Operating temperature
Encyclopedia
An operating temperature is the temperature
at which an electrical or mechanical device operates. The device will operate effectively within a specified temperature range
which varies based on the device function and application context, and ranges from the minimum operating temperature to the maximum operating temperature (or peak operating temperature). Outside this range of safe operating temperatures the device may fail. Aerospace and military-grade devices generally operate over a broader temperature range than industrial devices; consumer-grade devices generally have the lowest operating temperature range.
It is one component of reliability engineering
.
Although biological systems do not have a defined operating temperature, individuals are most comfortable when body temperature fluctuations as a result of environmental factors are minimised.
For example, resistor
s are manufactured in several grades:
These grades ensure that a device is suitable for its application, and may withstand the environmental conditions in which it is used. In the United States
, the Department of Defense
has defined the United States Military Standard for all products used by the United States armed forces
. A product's environmental design and test limits to the conditions that it will experience throughout its service life are specified in MIL-STD-810, the Department of Defense Test Method Standard for Environmental Engineering Considerations and Laboratory Tests.
The MIL-STD-810G standard specifies that the "operating temperature stabilization is attained when the temperature of the functioning part(s) of the test item considered to have the longest thermal lag is changing at a rate of no more than 2.0°C (3.6°F) per hour." It also specifies procedures to assess the performance of materials to extreme temperature loads.
Military engine turbine blades experience two significant deformation stresses during normal service, creep
and thermal fatigue
. Creep life of a material is "highly dependent on operating temperature", and creep analysis is thus an important part of design validation. Some of the effects of creep and thermal fatigue may be mitigated by integrating cooling systems into the device's design, reducing the peak temperature experienced by the metal.
In spacecraft propulsion, the performance of nuclear engines
can be improved by raising the operating temperature of the fuel elements.
s produced by Intel Corporation
are manufactured to three grades: commercial, industrial and extended. Intel's packaging indicates the processors operating temperature range by denoting it with a grade: 'Q' (commercial grade), 'I' (industrial grade), and 'L' or 'T' (extended grade). It also has an automotive grade 'A'.
Because some devices generate heat during operation, they may require thermal management
to ensure they are within their specified operating temperature range; specifically, that they are operating at or below the maximum operating temperature of the device. Cooling
a microprocessor mounted in a typical commercial or retail configuration requires "a heatsink properly mounted to the processor, and effective airflow through the system chassis". Systems are designed to protect the processor from unusual operating conditions, such as "higher than normal ambient air temperatures or failure of a system thermal management component (such as a system fan)", though in "a properly designed system, this feature should never become active". Cooling and other thermal management techniques may affect performance and noise level. Noise mitigation
strategies may be required in residential applications to ensure that the noise level does not become uncomfortable.
Battery service life and efficacy is affected by operating temperature. Efficacy is determined by comparing the service life achieved by the battery as a percentage of its service life achieved at 20°C versus temperature. Ohmic load
and operating temperature often jointly determine a battery's discharge rate. Moreover, if the expected operating temperature for a primary battery
deviates from the typical 10°C to 25°C range, then operating temperature "will often have an influence on the type of battery selected for the application". Energy reclamation from partially depleted lithium sulfur dioxide battery
has been shown to improve when "appropriately increasing the battery operating temperature".
, part of mammalian homeostasis
. The lowest normal temperature of a mammal, the basal body temperature
, is achieved during sleep. In women, it is affected by ovulation, causing a biphasic pattern which may be used as a component of fertility awareness
.
In humans, the hypothalamus
regulates metabolism
, and hence the basal metabolic rate
. Amongst its functions is the regulation of body temperature. The core body temperature is also one of the classic phase markers for measuring the timing of an individual's Circadian rhythm
.
Changes to the normal human body temperature
may result in discomfort. The most common form is a fever
, a temporary elevation in the body's thermoregulatory set-point by about 1–2 °C (1.8–3.6 °F). Hyperthermia
is an acute condition caused by the body absorbing more heat than it can dissipate, whereas hypothermia
is a condition in which the core temperature drops below that required for normal metabolism and is caused by the body's inability to replenish the heat that is being lost to the environment.
Temperature
Temperature is a physical property of matter that quantitatively expresses the common notions of hot and cold. Objects of low temperature are cold, while various degrees of higher temperatures are referred to as warm or hot...
at which an electrical or mechanical device operates. The device will operate effectively within a specified temperature range
Temperature range
Atmospheric temperature range is the numerical difference between the minimum and maximum values of temperature observed in a given location....
which varies based on the device function and application context, and ranges from the minimum operating temperature to the maximum operating temperature (or peak operating temperature). Outside this range of safe operating temperatures the device may fail. Aerospace and military-grade devices generally operate over a broader temperature range than industrial devices; consumer-grade devices generally have the lowest operating temperature range.
It is one component of reliability engineering
Reliability engineering
Reliability engineering is an engineering field, that deals with the study, evaluation, and life-cycle management of reliability: the ability of a system or component to perform its required functions under stated conditions for a specified period of time. It is often measured as a probability of...
.
Although biological systems do not have a defined operating temperature, individuals are most comfortable when body temperature fluctuations as a result of environmental factors are minimised.
Aerospace and military
Electrical and mechanical devices used in military and aerospace applications must endure greater environmental variability, including temperature range.For example, resistor
Resistor
A linear resistor is a linear, passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element.The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the resistor's terminals. Thus, the ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's...
s are manufactured in several grades:
- Commercial grade: 0 °C to 70 °C (sometimes −10 °C to 70 °C)
- Industrial grade: −40 °C to 85 °C (sometimes −25 °C to 85 °C)
- Military grade: −55 °C to 125 °C (sometimes -65 °C to 175 °C)
These grades ensure that a device is suitable for its application, and may withstand the environmental conditions in which it is used. In the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, the Department of Defense
United States Department of Defense
The United States Department of Defense is the U.S...
has defined the United States Military Standard for all products used by the United States armed forces
United States armed forces
The United States Armed Forces are the military forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Air Force, and Coast Guard.The United States has a strong tradition of civilian control of the military...
. A product's environmental design and test limits to the conditions that it will experience throughout its service life are specified in MIL-STD-810, the Department of Defense Test Method Standard for Environmental Engineering Considerations and Laboratory Tests.
The MIL-STD-810G standard specifies that the "operating temperature stabilization is attained when the temperature of the functioning part(s) of the test item considered to have the longest thermal lag is changing at a rate of no more than 2.0°C (3.6°F) per hour." It also specifies procedures to assess the performance of materials to extreme temperature loads.
Military engine turbine blades experience two significant deformation stresses during normal service, creep
Creep (deformation)
In materials science, creep is the tendency of a solid material to slowly move or deform permanently under the influence of stresses. It occurs as a result of long term exposure to high levels of stress that are below the yield strength of the material....
and thermal fatigue
Fatigue (material)
'In materials science, fatigue is the progressive and localized structural damage that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic loading. The nominal maximum stress values are less than the ultimate tensile stress limit, and may be below the yield stress limit of the material.Fatigue occurs...
. Creep life of a material is "highly dependent on operating temperature", and creep analysis is thus an important part of design validation. Some of the effects of creep and thermal fatigue may be mitigated by integrating cooling systems into the device's design, reducing the peak temperature experienced by the metal.
In spacecraft propulsion, the performance of nuclear engines
Nuclear thermal rocket
In a nuclear thermal rocket a working fluid, usually liquid hydrogen, is heated to a high temperature in a nuclear reactor, and then expands through a rocket nozzle to create thrust. In this kind of thermal rocket, the nuclear reactor's energy replaces the chemical energy of the propellant's...
can be improved by raising the operating temperature of the fuel elements.
Commercial and retail
Commercial and retail products are manufactured to less stringent requirements than those for military and aerospace applications. For example, microprocessorMicroprocessor
A microprocessor incorporates the functions of a computer's central processing unit on a single integrated circuit, or at most a few integrated circuits. It is a multipurpose, programmable device that accepts digital data as input, processes it according to instructions stored in its memory, and...
s produced by Intel Corporation
Intel Corporation
Intel Corporation is an American multinational semiconductor chip maker corporation headquartered in Santa Clara, California, United States and the world's largest semiconductor chip maker, based on revenue. It is the inventor of the x86 series of microprocessors, the processors found in most...
are manufactured to three grades: commercial, industrial and extended. Intel's packaging indicates the processors operating temperature range by denoting it with a grade: 'Q' (commercial grade), 'I' (industrial grade), and 'L' or 'T' (extended grade). It also has an automotive grade 'A'.
Because some devices generate heat during operation, they may require thermal management
Thermal management of electronic devices and systems
Heat generated by electronic devices and circuitry must be dissipated to improve reliability and prevent premature failure. Techniques for heat dissipation can include heatsinks and fans for air cooling, and other forms of computer cooling such as liquid cooling....
to ensure they are within their specified operating temperature range; specifically, that they are operating at or below the maximum operating temperature of the device. Cooling
Computer cooling
Computer cooling is required to remove the waste heat produced by computer components, to keep components within their safe operating temperature limits.Various cooling methods help to improve processor performance or reduce the noise of cooling fans....
a microprocessor mounted in a typical commercial or retail configuration requires "a heatsink properly mounted to the processor, and effective airflow through the system chassis". Systems are designed to protect the processor from unusual operating conditions, such as "higher than normal ambient air temperatures or failure of a system thermal management component (such as a system fan)", though in "a properly designed system, this feature should never become active". Cooling and other thermal management techniques may affect performance and noise level. Noise mitigation
Noise mitigation
Noise mitigation is a set of strategies to reduce noise pollution. The main areas of noise mitigation or abatement are: transportation noise control, architectural design, and occupational noise control...
strategies may be required in residential applications to ensure that the noise level does not become uncomfortable.
Battery service life and efficacy is affected by operating temperature. Efficacy is determined by comparing the service life achieved by the battery as a percentage of its service life achieved at 20°C versus temperature. Ohmic load
Electrical resistance
The electrical resistance of an electrical element is the opposition to the passage of an electric current through that element; the inverse quantity is electrical conductance, the ease at which an electric current passes. Electrical resistance shares some conceptual parallels with the mechanical...
and operating temperature often jointly determine a battery's discharge rate. Moreover, if the expected operating temperature for a primary battery
Primary cell
A primary cell is any kind of battery in which the electrochemical reaction is not reversible, rendering the cell non-rechargeable. A common example of a primary cell is the disposable battery. Unlike a secondary cell, the reaction cannot be reversed by running a current into the cell; the chemical...
deviates from the typical 10°C to 25°C range, then operating temperature "will often have an influence on the type of battery selected for the application". Energy reclamation from partially depleted lithium sulfur dioxide battery
Lithium battery
Lithium batteries are disposable batteries that have lithium metal or lithium compounds as an anode. Depending on the design and chemical compounds used, lithium cells can produce voltages from 1.5 V to about 3.7 V, over twice the voltage of an ordinary zinc–carbon battery or alkaline battery...
has been shown to improve when "appropriately increasing the battery operating temperature".
Biology
Mammals attempt to maintain a comfortable body temperature under various conditions by thermoregulationThermoregulation
Thermoregulation is the ability of an organism to keep its body temperature within certain boundaries, even when the surrounding temperature is very different...
, part of mammalian homeostasis
Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the property of a system that regulates its internal environment and tends to maintain a stable, constant condition of properties like temperature or pH...
. The lowest normal temperature of a mammal, the basal body temperature
Basal body temperature
Basal body temperature is the lowest temperature attained by the body during rest . It is generally measured immediately after awakening and before any physical activity has been undertaken, although the temperature measured at that time is somewhat higher than the true basal body temperature...
, is achieved during sleep. In women, it is affected by ovulation, causing a biphasic pattern which may be used as a component of fertility awareness
Fertility awareness
Fertility awareness refers to a set of practices used to determine the fertile and infertile phases of a woman's menstrual cycle. Fertility awareness methods may be used to avoid pregnancy, to achieve pregnancy, or as a way to monitor gynecological health....
.
In humans, the hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
The Hypothalamus is a portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions...
regulates metabolism
Metabolism
Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that happen in the cells of living organisms to sustain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. Metabolism is usually divided into two categories...
, and hence the basal metabolic rate
Basal metabolic rate
Basal Metabolic Rate , and the closely related resting metabolic rate , is the amount of daily energy expended by humans and other animals at rest. Rest is defined as existing in a neutrally temperate environment while in the post-absorptive state...
. Amongst its functions is the regulation of body temperature. The core body temperature is also one of the classic phase markers for measuring the timing of an individual's Circadian rhythm
Circadian rhythm
A circadian rhythm, popularly referred to as body clock, is an endogenously driven , roughly 24-hour cycle in biochemical, physiological, or behavioural processes. Circadian rhythms have been widely observed in plants, animals, fungi and cyanobacteria...
.
Changes to the normal human body temperature
Normal human body temperature
Normal human body temperature, also known as normothermia or euthermia, is a concept that depends upon the place in the body at which the measurement is made, and the time of day and level of activity of the person...
may result in discomfort. The most common form is a fever
Fever
Fever is a common medical sign characterized by an elevation of temperature above the normal range of due to an increase in the body temperature regulatory set-point. This increase in set-point triggers increased muscle tone and shivering.As a person's temperature increases, there is, in...
, a temporary elevation in the body's thermoregulatory set-point by about 1–2 °C (1.8–3.6 °F). Hyperthermia
Hyperthermia
Hyperthermia is an elevated body temperature due to failed thermoregulation. Hyperthermia occurs when the body produces or absorbs more heat than it can dissipate...
is an acute condition caused by the body absorbing more heat than it can dissipate, whereas hypothermia
Hypothermia
Hypothermia is a condition in which core temperature drops below the required temperature for normal metabolism and body functions which is defined as . Body temperature is usually maintained near a constant level of through biologic homeostasis or thermoregulation...
is a condition in which the core temperature drops below that required for normal metabolism and is caused by the body's inability to replenish the heat that is being lost to the environment.