead, Massachusetts, eventually becoming the captain of a merchant...
- John Burroughs HopkinsJohn Burroughs HopkinsJohn Burroughs Hopkins was a captain of the Continental Navy during the American Revolutionary War.- Biography :...
- John Barry (naval officer)John Barry (naval officer)John Barry was an officer in the Continental Navy during the American Revolutionary War and later in the United States Navy. He is often credited as "The Father of the American Navy"...
- Hector McNeillHector McNeillHector McNeill was the third ranking officer in the Continental Navy during the American Revolutionary War.-Early life and Seven Years War:...
- Abraham WhippleAbraham WhippleAbraham Whipple was an American revolutionary naval commander in the Continental Navy. Whipple was born near Providence, Rhode Island and chose to be a seafarer early in his life. He embarked upon a career in the lucrative West Indies trade, working for Moses and John Brown...
- Samuel TuckerSamuel TuckerSamuel Tucker was an officer in the Continental Navy and the United States Navy.-Military Career:Born in Marblehead, Massachusetts, Tucker began his naval career in the spring of 1760 as a cabin boy in the warship, King George. He subsequently rose to command of a merchant ship in July 1774...
Operating out of France
- John Paul JonesJohn Paul JonesJohn Paul Jones was a Scottish sailor and the United States' first well-known naval fighter in the American Revolutionary War. Although he made enemies among America's political elites, his actions in British waters during the Revolution earned him an international reputation which persists to...
- Lambert WickesLambert WickesLambert Wickes was a Captain in the Continental Navy.-Revolutionary activities:Wickes was born sometime in 1735 in Kent County, Maryland. His home was on Eastern Neck Island, in the family home, Wickcliffe. Prior to the American Revolution, Wickes was captain of the merchant ships the Neptune and...
- Gustavus ConynghamGustavus ConynghamGustavus Conyngham was born in County Donegal, Ireland, and was a merchant sea captain, officer in the Continental Navy and a privateer....
- Jonathan HaradenJonathan HaradenJonathan Haraden was a privateer during the American Revolution.-Biography:Born in Gloucester, Massachusetts, Haraden joined the Massachusetts State Navy in July 1776 as First Lieutenant of the sloop-of-war Tyrannicide, fourteen guns...
- Blake Erickson
British Empire
At the head of the British forces was the king, who was captain general of all forces both naval and military. It was usual for him to delegate his military powers as captain general or commander-in-chief. From 1772 to 1778 the office was vacant, but from 1778 to 1782 Sir Jeffery Amherst officiated as Commander-in-ChiefCommander-in-Chief of the Forces
The Commander-in-Chief of the Forces, or just the Commander-in-Chief , was the professional head of the British Army from 1660 until 1904, when the office was replaced by the Chief of the General Staff, soon to become Chief of the Imperial General Staff . From 1870, the C-in-C was subordinate to...
with the title of General on the Staff. He was succeeded in February, 1782 by Henry Seymour Conway
Henry Seymour Conway
Field Marshal Henry Seymour Conway was a British general and statesman. A brother of the 1st Marquess of Hertford, and cousin of Horace Walpole, he began his military career in the War of the Austrian Succession and eventually rose to the rank of Field Marshal .-Family and education:Conway was...
.
Next in importance to the Commander-in-Chief was the Secretary at War
Secretary at War
The Secretary at War was a political position in the English and later British government, with some responsibility over the administration and organization of the Army, but not over military policy. The Secretary at War ran the War Office. It was occasionally a cabinet level position, although...
, who served as head of the War Office
War Office
The War Office was a department of the British Government, responsible for the administration of the British Army between the 17th century and 1964, when its functions were transferred to the Ministry of Defence...
, and was bidden "to observe and follow such orders and directions as he should from time to time receive from the king or the general of the forces". Not until 1783 was he a minister responsible to parliament. At the start of part of the war the secretary was Lord Barrington. He was replaced in 1778 by Charles Jenkinson, 1st Earl of Liverpool
Charles Jenkinson, 1st Earl of Liverpool
Charles Jenkinson, 1st Earl of Liverpool PC , known as the Lord Hawkesbury between 1786 and 1796, was a British statesman. He was the father of Prime Minister Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool....
who held this position until the fall of Lord North's government.
Crown and Government officials
- King George III of Great BritainGeorge III of the United KingdomGeorge III was King of Great Britain and King of Ireland from 25 October 1760 until the union of these two countries on 1 January 1801, after which he was King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland until his death...
- Frederick North, Lord NorthFrederick North, Lord NorthFrederick North, 2nd Earl of Guilford, KG, PC , more often known by his courtesy title, Lord North, which he used from 1752 until 1790, was Prime Minister of Great Britain from 1770 to 1782. He led Great Britain through most of the American War of Independence...
, Prime Minister (1770-1782) - Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of RockinghamCharles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of RockinghamCharles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham, KG, PC , styled The Hon. Charles Watson-Wentworth before 1733, Viscount Higham between 1733 and 1746, Earl of Malton between 1746 and 1750 and The Earl Malton in 1750, was a British Whig statesman, most notable for his two terms as Prime...
, Prime Minister (1782, died in office) - William Petty, 2nd Earl of ShelburneWilliam Petty, 2nd Earl of ShelburneWilliam Petty-FitzMaurice, 1st Marquess of Lansdowne, KG, PC , known as The Earl of Shelburne between 1761 and 1784, by which title he is generally known to history, was an Irish-born British Whig statesman who was the first Home Secretary in 1782 and then Prime Minister 1782–1783 during the final...
, Prime Minister (1782-1783) - George Germain, 1st Viscount SackvilleGeorge Germain, 1st Viscount SackvilleGeorge Germain, 1st Viscount Sackville PC , known as the Hon. George Sackville to 1720, as Lord George Sackville from 1720 to 1770, and as Lord George Germain from 1770 to 1782, was a British soldier and politician who was Secretary of State for America in Lord North's cabinet during the American...
, Secretary of State for the ColoniesSecretary of State for the ColoniesThe Secretary of State for the Colonies or Colonial Secretary was the British Cabinet minister in charge of managing the United Kingdom's various colonial dependencies....
(1775-1782) - John Montagu, 4th Earl of SandwichJohn Montagu, 4th Earl of SandwichJohn Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, PC, FRS was a British statesman who succeeded his grandfather, Edward Montagu, 3rd Earl of Sandwich, as the Earl of Sandwich in 1729, at the age of ten...
, First Lord of the Admiralty
Commander-in-Chief of the Forces
- office vacant from 1772 to 1778
- Sir Jeffery Amherst (1778-1782)
- The Hon. Henry Seymour ConwayHenry Seymour ConwayField Marshal Henry Seymour Conway was a British general and statesman. A brother of the 1st Marquess of Hertford, and cousin of Horace Walpole, he began his military career in the War of the Austrian Succession and eventually rose to the rank of Field Marshal .-Family and education:Conway was...
(1782-1793)
Secretaries at War
- William Wildman Shute Barrington, 2nd Viscount Barrington
- Charles Jenkinson, 1st Earl of LiverpoolCharles Jenkinson, 1st Earl of LiverpoolCharles Jenkinson, 1st Earl of Liverpool PC , known as the Lord Hawkesbury between 1786 and 1796, was a British statesman. He was the father of Prime Minister Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool....
Commander-in-Chief, North America
Until the war was widened into a global conflict by France's entry into the war in 1778, the war's military activities where primarily directed by the Commander-in-Chief, North AmericaCommander-in-Chief, North America
The office of Commander-in-Chief, North America was a military position of the British Army. Established in 1755 in the early years of the Seven Years' War, holders of the post were generally responsible for land-based military personnel and activities in and around those parts of North America...
.
- Thomas GageThomas GageThomas Gage was a British general, best known for his many years of service in North America, including his role as military commander in the early days of the American War of Independence....
was commander-in-chief of North American forces from 1763 until 1775, and governor of the Province of Massachusetts BayProvince of Massachusetts BayThe Province of Massachusetts Bay was a crown colony in North America. It was chartered on October 7, 1691 by William and Mary, the joint monarchs of the kingdoms of England and Scotland...
from 1774 to 1776. He presided over the rising tensions (with his actions sometimes contributing to them, in the opinions of some historians) that led to the outbreak of the war. He was recalled after the Battle of Bunker HillBattle of Bunker HillThe Battle of Bunker Hill took place on June 17, 1775, mostly on and around Breed's Hill, during the Siege of Boston early in the American Revolutionary War...
. - William Howe, 5th Viscount HoweWilliam Howe, 5th Viscount HoweWilliam Howe, 5th Viscount Howe, KB, PC was a British army officer who rose to become Commander-in-Chief of British forces during the American War of Independence...
replaced Gage, and personally directed the war effort in 1776 and 1777, including the British captures of New York City and Philadelphia. He failed to gain control over New Jersey, and his actions in taking Philadelphia contributed to the failure of John Burgoyne's Saratoga campaignSaratoga campaignThe Saratoga Campaign was an attempt by Great Britain to gain military control of the strategically important Hudson River valley in 1777 during the American Revolutionary War...
. He resigned in early 1778. - Sir Henry Clinton served as commander-in-chief from 1778 to 1782. He oversaw the British army's retreat from Philadelphia, and then directed the Siege of CharlestonSiege of CharlestonThe Siege of Charleston was one of the major battles which took place towards the end of the American Revolutionary War, after the British began to shift their strategic focus towards the American Southern Colonies. After about six weeks of siege, Continental Army Major General Benjamin Lincoln...
, the landing of a large body of troops early in the "Southern strategy". He directed most British activities afterward from his base in New York, and played a role in negotiating Benedict ArnoldBenedict ArnoldBenedict Arnold V was a general during the American Revolutionary War. He began the war in the Continental Army but later defected to the British Army. While a general on the American side, he obtained command of the fort at West Point, New York, and plotted to surrender it to the British forces...
's change of allegiance. Following Cornwallis' surrender at Yorktown, he was replaced by Guy Carleton. - Sir Guy Carleton, 1st Baron DorchesterGuy Carleton, 1st Baron DorchesterGuy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester, KB , known between 1776 and 1786 as Sir Guy Carleton, was an Irish-British soldier and administrator...
was governor of QuebecProvince of Quebec (1763-1791)The Province of Quebec was a colony in North America created by Great Britain after the Seven Years' War. Great Britain acquired Canada by the Treaty of Paris when King Louis XV of France and his advisors chose to keep the territory of Guadeloupe for its valuable sugar crops instead of New France...
from 1768 to 1777, overseeing the province's defense against the 1775 invasionInvasion of Canada (1775)The Invasion of Canada in 1775 was the first major military initiative by the newly formed Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. The objective of the campaign was to gain military control of the British Province of Quebec, and convince the French-speaking Canadiens to join the...
, and its first counterattack. Denied command of what became John Burgoyne's campaign, he resigned in 1777. In 1782 King George appointed him to replace Clinton as commander-in-chief. He directed the withdrawal of British troops from the states, and helped to organize the relocation of thousands of Loyalists to other British territories.
Lieutenant and Major Generals
- Mariot Arbuthnot was Vice Admiral of the Blue in the Royal Navy, and commanded its North American station from 1779 until 1781. He led the navy in the Siege of CharlestonSiege of CharlestonThe Siege of Charleston was one of the major battles which took place towards the end of the American Revolutionary War, after the British began to shift their strategic focus towards the American Southern Colonies. After about six weeks of siege, Continental Army Major General Benjamin Lincoln...
and the Battle of Cape HenryBattle of Cape HenryThe Battle of Cape Henry was a naval battle in the American War of Independence which took place near the mouth of Chesapeake Bay on 16 March 1781 between a British squadron led by Vice Admiral Mariot Arbuthnot and a French fleet under Admiral Charles René Dominique Sochet, Chevalier Destouches...
. He was also Lieutenant Governor of Nova ScotiaLieutenant Governor of Nova ScotiaThe Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia is the viceregal representative in Nova Scotia of the Canadian monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, who operates distinctly within the province but is also shared equally with the ten other jurisdictions of Canada and resides predominantly in her oldest realm, the...
from 1776 to 1778, active in suppressing Patriot sentiment in that province. - Sir Robert BoydRobert Boyd (British Army officer)Lieutenant-General Sir Robert Boyd KB was a British Army officer.Boyd was baptized on 20 April 1710 at Richmond, Surrey and attended Glasgow University before entering the army in his father Ninian's profession of civilian storekeeper...
was a lieutenant general who served in the garrison at the Great Siege of GibraltarGreat Siege of GibraltarThe Great Siege of Gibraltar was an unsuccessful attempt by Spain and France to capture Gibraltar from the British during the American War of Independence. This was the largest action fought during the war in terms of numbers, particularly the Grand Assault of 18 September 1782...
. - John BurgoyneJohn BurgoyneGeneral John Burgoyne was a British army officer, politician and dramatist. He first saw action during the Seven Years' War when he participated in several battles, mostly notably during the Portugal Campaign of 1762....
was a lieutenant general who led a British attempt to gain control of the Hudson RiverHudson RiverThe Hudson is a river that flows from north to south through eastern New York. The highest official source is at Lake Tear of the Clouds, on the slopes of Mount Marcy in the Adirondack Mountains. The river itself officially begins in Henderson Lake in Newcomb, New York...
valley in 1777 that was stopped at SaratogaSaratoga campaignThe Saratoga Campaign was an attempt by Great Britain to gain military control of the strategically important Hudson River valley in 1777 during the American Revolutionary War...
. Paroled to England and eventually exchanged, he did not serve further in the war. - The Hon. John ByronJohn ByronVice Admiral The Hon. John Byron, RN was a Royal Navy officer. He was known as Foul-weather Jack because of his frequent bad luck with weather.-Early career:...
was the admiral in command of the West Indies naval station in 1778 and 1779. He fought the minor Battle of GrenadaBattle of GrenadaThe Battle of Grenada took place on 6 July 1779 during the American War of Independence in the West Indies between the British Royal Navy and the French Navy.-Origins:...
against d'Estaing in 1779, and retired the following year. - Archibald CampbellArchibald Campbell (British Army officer)General Sir Archibald Campbell KB served as Governor of Jamaica and Madras. He was a major Scottish landowner, Heritable Usher of the White Rod for Scotland and a Member of Parliament for the Stirling Burghs.-Birth:...
, while a lieutenant colonel, regained control of Georgia in 1779 and served as its royal governor. Promoted to major general, he served in JamaicaJamaicaJamaica is an island nation of the Greater Antilles, in length, up to in width and 10,990 square kilometres in area. It is situated in the Caribbean Sea, about south of Cuba, and west of Hispaniola, the island harbouring the nation-states Haiti and the Dominican Republic...
, becoming its governor in 1782. - John CampbellJohn Campbell, of StrachurGeneral John Campbell, 17th of Strachur was a Scottish soldier and minor nobleman, who commanded the British forces at the Siege of Pensacola, and succeeded Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester as Commander-in-Chief in North America in 1783 following the end of the American War of...
served in the Boston campaignBoston campaignThe Boston campaign was the opening campaign of the American Revolutionary War. The campaign was primarily concerned with the formation of American colonial irregular militia units, and their transformation into a unified Continental Army...
and the New York and New Jersey campaignNew York and New Jersey campaignThe New York and New Jersey campaign was a series of battles for control of New York City and the state of New Jersey in the American Revolutionary War between British forces under General Sir William Howe and the Continental Army under General George Washington in 1776 and the winter months of 1777...
early in the war, before being given command of the defense of West FloridaWest FloridaWest Florida was a region on the north shore of the Gulf of Mexico, which underwent several boundary and sovereignty changes during its history. West Florida was first established in 1763 by the British government; as its name suggests it largely consisted of the western portion of the region...
. Captured in the 1781 Siege of Pensacola, he ended the war in the New York City garrison. - Sir George CollierGeorge CollierSir George Collier was an officer of the Royal Navy who saw service during the Seven Years War, the American War of Independence and the French Revolutionary Wars. As commander of the frigate HMS Rainbow, he was one of the most successful British naval commanders during the opening stages of war...
was the commander of the Royal Navy's North American station from 1776 to 1779, providing naval support to a variety of operations, and leading the relief of the 1779 Penobscot ExpeditionPenobscot ExpeditionThe Penobscot Expedition was the largest American naval expedition of the American Revolutionary War and the United States' worst naval defeat until Pearl Harbor...
. Thereafter he served in European waters, where he participated in one of the relief convoys to Gibraltar. - Sir Eyre CooteEyre Coote (East India Company officer)Lieutenant-General Sir Eyre Coote, KB was an Irish soldier. He is best known for his many years of service with the British Army in India. His victory at the Battle of Wandiwash is considered a decisive turning point in the struggle for control in India between British and France...
was the commander-in-chiefCommander-in-Chief, IndiaDuring the period of the British Raj, the Commander-in-Chief, India was the supreme commander of the Indian Army. The Commander-in-Chief and most of his staff were based at General Headquarters, India, and liaised with the civilian Governor-General of India...
of British forces in India. While not personally involved in combat against the French and Dutch there, troops that were part of his command were involved in engagements against French and Dutch targets, while he was preoccupied with the Second Anglo-Mysore WarSecond Anglo-Mysore WarThe Second Anglo-Mysore War was a conflict in Mughal India between the Sultanate of Mysore and the British East India Company. At the time, Mysore was a key French ally in India, and the Franco-British conflict raging on account of the American Revolutionary War helped spark Anglo-Mysorean...
. - Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess CornwallisCharles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess CornwallisCharles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis KG , styled Viscount Brome between 1753 and 1762 and known as The Earl Cornwallis between 1762 and 1792, was a British Army officer and colonial administrator...
participated in many campaigns in North America. He served under Howe and Clinton in the New York and Philadelphia campaigns, and was given control of the southern army by Clinton after the Siege of CharlestonSiege of CharlestonThe Siege of Charleston was one of the major battles which took place towards the end of the American Revolutionary War, after the British began to shift their strategic focus towards the American Southern Colonies. After about six weeks of siege, Continental Army Major General Benjamin Lincoln...
. At first successfully driving the Continentals from South Carolina, he was eventually forced to surrender his army at Yorktown in the last major engagement between American and British forces. - Sir John Dalling, 1st BaronetSir John Dalling, 1st BaronetGeneral Sir John Dalling, 1st Baronet was a British soldier and colonial administrator.Dalling was the son of John Dalling, of Bungay, Suffolk, by his wife Anne, a daughter of Colonel William Windham of Earsham, Norfolk, who was the second son of William Windham I, of Felbrigg Hall...
was a general and governor of JamaicaJamaicaJamaica is an island nation of the Greater Antilles, in length, up to in width and 10,990 square kilometres in area. It is situated in the Caribbean Sea, about south of Cuba, and west of Hispaniola, the island harbouring the nation-states Haiti and the Dominican Republic...
until 1781, where he coordinate British military affairs throughout the Caribbean and the West Indies. - William Dalrymple was in command of the Army troops in Boston at the time of the Boston MassacreBoston MassacreThe Boston Massacre, called the Boston Riot by the British, was an incident on March 5, 1770, in which British Army soldiers killed five civilian men. British troops had been stationed in Boston, capital of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, since 1768 in order to protect and support...
. He served as quartermaster general of the British Army in North America from 1779 to 1783. - Sir Charles Douglas was an admiral in the Royal Navy. He led the advance fleet that brought relief to Quebec in April 1776, and served under Rodney in the Battle of the SaintesBattle of the SaintesThe Battle of the Saintes took place over 4 days, 9 April 1782 – 12 April 1782, during the American War of Independence, and was a victory of a British fleet under Admiral Sir George Rodney over a French fleet under the Comte de Grasse forcing the French and Spanish to abandon a planned...
. - Sir William Erskine, 1st Baronet was a general who served under Howe and Clinton in the New York and Philadelphia campaigns. He also served for a time as quartermaster general before leaving active service in 1779.
- Sir William FawcettWilliam Fawcett (British Army officer)General Sir William Fawcett KCB was an Adjutant-General to the Forces.-Military career:Educated at the Free School in Bury in Lancashire, William Fawcett was commissioned into the 33rd Foot in 1748....
became the army's adjutant generalAdjutant-General to the ForcesThe Adjutant-General to the Forces, commonly just referred to as the Adjutant-General , is one of the most senior officers in the British Army. He is in charge of administration, personnel and organisational matters. The Adjutant-General usually holds the rank of General or Lieutenant-General...
in 1781. His most important role in the war was overseeing the embarkation of hired German troops for deployment to the various theaters of war. - The Hon. Simon Fraser of Lovat was a general and colonel of the 71st (Highland) Regiment of Foot71st (Highland) Regiment of FootThe 71st Regiment of Foot was a Highland regiment in the British Army, which in 1881 became the 1st Battalion, Highland Light Infantry .- First formation :...
. While he did not serve in the war, he was responsible for raising the regiment, which saw service throughout much of North America, and was captured at Yorktown. - Samuel GravesSamuel GravesAdmiral Samuel Graves RN was a British Admiral who is probably best known for his role early in the American War of Independence.-Military career:Graves joined the Royal Navy in 1732...
was the admiral in charge of the navy's North American station at the outbreak of the war. He directed naval activities for much of the Siege of BostonSiege of BostonThe Siege of Boston was the opening phase of the American Revolutionary War, in which New England militiamen—who later became part of the Continental Army—surrounded the town of Boston, Massachusetts, to prevent movement by the British Army garrisoned within...
, and gave orders resulting in the politically and literally inflammatory Burning of FalmouthBurning of FalmouthThe Burning of Falmouth was an attack by a fleet of Royal Navy vessels on the town of Falmouth, Massachusetts . The fleet was commanded by Captain Henry Mowat...
in October 1775. He was recalled in January 1776, and saw no more service in the war. - Thomas Graves, 1st Baron GravesThomas Graves, 1st Baron Graves|-|-...
was an admiral and the nephew of Samuel Graves. As a lieutenant, he participated in the Battle of Chelsea CreekBattle of Chelsea CreekThe Battle of Chelsea Creek was the second military engagement of the Boston campaign of the American Revolutionary War. It is also known as the Battle of Noddle's Island, Battle of Hog Island and the Battle of the Chelsea Estuary...
in 1775. By 1781 he had risen to become commander of the North American station. His fleet was driven off in the critical Battle of the ChesapeakeBattle of the ChesapeakeThe Battle of the Chesapeake, also known as the Battle of the Virginia Capes or simply the Battle of the Capes, was a crucial naval battle in the American War of Independence that took place near the mouth of Chesapeake Bay on 5 September 1781, between a British fleet led by Rear Admiral Sir Thomas...
that enabled the French blockade of Yorktown. - William Green was a major general. He was the chief engineer during the siege of Gibraltar.
- Frederick HaldimandFrederick HaldimandSir Frederick Haldimand, KB was a military officer best known for his service in the British Army in North America during the Seven Years' War and the American Revolutionary War...
was responsible for the British troops in the Siege of BostonSiege of BostonThe Siege of Boston was the opening phase of the American Revolutionary War, in which New England militiamen—who later became part of the Continental Army—surrounded the town of Boston, Massachusetts, to prevent movement by the British Army garrisoned within...
, although his authority was often superseded by Thomas Gage, who had overall command. Haldimand served as governor of Quebec from 1778 to 1786, with responsibility for the defense of the province and the organization and support of frontier attacks in the Ohio CountryOhio CountryThe Ohio Country was the name used in the 18th century for the regions of North America west of the Appalachian Mountains and in the region of the upper Ohio River south of Lake Erie...
. - Samuel Hood, 1st Viscount HoodSamuel Hood, 1st Viscount HoodSamuel Hood, 1st Viscount Hood was a British Admiral known particularly for his service in the American War of Independence and French Revolutionary Wars...
was an admiral, who served primarily under Rodney in the West Indies. He was also present at the Battle of the ChesapeakeBattle of the ChesapeakeThe Battle of the Chesapeake, also known as the Battle of the Virginia Capes or simply the Battle of the Capes, was a crucial naval battle in the American War of Independence that took place near the mouth of Chesapeake Bay on 5 September 1781, between a British fleet led by Rear Admiral Sir Thomas...
under Thomas Graves. - Richard Howe, 1st Earl HoweRichard Howe, 1st Earl HoweAdmiral of the Fleet Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe KG was a British naval officer, notable in particular for his service during the American War of Independence and French Revolutionary Wars. He was the brother of William Howe and George Howe.Howe joined the navy at the age of thirteen and served...
was chief of the North American naval station from 1776 to 1778. He was given diplomatic authority by King George to conduct negotiations at the unsuccessful Staten Island Peace ConferenceStaten Island Peace ConferenceThe Staten Island Peace Conference was a brief meeting held in the hope of bringing an end to the American Revolution. The conference took place on September 11, 1776, at Billop Manor, the residence of Colonel Christopher Billop, on Staten Island, New York...
. Sympathetic to the colonists' cause, he saw no further service until 1782, when he participated in the relief of Gibraltar. - The Hon. Alexander Leslie served under Cornwallis in the southern campaigns, but was commanding forces in Charleston at the time of Cornwallis' surrender at Yorktown.
- William MedowsWilliam MedowsGeneral Sir William Medows KB was an Englishman and a general in the British Army.-Military career:Sir William was the son of Philip Medows, deputy ranger of Richmond Park, and Lady Frances Pierrepont, daughter of the Duke of Kingston-upon-Hull.He entered the British Army as an ensign in the 50th...
distinguished himself in the Philadelphia campaign and the Battle of St. LuciaBattle of St. LuciaThe Battle of St. Lucia or the Battle of the Cul de Sac was a naval battle fought off the island of St. Lucia in the West Indies during the American War of Independence on 15 December 1778, between the British Royal Navy and the French Navy.-Background:...
in 1778. He was then despatched to India, where he was primarily involved in the Second Anglo-Mysore WarSecond Anglo-Mysore WarThe Second Anglo-Mysore War was a conflict in Mughal India between the Sultanate of Mysore and the British East India Company. At the time, Mysore was a key French ally in India, and the Franco-British conflict raging on account of the American Revolutionary War helped spark Anglo-Mysorean...
. - Hector Munro, 8th of Novar was a general active in India. He led the forces that captured Pondicherry in 1778, and led forces against the Mysoreans.
- William Phillips was an artillery general. He served under Burgoyne and was captured at Saratoga in 1777. Exchanged in 1780, he took over leadership of Benedict Arnold's army in Virginia, before becoming ill and dying.
- William Picton was a major general who served in the Gibraltar garrison during the siege.
- George Brydges Rodney, 1st Baron RodneyGeorge Brydges Rodney, 1st Baron RodneyGeorge Brydges Rodney, 1st Baron Rodney, KB was a British naval officer. He is best known for his commands in the American War of Independence, particularly his victory over the French at the Battle of the Saintes in 1782...
was the commander of the naval station in the West Indies. He also participated in one of the expeditions to relieve Gibraltar, and, after capturing de Grasse in the Battle of the SaintesBattle of the SaintesThe Battle of the Saintes took place over 4 days, 9 April 1782 – 12 April 1782, during the American War of Independence, and was a victory of a British fleet under Admiral Sir George Rodney over a French fleet under the Comte de Grasse forcing the French and Spanish to abandon a planned...
, famously wrote, "Within two little years I have taken two Spanish, one French and one Dutch admirals."
Royal governors
- Montfort BrowneMontfort BrowneMontfort Browne was a British Army officer and Tory, and a major landowner and developer of British West Florida in the 1760s and 1770s. He commanded the Prince of Wales' American Regiment, a Loyalist regiment, in the American Revolutionary War...
- Henry Hamilton
- John Murray, 4th Earl of DunmoreJohn Murray, 4th Earl of DunmoreJohn Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore was a British peer and colonial governor. He was the son of William Murray, 3rd Earl of Dunmore, and his wife Catherine . He is best remembered as the last royal governor of the Colony of Virginia.John was the eldest son of William and Catherine Murray, and nephew...
Frontier leaders
- Patrick SinclairPatrick SinclairLieutenant-General Patrick Sinclair was a British Army officer and governor in North America. He is best remembered for overseeing the construction of Fort Mackinac on Mackinac Island in what was to become the U.S. state of Michigan.-Biography:Sinclair was born in Lybster, Scotland, and enlisted...
- John ButlerJohn Butler (pioneer)John Butler was a Loyalist who led an irregular militia unit known as Butler's Rangers on the northern frontier in the American Revolutionary War. He led Seneca and Cayuga forces in the Saratoga campaign. He later raised and commanded a regiment of rangers.-Background:John was born to Walter...
- William CaldwellWilliam Caldwell (ranger)William Caldwell , was a Scots-Irish immigrant to North America who became a soldier with the British Indian Department, . He fought against the American rebels in the American Revolutionary War, especially with Butler's Rangers, based near upstate New York...
- Simon GirtySimon GirtySimon Girty was an American colonial of Scots-Irish ancestry who served as a liaison between the British and their Native American allies during the American Revolution...
Native Americans
- Joseph BrantJoseph BrantThayendanegea or Joseph Brant was a Mohawk military and political leader, based in present-day New York, who was closely associated with Great Britain during and after the American Revolution. He was perhaps the most well-known American Indian of his generation...
(Mohawk) - John DeserontoJohn DeserontoCaptain John Deseronto Captain John Deseronto Captain John Deseronto (alt. Deserontyon, (Odeserundiye) UE (c1740's - 1811) was a prominent Mohawk war chief during the American Revolutionary War. He was born in the 1740s, most likely in the Mohawk valley. Educated in a white school, he had become...
(Mohawk) - CornplanterCornplanterGaiänt'wakê was a Seneca war-chief. He was the son of a Seneca mother, Aliquipiso, and a Dutch father, Johannes Abeel. He also carried the name John Abeel after his fur trader father...
(Seneca) - GuyasutaGuyasutaGuyasuta was an important leader of the Seneca people in the second half of the eighteenth century, playing a central role in the diplomacy and warfare of that era...
(Seneca) - Red JacketRed JacketRed Jacket was a Native American Seneca orator and chief of the Wolf clan...
(Seneca) - Sayenqueraghta (Seneca)
- DunquatDunquatDunquat, known as the Half-King of the Wyandot people, sided with the Kingdom of Great Britain in the American Revolutionary War. He and his people moved to the Ohio country to fight the Americans in the west. During the war, he protected Christian Delaware people from other members of their tribe...
(the Wyandot "Half-King") - Dragging CanoeDragging CanoeTsiyu Gansini , "He is dragging his canoe", known to whites as Dragging Canoe, was a Cherokee war chief who led a band of Cherokee against colonists and United States settlers...
(Chickamauga Cherokee) - Blue JacketBlue JacketBlue Jacket or Weyapiersenwah was a war chief of the Shawnee people, known for his militant defense of Shawnee lands in the Ohio Country...
(Shawnee) - CornstalkCornstalkCornstalk was a prominent leader of the Shawnee nation just prior to the American Revolution. His name, Hokoleskwa, translates loosely into "stalk of corn" in English, and is spelled Colesqua in some accounts...
(Shawnee) - White EyesWhite EyesWhite Eyes, named Koquethagechton , was a leader of the Lenape people in the Ohio Country during the era of the American Revolution. Sometimes known as George White Eyes, his given name in Lenape was rendered in many spelling variations in colonial records...
(Lenape) - Captain PipeCaptain PipeCaptain Pipe , called Konieschquanoheel and also known as Hopocan, was an 18th-century chief of the Algonquian-speaking Lenape and a member of the Wolf Clan...
(Lenape) - BuckongahelasBuckongahelasBuckongahelas was a regionally and nationally renowned Lenape chief, councilor and warrior. He was active from the days of the French and Indian War through the Northwest Indian Wars, after the United States achieved independence and settlers encroached on territory beyond the Appalachian...
(Lenape) - MatchekewisMatchekewisMatchekewis was a tribal leader of the Ojibwe people. His people were home to Michigan country, migrating to avoid pioneer expansion. In 1763, he took part in Pontiac's Rebellion in the capture of Fort Michilimackinac from the Kingdom of Great Britain. But in 1780 he commanded his tribes in the...
(Ojibwe), led Native forces at the Battle of St. Louis - Wapasha (Sioux), led Native forces at St. Louis
German principalities
Great Britain hired the services of military troops from a number of German principalities of the Holy Roman EmpireHoly Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire was a realm that existed from 962 to 1806 in Central Europe.It was ruled by the Holy Roman Emperor. Its character changed during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, when the power of the emperor gradually weakened in favour of the princes...
. The largest number arrived in 1776 pursuant to agreements signed in late 1775 or early 1776, but additional forces were recruited in 1778, with only limited success. The single largest contingent came from Hesse-Kassel
Hesse-Kassel
The Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel or Hesse-Cassel was a state in the Holy Roman Empire under Imperial immediacy that came into existence when the Landgraviate of Hesse was divided in 1567 upon the death of Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse. His eldest son William IV inherited the northern half and the...
.
- Anhalt-ZerbstAnhalt-ZerbstAnhalt-Zerbst was a district in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. It is bounded by the districts Potsdam-Mittelmark and Wittenberg, the city of Dessau and the districts of Köthen, Schönebeck and Jerichower Land.- History :...
: Colonel Johann von Rauschenplatt commanded the single regiment from Anhalt-Zerbst. - Ansbach-Bayreuth: Colonel Friedrich Ludwig Albrecht von EybFriedrich Ludwig Albrecht von EybFriederich Ludwig Albrecht von Eyb was a military commander of Ansbach-Bayreuth. In 1776, when the American Revolutionary War broke out, the Kingdom of Great Britain appealed to various German princes for troops in return for payment. Von Eyb commanded the Bayreuth regiment from 1776 to May 1778,...
commanded a regiment of Ansbach infantry, and led the brigade consisting of his regiment and one from Bayreuth that included an artillery company, until May 1778. - Ansbach-Bayreuth: Colonel Friedrich August Valentin Voit von SalzburgFriedrich August Valentin Voit von SalzburgFriedrich August Valentin Voit von Salzburg was a commander of Ansbach-Bayreuth. During the American Revolutionary War, the Kingdom of Great Britain purchased the services of soldiers from various German princes. Voit commanded the First Regiment of the Ansbach Regiment led by Friedrich Ludwig...
commanded the Ansbach brigade after Eyb's departure. - Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (Brunswick):Prince CarlCharles William Ferdinand, Duke of BrunswickCharles William Ferdinand , Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, was a sovereign prince of the Holy Roman Empire, and a professional soldier who served as a Generalfeldmarschall of the Kingdom of Prussia...
of Brunswick-WolfenbüttelDuchy of BrunswickBrunswick was a historical state in Germany. Originally the territory of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel in the Holy Roman Empire, it was established as an independent duchy by the Congress of Vienna in 1815...
was a brother-in-law of King George III of Great Britain. He was in London in 1775 when news arrived of the Battle of Lexington, and immediately pledged the support of Brunswick troops. - Braunschweig-Lüneburg (Brunswick): Baron Friedrich Adolf Riedesel commanded the Brunswick troops in North America. As part of John Burgoyne's army, they were surrendered at the end of the failed Saratoga campaignSaratoga campaignThe Saratoga Campaign was an attempt by Great Britain to gain military control of the strategically important Hudson River valley in 1777 during the American Revolutionary War...
. Riedesel was released to Quebec in 1781, where he served in that province's defense until his return to Europe in 1784. - Electorate of HanoverElectorate of HanoverThe Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg was the ninth Electorate of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation...
: Baron August de la MotteAugust de la MotteAugust de la Motte was a Hanoverian general.On October 16, 1775, De La Motte was sent to Gibraltar for service under the Kingdom of Great Britain. During the American Revolutionary War, he commanded three Hanoverian battalions. The battalions held out for three years and seven months. For their...
was a major general who commanded three regiments of Hanoverian troops that King George III, in his capacity as Elector of Hanover, ordered to Gibraltar. - Electorate of HanoverElectorate of HanoverThe Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg was the ninth Electorate of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation...
: Colonel Reinbold commanded two regiments of Hanoverian troops that King George III, in his capacity as Elector of Hanover, ordered to India, where they participated in the Siege of CuddaloreSiege of CuddaloreThe Siege of Cuddalore was a siege attempt by British troops against a combined French and Mysorean garrison in the fortress of Cuddalore late in the War of American Independence and the Second Anglo-Mysore War...
under Hector Munro. - Electorate of HanoverElectorate of HanoverThe Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg was the ninth Electorate of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation...
: Heinrich Bernhard von Sydow was a major general who commanded two regiments of Hanoverian troops that King George III, in his capacity as Elector of Hanover, ordered to Minorca. - Hesse-KasselHesse-KasselThe Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel or Hesse-Cassel was a state in the Holy Roman Empire under Imperial immediacy that came into existence when the Landgraviate of Hesse was divided in 1567 upon the death of Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse. His eldest son William IV inherited the northern half and the...
: Leopold Philip von Heister was the first leader of the Hessian troops, and was active in the New York campaign in 1776. Differences with British General William Howe led him to depart after the disastrous Battle of TrentonBattle of TrentonThe Battle of Trenton took place on December 26, 1776, during the American Revolutionary War, after General George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River north of Trenton, New Jersey. The hazardous crossing in adverse weather made it possible for Washington to lead the main body of the...
. - Hesse-KasselHesse-KasselThe Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel or Hesse-Cassel was a state in the Holy Roman Empire under Imperial immediacy that came into existence when the Landgraviate of Hesse was divided in 1567 upon the death of Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse. His eldest son William IV inherited the northern half and the...
: Lieutenant General Wilhelm von KnyphausenWilhelm von KnyphausenWilhelm Reichsfreiherr zu Innhausen und Knyphausen was a general from Hesse-Cassel. He fought in the American Revolutionary War, during which he led Hessian mercenaries on behalf of the British Empire.-Biography:His father was colonel in a German regiment under the Duke of Marlborough...
replaced von Heister, and continued to lead the Hessian forces under Howe, and later Sir Henry Clinton, in the Philadelphia campaignPhiladelphia campaignThe Philadelphia campaign was a British initiative in the American Revolutionary War to gain control of Philadelphia, which was then the seat of the Second Continental Congress...
. While being senior to all British generals beside the C-I-C he was not listed as possible replacement for him. He left due to poor health in 1782. - Hesse-KasselHesse-KasselThe Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel or Hesse-Cassel was a state in the Holy Roman Empire under Imperial immediacy that came into existence when the Landgraviate of Hesse was divided in 1567 upon the death of Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse. His eldest son William IV inherited the northern half and the...
: Friedrich Wilhelm von Lossberg succeeded Knyphausen as commander of the Hessians until their departure at the end of the war. - Hesse-Hanau: Wilhelm von Gall commanded the single regiment and artillery provided by Hesse-Hanau. He served under Riedesel in the Saratoga campaign, spending most of the war as a prisoner after Burgoyne's surrender.
- WaldeckWaldeck (state)Waldeck was a sovereign principality in the German Empire and German Confederation and, until 1929, a constituent state of the Weimar Republic. It comprised territories in present-day Hesse and Lower Saxony, ....
: Johann von Hanxleden was a colonel who led the single regiment that Waldeck provided. Under his command, the regiment served in Howe's army in New York and New Jersey until 1778, when it was transferred to West FloridaWest FloridaWest Florida was a region on the north shore of the Gulf of Mexico, which underwent several boundary and sovereignty changes during its history. West Florida was first established in 1763 by the British government; as its name suggests it largely consisted of the western portion of the region...
. He was killed in a failed attack on MobileBattle of Mobile (1781)The Battle of Mobile was a British attempt to recapture the town of Mobile, in the British province of West Florida, from the Spanish during the American War of Independence. The Spanish had previously captured Mobile in March 1780...
in 1781. - WaldeckWaldeck (state)Waldeck was a sovereign principality in the German Empire and German Confederation and, until 1929, a constituent state of the Weimar Republic. It comprised territories in present-day Hesse and Lower Saxony, ....
: Albrecht von Horn was the lieutenant colonel of the Waldeck regiment, who assumed command after Hanxleden's death. After the fall of Pensacola, the Waldeck regiment's remnants were paroled to New York.
Civilian leaders
- King Louis XVILouis XVI of FranceLouis XVI was a Bourbon monarch who ruled as King of France and Navarre until 1791, and then as King of the French from 1791 to 1792, before being executed in 1793....
, the absolute ruler of France, ascended to the throne in 1774. He acted as his own head of government, but depended on a circle of official and unofficial advisors for advice and support. He formally directed France's overall war effort. - Charles Gravier, comte de VergennesCharles Gravier, comte de VergennesCharles Gravier, comte de Vergennes was a French statesman and diplomat. He served as Foreign Minister from 1774 during the reign of Louis XVI, notably during the American War of Independence....
was the French foreign minister, and one of King Louis' closest advisors. He was instrumental in bringing both France and Spain into the war. - Antoine de SartineAntoine de SartineAntoine Raymond Jean Gualbert Gabriel de Sartine, comte d'Alby was a French statesman who served as Lieutenant General of Police of Paris during the reign of Louis XV and as Secretary of State for the Navy under King Louis XVI.-Origins:Antoine de Sartine was born in Barcelona in 1729, the son of...
was France's naval minister from 1774 to 1780. Before the war he took important steps to reorganize the French navy, giving port and fleet commanders more power. - Charles Eugène Gabriel de La Croix, marquis de CastriesCharles Eugène Gabriel de La Croix, marquis de CastriesCharles Eugène Gabriel de La Croix de Castries, marquis de Castries, baron des États de Languedoc, comte de Charlus, baron de Castelnau et de Montjouvent, seigneur de Puylaurens et de Lézignan was a French marshal...
replaced Sartine as naval minister. - Louis Jean Marie de Bourbon, Duke of Penthièvre was the admiral of the fleet, a largely ceremonial post usually held by a noble. Penthièvre was a lieutenant general, but had no naval experience.
- Claude Louis, Comte de Saint-GermainClaude Louis, Comte de Saint-GermainClaude Louis, Comte de Saint-Germain , French general, was born on the 15th of April 1707, at the Château of Vertamboz.Educated at Jesuit schools, he intended to enter the priesthood, but at the last minute obtained from Louis XV an appointment as sub-lieutenant...
was France's war minister from 1775 to 1777. - Alexandre Marie Léonor de Saint-Mauris de MontbarreyAlexandre Marie Léonor de Saint-Mauris de MontbarreyAlexandre Marie Léonor de Saint-Mauris, comte, then prince de Montbarrey was a French politician. He was made Secretary of State for War by Louis XVI of France in 1778, but displeased Marie-Antoinette and was forced to leave that office two years later...
was France's war minister from 1778 to 1780. - Philippe Henri, marquis de SégurPhilippe Henri, marquis de SégurPhilippe Henri, marquis de Ségur was a marshal of France.Born in Paris, son of Henri François, comte de Ségur, and his wife Philippe Angélique de Froissy, he was appointed to the command of an infantry regiment at eighteen, and served under his father in Italy and Bohemia...
was France's war minister from 1780 to 1787.
Generals
- Charles Joseph Patissier, Marquis de Bussy-CastelnauMarquis de Bussy-CastelnauCharles Joseph Patissier, Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau was the Governor General of the French colony of Pondicherry from 1783 to 1785. He servied with distinction under Joseph François Dupleix in the East Indies, receiving the Order of Saint Louis...
was a French general. He served for many years in India, and led French ground troops there in the later stages of the war. - François-Jean de Beauvoir, Chevalier de ChastelluxFrançois-Jean de ChastelluxFrançois Jean de Beauvoir, Marquis de Chastellux, was a military officer who served during the War of American Independence as a major general in the French expeditionary forces led by general Comte de Rochambeau...
was a major general who served under Rochambeau in North America. - Claude Gabriel, marquis de ChoisyMarquis de ChoisyBrig. Gen. Claude Gabriel marquis de Choisy was at the siege of Yorktown in command of Lauzun's Legion and Gen. George Weedon's Virginia militia, at Gloucester, Virginia, under the command of Rochambeau, opposite Banastre Tarleton.-Capture of Cracow:...
was a brigadier general who served under Rochambeau at Yorktown. For his leadership there, he was promoted to field marshalField Marshal (France)Maréchal de camp was a general officer rank used by the French Army until 1848.The rank originated from the older rank of sergeant major general . Sergeant Major General was third in command in an army, after the General and the Lieutenant General. One of his tasks was to dispose the troops on the...
. - Charles René Dominique Sochet, Chevalier DestouchesCharles René Dominique Sochet, Chevalier DestouchesCharles René Dominique Sochet, Chevalier Destouches, also sometimes spelled Des Touches, was a rear admiral in the French Navy...
was an admiral, who served on the North American station. As commander of the Newport fleet, he fought the 1781 Battle of Cape HenryBattle of Cape HenryThe Battle of Cape Henry was a naval battle in the American War of Independence which took place near the mouth of Chesapeake Bay on 16 March 1781 between a British squadron led by Vice Admiral Mariot Arbuthnot and a French fleet under Admiral Charles René Dominique Sochet, Chevalier Destouches...
. - Charles Hector, comte d'EstaingCharles Hector, comte d'EstaingJean Baptiste Charles Henri Hector, comte d'Estaing was a French general, and admiral. He began his service as a soldier in the War of the Austrian Succession, briefly spending time as a prisoner of war of the British during the Seven Years' War...
was a vice-admiral in the French Navy. Active off the North American coast, he failed to support the land forces in the Battle of Rhode IslandBattle of Rhode IslandThe Battle of Rhode Island, also known as the Battle of Quaker Hill and the Siege of Newport, took place on August 29, 1778. Continental Army and militia forces under the command of General John Sullivan were withdrawing to the northern part of Aquidneck Island after abandoning their siege of...
, and led French forces in the failed Siege of SavannahSiege of SavannahThe Siege of Savannah or the Second Battle of Savannah was an encounter of the American Revolutionary War in 1779. The year before, the city of Savannah, Georgia, had been captured by a British expeditionary corps under Lieutenant-Colonel Archibald Campbell. The siege itself consisted of a joint...
. He was also active in the West Indies, participating in a number of engagements there. - François Joseph Paul de GrasseFrançois Joseph Paul de GrasseLieutenant Général des Armées Navales François-Joseph Paul, marquis de Grasse Tilly, comte de Grasse was a French admiral. He is best known for his command of the French fleet at the Battle of the Chesapeake, which led directly to the British surrender at Yorktown...
, Comte de Grasse was a rear admiral of the French Navy, active in the West Indies. His fleet brought French troops to Virginia prior to the siege of Yorktown, then drew off the fleet of Thomas GravesThomas Graves, 1st Baron Graves|-|-...
in the Battle of the ChesapeakeBattle of the ChesapeakeThe Battle of the Chesapeake, also known as the Battle of the Virginia Capes or simply the Battle of the Capes, was a crucial naval battle in the American War of Independence that took place near the mouth of Chesapeake Bay on 5 September 1781, between a British fleet led by Rear Admiral Sir Thomas...
before providing the naval blockade of Yorktown that trapped Cornwallis in 1781. He was defeated and captured in the Battle of the SaintesBattle of the SaintesThe Battle of the Saintes took place over 4 days, 9 April 1782 – 12 April 1782, during the American War of Independence, and was a victory of a British fleet under Admiral Sir George Rodney over a French fleet under the Comte de Grasse forcing the French and Spanish to abandon a planned...
in 1782. - Luc Urbain de Bouexic, comte de GuichenLuc Urbain de Bouexic, comte de GuichenLuc Urbain de Bouëxic, comte de Guichen - French admiral; entered the navy in 1730 as "garde de la Marine," the first rank in the corps of royal officers.His promotion was not rapid...
was Lieutenant Général des Armées Navales (roughly equivalent to Vice-Admiral) in the French Navy. He was most active in the West Indies, but also saw action in the naval blockade of Gibraltar. - Armand Louis de GontautArmand Louis de GontautArmand Louis de Gontaut, Duc de Lauzun, later duc de Biron, and usually referred to by historians of the French Revolution simply as Biron was a French soldier and politician, known for the part he played in the American War of Independence and the French Revolutionary Wars.-Early titles:Born in...
, Duc de Lauzun was briefly the commander of French army forces in North America following Rochambeau's departure in 1783. Lauzun's brigade led the French march from Rhode Island to Virginia in 1781. - Toussaint-Guillaume Picquet de la MotteToussaint-Guillaume Picquet de la MotteCount Toussaint-Guillaume Picquet de la Motte was a French admiral.Aged fifteen, he joined the navy as a midshipman and served in Morocco, the Baltic Sea, the Caribbean Islands and in India. Noted for his strategic skills, he was called to Paris in 1775 to help the Secretary of State prepare the...
was an admiral who served in the West Indies under d'Estaing and Guichen. His most famous feat was capturing many ships of a convoy that Admiral Rodney had sent toward England bearing loot captured after taking St. Eustatius in 1781. - Thomas d'Orves was an admiral who served in the Indian Ocean. Already older when the war began, he avoided conflict with Admiral Hughes in 1779, and died in 1782 while en route from Île de France (MauritiusMauritiusMauritius , officially the Republic of Mauritius is an island nation off the southeast coast of the African continent in the southwest Indian Ocean, about east of Madagascar...
) to India with the fleet Suffren took over. - Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de RochambeauJean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de RochambeauMarshal of France Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau was a French nobleman and general who participated in the American Revolutionary War as the commander-in-chief of the French Expeditionary Force which came to help the American Continental Army...
was the commander of French army forces in North America for most of the French participation in the war. Arriving in 1779, they were largely inactive due to the successful British blockading of Rhode IslandRhode IslandThe state of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, more commonly referred to as Rhode Island , is a state in the New England region of the United States. It is the smallest U.S. state by area...
's ports. In 1781 Rochambeau led the French forces south to participate in the siege of Yorktown, and then remained to garrison southern states until 1783. - Pierre André de Suffren de Saint Tropez, the Bailli de SuffrenPierre André de Suffren de Saint TropezAdmiral comte Pierre André de Suffren de Saint Tropez, bailli de Suffren , French admiral, was the third son of the marquis de Saint Tropez, head of a family of nobles of Provence which claimed to have emigrated from Lucca in the 14th century...
, after serving under d'Estaing in the West Indies, led a French fleet from France to India in 1781, and engaged five times with Admiral Edward Hughes in an evenly-matched contest for control of Indian waters in 1782 and 1783. - Antoine-Charles du Houx, Baron de Viomenil was a major general. He served as Rochambeau's second in command during the French Army's time in North America.
- Charles-Joseph-Hyacinth du Houx, Vicomte de Viomenil was a major general, and brother to Antoine-Charles. He also served under Rochambeau.
- Claude-Anne-Montbleru, Marquis de St. Simon was a major general serving in the West Indies when France entered the war. His troops sailed north with de Grasse and were present at Yorktown.
- Jacques-Melchior Saint-Laurent, Comte de BarrasJacques-Melchior Saint-Laurent, Comte de BarrasJacques-Melchior Saint-Laurent, Comte de Barras was a French Admiral of the eighteenth century. He is best known for his service during the American War of Independence and especially during the Yorktown Campaign.-Yorktown:...
was an admiral in the French navy. He served under d'Estaing at the Battle of Rhode IslandBattle of Rhode IslandThe Battle of Rhode Island, also known as the Battle of Quaker Hill and the Siege of Newport, took place on August 29, 1778. Continental Army and militia forces under the command of General John Sullivan were withdrawing to the northern part of Aquidneck Island after abandoning their siege of...
, and under de Grasse in the West Indies in 1782. His decision to remain in Newport in disobedience to orders enabled him to deliver the French siege train to Yorktown. - François Aymar de Monteil was an admiral. He assisted the Spanish during the siege of Pensacola, and then served under de Grasse during the 1782 campaign.
Spain
- Antonio BarcelóAntonio BarcelóDon Antonio Barceló was a Spanish Balear mariner, lieutenant general of the Spanish Royal Armada.He is famous for his anti-Algerian privateer campaigns, bombardments of Algiers and use of Floating...
was the Spanish vice admiral responsible for the blockade of Gibraltar during its siege. - Juan Manuel Cagigal y Monserrat was an admiral in the Spanish Navy, who provided timely reinforcements to the Spanish forces at Pensacola.
- Luis de Córdova y CórdovaLuis de Córdova y CórdovaLuis de Córdova y Córdova was a Spanish admiral. He is best known for his command of the Spanish fleet during the American War of Independence...
was an admiral in the Spanish Navy active primarily in European waters. He captured several British supply convoys, but was unsuccessful in preventing a British resupply of Gibraltar following the 1782 Battle of Cape SpartelBattle of Cape SpartelThe Battle of Cape Spartel was an indecisive naval battle between a Franco-Spanish fleet under Admiral Luis de Córdova y Córdova and a British fleet under Admiral Richard Howe...
. - Louis Des Balbes de Berton de Crillon, duc de MahonLouis Des Balbes de Berton de Crillon, duc de MahonLouis Des Balbes de Berton de Crillon, duc de Mahon was a French soldier. He distinguished himself in the Seven Years' War then, complaining that he was not rising through the ranks in the French Army, left it for the Spanish army...
was a Frenchman who served as a general in the Spanish Army. He led Spanish forces during the Great Siege of GibraltarGreat Siege of GibraltarThe Great Siege of Gibraltar was an unsuccessful attempt by Spain and France to capture Gibraltar from the British during the American War of Independence. This was the largest action fought during the war in terms of numbers, particularly the Grand Assault of 18 September 1782...
, and conducted the successful Franco-Spanish invasion of MinorcaInvasion of Minorca, 1781The Franco-Spanish conquest of Minorca from its British defenders in February 1782, after the Siege of Fort St. Philip lasting over five months, was an important step in the achievement of Spain's aims in its alliance with France against Britain during the American War of Independence...
. - Bernardo de Gálvez was the governor of Spanish Louisiana, and a general of the Spanish Army. He successfully drove the British military entirely from West FloridaWest FloridaWest Florida was a region on the north shore of the Gulf of Mexico, which underwent several boundary and sovereignty changes during its history. West Florida was first established in 1763 by the British government; as its name suggests it largely consisted of the western portion of the region...
from 1779 to 1781, securing much the southern frontier of the United States against British attack. He also led Spanish forces in the seizure of NassauNassau, BahamasNassau is the capital, largest city, and commercial centre of the Commonwealth of the Bahamas. The city has a population of 248,948 , 70 percent of the entire population of The Bahamas...
in The BahamasThe BahamasThe Bahamas , officially the Commonwealth of the Bahamas, is a nation consisting of 29 islands, 661 cays, and 2,387 islets . It is located in the Atlantic Ocean north of Cuba and Hispaniola , northwest of the Turks and Caicos Islands, and southeast of the United States...
in 1782. - Matías de Gálvez y GallardoMatías de Gálvez y GallardoMatías de Gálvez y Gallardo was a Spanish general, governor of the Captaincy General of Guatemala , and viceroy of New Spain .-Biography:...
was a Spanish general and Captain GeneralCaptain GeneralCaptain general is a high military rank and a gubernatorial title.-History:This term Captain General started to appear in the 14th century, with the meaning of commander in chief of an army in the field, probably the first usage of the term General in military settings...
of Spanish GuatemalaCaptaincy General of GuatemalaThe Captaincy General of Guatemala , also known as the Kingdom of Guatemala , was an administrative division in Spanish America which covered much of Central America, including what are now the nations of Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador and Guatemala, and the Mexican state of Chiapas...
, which included territory that is now HondurasHondurasHonduras is a republic in Central America. It was previously known as Spanish Honduras to differentiate it from British Honduras, which became the modern-day state of Belize...
and NicaraguaNicaraguaNicaragua is the largest country in the Central American American isthmus, bordered by Honduras to the north and Costa Rica to the south. The country is situated between 11 and 14 degrees north of the Equator in the Northern Hemisphere, which places it entirely within the tropics. The Pacific Ocean...
. He was active in fighting British attempts to gain significant footholds in Central AmericaCentral AmericaCentral America is the central geographic region of the Americas. It is the southernmost, isthmian portion of the North American continent, which connects with South America on the southeast. When considered part of the unified continental model, it is considered a subcontinent...
, successfully driving most British influence from the Mosquito CoastMosquito CoastThe Caribbean Mosquito Coast historically consisted of an area along the Atlantic coast of present-day Nicaragua and Honduras, and part of the Western Caribbean Zone. It was named after the local Miskito Indians and long dominated by British interests...
and the island of RoatánBattle of RoatánThe Battle of Roatán was an American War of Independence battle fought on March 16, 1782, between British and Spanish forces for control of Roatán, an island off the Caribbean coast of present-day Honduras....
with little assistance beyond the Spanish colonies. - Juan de LángaraJuan de LángaraJuan Francisco de Lángara y Huarte was a Spanish naval officer and Minister of Marine.-Life and career:He was born at Coruña, Galicia, the son of a renowned Basque family...
was an admiral in the Spanish Navy. He participated in the Armada of 1779Armada of 1779The Armada of 1779 was an exceptionally large joint French and Spanish fleet intended, with the aid of a feint by the American Continental Navy, to facilitate an invasion of Britain, as part of the wider American War of Independence, and in application of the Franco-American alliance...
, and was captured by the British in the Moonlight Battle of January 1780. - Bonaventura MorenoBonaventura MorenoBonaventura Moreno was a Rear Admiral of the Spanish Navy. In 1781, he blockaded the British-held island of Minorca and soon took part in the Great Siege of Gibraltar as commander of the floating batteries. However, the Spanish forces were defeated and the siege was an epic disaster....
was a Spanish rear admiral. He oversaw the blockade of Minorca during the 1781 invasion, and commanded the floating batteries at the siege of Gibraltar. - Jose Solano y BoteJose Solano y BoteDon José de Solano y Bote Carrasco y Díaz , marquess of Socorro, was a Spanish Naval officer.He served an extensive career in the Spanish Navy starting at the age of 16 until his death in 1806. Shortly after joining the Spanish navy in 1742, he participated in the Battle of Toulon , where the...
was an admiral in the Spanish Navy. For his role in assisting Bernardo de Gálvez in the capture of PensacolaBattle of Pensacola (1781)The Siege of Pensacola was fought in 1781, the culmination of Spain's conquest of the British province West Florida during the American War of Independence.-Background:...
, he was promoted to vice-admiral. - Martín Álvarez de Sotomayor was a lieutenant general in the Spanish Army. He led the siege of Gibraltar until the arrival of the duc de Crillon in 1782.
Dutch Republic
The Dutch RepublicDutch Republic
The Dutch Republic — officially known as the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands , the Republic of the United Netherlands, or the Republic of the Seven United Provinces — was a republic in Europe existing from 1581 to 1795, preceding the Batavian Republic and ultimately...
played a significant economic role in the war, but its military participation was limited, in part due to internal political divisions.
- Johan ZoutmanJohan ZoutmanJohan Arnold Zoutman was a Dutch naval figure and Rear Admiral who fought at the Battle of Dogger Bank in the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War.Zoutman also fought in the American Revolutionary War.-Legacy:...
was an admiral in the Dutch Navy. The navy's activities were largely ineffective, as many ships were blockaded in their home ports or captured when some of their colonial outposts were taken. Zoutman led the only notable attempt to break a convoy out of Dutch ports; he was thwarted by the British in the Battle of Dogger BankBattle of Dogger Bank (1781)The naval Battle of the Dogger Bank took place on 5 August 1781 during the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, part of the American War of Independence, in the North Sea...
. - Reynier van Vlissingen was the governor of Negapatam, the principal outpost of the Dutch East India CompanyDutch East India CompanyThe Dutch East India Company was a chartered company established in 1602, when the States-General of the Netherlands granted it a 21-year monopoly to carry out colonial activities in Asia...
in IndiaIndiaIndia , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
. He directed the unsuccessful defense of Negapatam against a British-led siegeSiege of NegapatamThe Siege of Negapatam was the first major offensive military action on the Indian subcontinent following the arrival of news that war had been declared between Great Britain and the Dutch Republic, beginning the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, an offshoot of the American War of Independence...
in 1781. - Iman Willem Falck was the governor of TrincomaleeTrincomaleeTrincomalee is a port city in Eastern Province, Sri Lanka and lies on the east coast of the island, about 113 miles south of Jaffna. It has a population of approximately 100,000 . The city is built on a peninsula, which divides the inner and outer harbours. Overlooking the Kottiyar Bay,...
, the principal outpost of the Dutch East India Company on the island of Ceylon. He directed the unsuccessful defense of that port against a British amphibious assaultCapture of TrincomaleeThe Capture of Trincomalee on 11 January 1782 was the second major engagement between Great Britain and the Dutch East India Company in the East Indies after outbreak of the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War...
.
Further reading
- Anderson, Troyer Steele. The Command of the Howe Brothers During the American Revolution. New York and London, 1936.
- Buchanan, John. The Road to Valley Forge: How Washington Built the Army That Won the Revolution. Wiley, 2004. ISBN 0-471-44156-2.
- Fischer, David HackettDavid Hackett FischerDavid Hackett Fischer is University Professor and Earl Warren Professor of History at Brandeis University. Fischer's major works have tackled everything from large macroeconomic and cultural trends to narrative histories of significant events to explorations of...
. Washington's Crossing. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-19-517034-2. Winner of the 2005 Pulitzer Prize for HistoryPulitzer Prize for HistoryThe Pulitzer Prize for History has been awarded since 1917 for a distinguished book upon the history of the United States. Many history books have also been awarded the Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction and Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography...
. - Lengel, Edward G. General George Washington: A Military Life. New York: Random House, 2005. ISBN 1-4000-6081-8.
- de Wetter, Mardee Incognito. An Affair of Honor. Las Cruces: Yucca Tree Press, 2006. ISBN 1-881325-82-2.
- McCullough, DavidDavid McCulloughDavid Gaub McCullough is an American author, narrator, historian, and lecturer. He is a two-time winner of the Pulitzer Prize and the National Book Award and a recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the United States' highest civilian award....
. 17761776 (book)1776 is a book written by David McCullough, first published by Simon & Schuster on May 24, 2005. The work is considered a companion piece to McCullough's earlier biography of John Adams, and focuses on the events surrounding the start of the American Revolution...
. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005. ISBN 0-7432-2671-2.