Physical chemistry
Encyclopedia
Physical chemistry is the study of macroscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate phenomena in chemical systems in terms of physical laws and concepts. It applies the principles, practices and concepts of physics
such as motion
, energy
, force
, time
, thermodynamics
, quantum chemistry
, statistical mechanics
and dynamics
.
Physical chemistry, in contrast to chemical physics
, is predominantly (but not always) a macroscopic or supra-molecular science, as the majority of the principles on which physical chemistry was founded, are concepts related to the bulk rather than on molecular/atomic structure alone. For example, chemical equilibrium
, and colloids.
Some of the relationships that physical chemistry strives to resolve include the effects of:
One of the key concept in chemistry is that all chemical compounds
can be described as groups of atoms bonded
together and chemical reactions can be described as the making and breaking of those bonds. Predicting the properties of chemical compounds from a description of atoms and how they bond is one of the major goals of physical chemistry. To describe the atoms and bonds precisely, it is necessary to know both where the nuclei
of the atoms are, and how electrons are distributed around them. Quantum chemistry
, a subfield of physical chemistry especially concerned with the application of quantum mechanics
to chemical problems, provides tools to determine how strong and what shape bonds are, how nuclei move, and how light can be absorbed or emitted by a chemical compound. Spectroscopy
is the related sub-discipline of physical chemistry which is specifically concerned with the interaction of electromagnetic radiation
with matter.
Another set of important questions in chemistry concerns what kind of reactions can happen spontaneously and which properties it is possible for a chemical mixture to have. This is studied in chemical thermodynamics
, which sets limits on quantities like how far a reaction can proceed, or how much energy can be converted into work in a combustion engine
and which provides links between properties like the thermal expansion coefficient and change of rate in entropy
with pressure
for a gas
or a liquid
. It can frequently be used to assess whether a reactor or engine design is feasible, or to check the validity of experimental data. To a limited extent, quasi-equilibrium and non-equilibrium
thermodynamics can describe irreversible changes. However, classical thermodynamics is mostly concerned with systems in equilibrium
and reversible changes and not what actually does happen, or how fast, away from equilibrium.
Which reactions do occur and how fast is the subject of chemical kinetics
, another branch of physical chemistry. A key idea in chemical kinetics is that for reactants
to react and form products, most chemical species must go through transition states
which are higher in energy
than either the reactants or the products and serve as a barrier to reaction. In general, the higher the barrier, the slower the reaction. A second is that most chemical reactions occur as a sequence of elementary reactions
, each with its own transition state. Key questions in kinetics include how the rate of reaction depends on temperature and on the concentrations of reactants and catalysts in the reaction mixture, as well as how catalysts and reaction conditions can be engineered to optimize the reaction rate.
The fact that how fast reactions occur can often be specified with just a few concentrations and a temperature, instead of needing to know all the positions and speeds of every molecule in a mixture, is a special case of another key concept in physical chemistry, which is that to the extent an engineer needs to know, everything going on in a mixture of millions of billions of billions of particles can often be described by just a few variables like pressure, temperature, and concentration. The precise reasons for this are described in statistical mechanics
, a specialty within physical chemistry which is also shared with physics. Statistical mechanics also provides ways to predict the properties we see in everyday life from molecular properties without relying on empirical correlations based on chemical similarities.
in 1752, when he presented a lecture course entitled "A Course in True Physical Chemistry" (Russian: «Курс истинной физической химии») before the students of Petersburg University.
Modern physical chemistry originated in the 1860s to 1880s with work on chemical thermodynamics
, electrolyte
s in solutions, chemical kinetics
and other subjects. One milestone was the publication in 1876 by Josiah Willard Gibbs
of his paper, On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances
. This paper introduced several of the cornerstones of physical chemistry, such as Gibbs energy
, chemical potential
s, Gibbs phase rule. Other milestones include the subsequent naming and accreditation of enthalpy
to Heike Kamerlingh Onnes
and to macromolecular processes.
The first scientific journal
specifically in the field of physical chemistry was the German journal, Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie
, founded in 1887 by Wilhelm Ostwald
and Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff
. Together with Svante August Arrhenius, these were the leading figures in physical chemistry in the late 19th century and early 20th century. All three were awarded with the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
between 1901-1909.
Developments in the following decades include the application of statistical mechanics
to chemical systems and work on colloid
s and surface chemistry, where Irving Langmuir
made many contributions. Another important step was the development of quantum mechanics
into quantum chemistry
from the 1930s, where Linus Pauling
was one of the leading names. Theoretical developments have gone hand in hand with developments in experimental methods, where the use of different forms of spectroscopy
, such as infrared spectroscopy
, microwave spectroscopy, EPR spectroscopy and NMR spectroscopy
, is probably the most important 20th century development.
Further development in physical chemistry may be attributed to discoveries in nuclear chemistry
, especially in isotope separation (before and during World War II), more recent discoveries in astrochemistry
, as well as the development of calculation algorithms in field of "additive physicochemical properties" (practically all of physicochemical properties, as: boiling point, critical point, surface tension, vapor pressure etc. - more than 20 in all, can be precisely calculated from chemical structure, even if such chemical molecule is still non existent), and in this area is concentrated practical importance of contemporary physical chemistry.
See Group contribution method
, Joback method
, QSPR, QSAR
Historical journals that covered both chemistry and physics include Annales de chimie et de physique
(started in 1789, published under the name given here from 1815–1914).
Physics
Physics is a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.Physics is one of the oldest academic...
such as motion
Motion (physics)
In physics, motion is a change in position of an object with respect to time. Change in action is the result of an unbalanced force. Motion is typically described in terms of velocity, acceleration, displacement and time . An object's velocity cannot change unless it is acted upon by a force, as...
, energy
Energy
In physics, energy is an indirectly observed quantity. It is often understood as the ability a physical system has to do work on other physical systems...
, force
Force
In physics, a force is any influence that causes an object to undergo a change in speed, a change in direction, or a change in shape. In other words, a force is that which can cause an object with mass to change its velocity , i.e., to accelerate, or which can cause a flexible object to deform...
, time
Time
Time is a part of the measuring system used to sequence events, to compare the durations of events and the intervals between them, and to quantify rates of change such as the motions of objects....
, thermodynamics
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is a physical science that studies the effects on material bodies, and on radiation in regions of space, of transfer of heat and of work done on or by the bodies or radiation...
, quantum chemistry
Quantum chemistry
Quantum chemistry is a branch of chemistry whose primary focus is the application of quantum mechanics in physical models and experiments of chemical systems...
, statistical mechanics
Statistical mechanics
Statistical mechanics or statistical thermodynamicsThe terms statistical mechanics and statistical thermodynamics are used interchangeably...
and dynamics
Analytical dynamics
In classical mechanics, analytical dynamics, or more briefly dynamics, is concerned about the relationship between motion of bodies and its causes, namely the forces acting on the bodies and the properties of the bodies...
.
Physical chemistry, in contrast to chemical physics
Chemical physics
Chemical physics is a subdiscipline of chemistry and physics that investigates physicochemical phenomena using techniques from atomic and molecular physics and condensed matter physics; it is the branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics...
, is predominantly (but not always) a macroscopic or supra-molecular science, as the majority of the principles on which physical chemistry was founded, are concepts related to the bulk rather than on molecular/atomic structure alone. For example, chemical equilibrium
Chemical equilibrium
In a chemical reaction, chemical equilibrium is the state in which the concentrations of the reactants and products have not yet changed with time. It occurs only in reversible reactions, and not in irreversible reactions. Usually, this state results when the forward reaction proceeds at the same...
, and colloids.
Some of the relationships that physical chemistry strives to resolve include the effects of:
- Intermolecular forces that on the physical properties of materials (plasticityPlasticity (physics)In physics and materials science, plasticity describes the deformation of a material undergoing non-reversible changes of shape in response to applied forces. For example, a solid piece of metal being bent or pounded into a new shape displays plasticity as permanent changes occur within the...
, tensile strengthTensile strengthUltimate tensile strength , often shortened to tensile strength or ultimate strength, is the maximum stress that a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before necking, which is when the specimen's cross-section starts to significantly contract...
, surface tensionSurface tensionSurface tension is a property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an external force. It is revealed, for example, in floating of some objects on the surface of water, even though they are denser than water, and in the ability of some insects to run on the water surface...
in liquidLiquidLiquid is one of the three classical states of matter . Like a gas, a liquid is able to flow and take the shape of a container. Some liquids resist compression, while others can be compressed. Unlike a gas, a liquid does not disperse to fill every space of a container, and maintains a fairly...
s). - Reaction kineticsChemical kineticsChemical kinetics, also known as reaction kinetics, is the study of rates of chemical processes. Chemical kinetics includes investigations of how different experimental conditions can influence the speed of a chemical reaction and yield information about the reaction's mechanism and transition...
on the rate of a reactionReaction rateThe reaction rate or speed of reaction for a reactant or product in a particular reaction is intuitively defined as how fast or slow a reaction takes place...
. - The identity of ions on the electrical conductivity of materials.
- Surface chemistry and electrochemistryElectrochemistryElectrochemistry is a branch of chemistry that studies chemical reactions which take place in a solution at the interface of an electron conductor and an ionic conductor , and which involve electron transfer between the electrode and the electrolyte or species in solution.If a chemical reaction is...
of membranesCell membraneThe cell membrane or plasma membrane is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment. The cell membrane is selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules and controls the movement of substances in and out of cells. It basically protects the cell...
.
Key concepts
The key concepts of physical chemistry are the ways in which pure physics is applied to chemical problems.One of the key concept in chemistry is that all chemical compounds
Chemical species
Chemical species are atoms, molecules, molecular fragments, ions, etc., being subjected to a chemical process or to a measurement. Generally, a chemical species can be defined as an ensemble of chemically identical molecular entities that can explore the same set of molecular energy levels on a...
can be described as groups of atoms bonded
Chemical bond
A chemical bond is an attraction between atoms that allows the formation of chemical substances that contain two or more atoms. The bond is caused by the electromagnetic force attraction between opposite charges, either between electrons and nuclei, or as the result of a dipole attraction...
together and chemical reactions can be described as the making and breaking of those bonds. Predicting the properties of chemical compounds from a description of atoms and how they bond is one of the major goals of physical chemistry. To describe the atoms and bonds precisely, it is necessary to know both where the nuclei
Atomic nucleus
The nucleus is the very dense region consisting of protons and neutrons at the center of an atom. It was discovered in 1911, as a result of Ernest Rutherford's interpretation of the famous 1909 Rutherford experiment performed by Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, under the direction of Rutherford. The...
of the atoms are, and how electrons are distributed around them. Quantum chemistry
Quantum chemistry
Quantum chemistry is a branch of chemistry whose primary focus is the application of quantum mechanics in physical models and experiments of chemical systems...
, a subfield of physical chemistry especially concerned with the application of quantum mechanics
Quantum mechanics
Quantum mechanics, also known as quantum physics or quantum theory, is a branch of physics providing a mathematical description of much of the dual particle-like and wave-like behavior and interactions of energy and matter. It departs from classical mechanics primarily at the atomic and subatomic...
to chemical problems, provides tools to determine how strong and what shape bonds are, how nuclei move, and how light can be absorbed or emitted by a chemical compound. Spectroscopy
Spectroscopy
Spectroscopy is the study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy. Historically, spectroscopy originated through the study of visible light dispersed according to its wavelength, e.g., by a prism. Later the concept was expanded greatly to comprise any interaction with radiative...
is the related sub-discipline of physical chemistry which is specifically concerned with the interaction of electromagnetic radiation
Electromagnetic radiation
Electromagnetic radiation is a form of energy that exhibits wave-like behavior as it travels through space...
with matter.
Another set of important questions in chemistry concerns what kind of reactions can happen spontaneously and which properties it is possible for a chemical mixture to have. This is studied in chemical thermodynamics
Chemical thermodynamics
Chemical thermodynamics is the study of the interrelation of heat and work with chemical reactions or with physical changes of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics...
, which sets limits on quantities like how far a reaction can proceed, or how much energy can be converted into work in a combustion engine
Combustion engine
Combustion engine may refer to:* Internal combustion engine* External combustion engine...
and which provides links between properties like the thermal expansion coefficient and change of rate in entropy
Entropy
Entropy is a thermodynamic property that can be used to determine the energy available for useful work in a thermodynamic process, such as in energy conversion devices, engines, or machines. Such devices can only be driven by convertible energy, and have a theoretical maximum efficiency when...
with pressure
Pressure
Pressure is the force per unit area applied in a direction perpendicular to the surface of an object. Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to the local atmospheric or ambient pressure.- Definition :...
for a gas
Gas
Gas is one of the three classical states of matter . Near absolute zero, a substance exists as a solid. As heat is added to this substance it melts into a liquid at its melting point , boils into a gas at its boiling point, and if heated high enough would enter a plasma state in which the electrons...
or a liquid
Liquid
Liquid is one of the three classical states of matter . Like a gas, a liquid is able to flow and take the shape of a container. Some liquids resist compression, while others can be compressed. Unlike a gas, a liquid does not disperse to fill every space of a container, and maintains a fairly...
. It can frequently be used to assess whether a reactor or engine design is feasible, or to check the validity of experimental data. To a limited extent, quasi-equilibrium and non-equilibrium
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is a branch of thermodynamics that deals with systems that are not in thermodynamic equilibrium. Most systems found in nature are not in thermodynamic equilibrium; for they are changing or can be triggered to change over time, and are continuously and discontinuously...
thermodynamics can describe irreversible changes. However, classical thermodynamics is mostly concerned with systems in equilibrium
Thermodynamic equilibrium
In thermodynamics, a thermodynamic system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium when it is in thermal equilibrium, mechanical equilibrium, radiative equilibrium, and chemical equilibrium. The word equilibrium means a state of balance...
and reversible changes and not what actually does happen, or how fast, away from equilibrium.
Which reactions do occur and how fast is the subject of chemical kinetics
Chemical kinetics
Chemical kinetics, also known as reaction kinetics, is the study of rates of chemical processes. Chemical kinetics includes investigations of how different experimental conditions can influence the speed of a chemical reaction and yield information about the reaction's mechanism and transition...
, another branch of physical chemistry. A key idea in chemical kinetics is that for reactants
Reagent
A reagent is a "substance or compound that is added to a system in order to bring about a chemical reaction, or added to see if a reaction occurs." Although the terms reactant and reagent are often used interchangeably, a reactant is less specifically a "substance that is consumed in the course of...
to react and form products, most chemical species must go through transition states
Transition state
The transition state of a chemical reaction is a particular configuration along the reaction coordinate. It is defined as the state corresponding to the highest energy along this reaction coordinate. At this point, assuming a perfectly irreversible reaction, colliding reactant molecules will always...
which are higher in energy
Thermodynamic free energy
The thermodynamic free energy is the amount of work that a thermodynamic system can perform. The concept is useful in the thermodynamics of chemical or thermal processes in engineering and science. The free energy is the internal energy of a system less the amount of energy that cannot be used to...
than either the reactants or the products and serve as a barrier to reaction. In general, the higher the barrier, the slower the reaction. A second is that most chemical reactions occur as a sequence of elementary reactions
Elementary reaction
An elementary reaction is a chemical reaction in which one or more of the chemical species react directly to form products in a single reaction step and with a single transition state....
, each with its own transition state. Key questions in kinetics include how the rate of reaction depends on temperature and on the concentrations of reactants and catalysts in the reaction mixture, as well as how catalysts and reaction conditions can be engineered to optimize the reaction rate.
The fact that how fast reactions occur can often be specified with just a few concentrations and a temperature, instead of needing to know all the positions and speeds of every molecule in a mixture, is a special case of another key concept in physical chemistry, which is that to the extent an engineer needs to know, everything going on in a mixture of millions of billions of billions of particles can often be described by just a few variables like pressure, temperature, and concentration. The precise reasons for this are described in statistical mechanics
Statistical mechanics
Statistical mechanics or statistical thermodynamicsThe terms statistical mechanics and statistical thermodynamics are used interchangeably...
, a specialty within physical chemistry which is also shared with physics. Statistical mechanics also provides ways to predict the properties we see in everyday life from molecular properties without relying on empirical correlations based on chemical similarities.
History
The term "physical chemistry" was coined by Mikhail LomonosovMikhail Lomonosov
Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov was a Russian polymath, scientist and writer, who made important contributions to literature, education, and science. Among his discoveries was the atmosphere of Venus. His spheres of science were natural science, chemistry, physics, mineralogy, history, art,...
in 1752, when he presented a lecture course entitled "A Course in True Physical Chemistry" (Russian: «Курс истинной физической химии») before the students of Petersburg University.
Modern physical chemistry originated in the 1860s to 1880s with work on chemical thermodynamics
Chemical thermodynamics
Chemical thermodynamics is the study of the interrelation of heat and work with chemical reactions or with physical changes of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics...
, electrolyte
Electrolyte
In chemistry, an electrolyte is any substance containing free ions that make the substance electrically conductive. The most typical electrolyte is an ionic solution, but molten electrolytes and solid electrolytes are also possible....
s in solutions, chemical kinetics
Chemical kinetics
Chemical kinetics, also known as reaction kinetics, is the study of rates of chemical processes. Chemical kinetics includes investigations of how different experimental conditions can influence the speed of a chemical reaction and yield information about the reaction's mechanism and transition...
and other subjects. One milestone was the publication in 1876 by Josiah Willard Gibbs
Josiah Willard Gibbs
Josiah Willard Gibbs was an American theoretical physicist, chemist, and mathematician. He devised much of the theoretical foundation for chemical thermodynamics as well as physical chemistry. As a mathematician, he invented vector analysis . Yale University awarded Gibbs the first American Ph.D...
of his paper, On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances
On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances
In the history of thermodynamics, On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances is a 300-page paper written by American mathematical-engineer Willard Gibbs...
. This paper introduced several of the cornerstones of physical chemistry, such as Gibbs energy
Gibbs free energy
In thermodynamics, the Gibbs free energy is a thermodynamic potential that measures the "useful" or process-initiating work obtainable from a thermodynamic system at a constant temperature and pressure...
, chemical potential
Chemical potential
Chemical potential, symbolized by μ, is a measure first described by the American engineer, chemist and mathematical physicist Josiah Willard Gibbs. It is the potential that a substance has to produce in order to alter a system...
s, Gibbs phase rule. Other milestones include the subsequent naming and accreditation of enthalpy
Enthalpy
Enthalpy is a measure of the total energy of a thermodynamic system. It includes the internal energy, which is the energy required to create a system, and the amount of energy required to make room for it by displacing its environment and establishing its volume and pressure.Enthalpy is a...
to Heike Kamerlingh Onnes
Heike Kamerlingh Onnes
Heike Kamerlingh Onnes was a Dutch physicist and Nobel laureate. He pioneered refrigeration techniques, and he explored how materials behaved when cooled to nearly absolute zero. He was the first to liquify helium...
and to macromolecular processes.
The first scientific journal
Scientific journal
In academic publishing, a scientific journal is a periodical publication intended to further the progress of science, usually by reporting new research. There are thousands of scientific journals in publication, and many more have been published at various points in the past...
specifically in the field of physical chemistry was the German journal, Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie
Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie
Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie is a physical chemistry journal published in Germany. Its name literally means "Journal of Physical Chemistry", but its official English-language subtitle is "International journal of research in physical chemistry and chemical physics". Its emphasis is on...
, founded in 1887 by Wilhelm Ostwald
Wilhelm Ostwald
Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald was a Baltic German chemist. He received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1909 for his work on catalysis, chemical equilibria and reaction velocities...
and Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff
Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff
Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff, Jr. was a Dutch physical and organic chemist and the first winner of the Nobel Prize in chemistry. He is best known for his discoveries in chemical kinetics, chemical equilibrium, osmotic pressure, and stereochemistry...
. Together with Svante August Arrhenius, these were the leading figures in physical chemistry in the late 19th century and early 20th century. All three were awarded with the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Nobel Prize in Chemistry
The Nobel Prize in Chemistry is awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to scientists in the various fields of chemistry. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895, awarded for outstanding contributions in chemistry, physics, literature,...
between 1901-1909.
Developments in the following decades include the application of statistical mechanics
Statistical mechanics
Statistical mechanics or statistical thermodynamicsThe terms statistical mechanics and statistical thermodynamics are used interchangeably...
to chemical systems and work on colloid
Colloid
A colloid is a substance microscopically dispersed evenly throughout another substance.A colloidal system consists of two separate phases: a dispersed phase and a continuous phase . A colloidal system may be solid, liquid, or gaseous.Many familiar substances are colloids, as shown in the chart below...
s and surface chemistry, where Irving Langmuir
Irving Langmuir
Irving Langmuir was an American chemist and physicist. His most noted publication was the famous 1919 article "The Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms and Molecules" in which, building on Gilbert N. Lewis's cubical atom theory and Walther Kossel's chemical bonding theory, he outlined his...
made many contributions. Another important step was the development of quantum mechanics
Quantum mechanics
Quantum mechanics, also known as quantum physics or quantum theory, is a branch of physics providing a mathematical description of much of the dual particle-like and wave-like behavior and interactions of energy and matter. It departs from classical mechanics primarily at the atomic and subatomic...
into quantum chemistry
Quantum chemistry
Quantum chemistry is a branch of chemistry whose primary focus is the application of quantum mechanics in physical models and experiments of chemical systems...
from the 1930s, where Linus Pauling
Linus Pauling
Linus Carl Pauling was an American chemist, biochemist, peace activist, author, and educator. He was one of the most influential chemists in history and ranks among the most important scientists of the 20th century...
was one of the leading names. Theoretical developments have gone hand in hand with developments in experimental methods, where the use of different forms of spectroscopy
Spectroscopy
Spectroscopy is the study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy. Historically, spectroscopy originated through the study of visible light dispersed according to its wavelength, e.g., by a prism. Later the concept was expanded greatly to comprise any interaction with radiative...
, such as infrared spectroscopy
Infrared spectroscopy
Infrared spectroscopy is the spectroscopy that deals with the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum, that is light with a longer wavelength and lower frequency than visible light. It covers a range of techniques, mostly based on absorption spectroscopy. As with all spectroscopic...
, microwave spectroscopy, EPR spectroscopy and NMR spectroscopy
NMR spectroscopy
Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, most commonly known as NMR spectroscopy, is a research technique that exploits the magnetic properties of certain atomic nuclei to determine physical and chemical properties of atoms or the molecules in which they are contained...
, is probably the most important 20th century development.
Further development in physical chemistry may be attributed to discoveries in nuclear chemistry
Nuclear chemistry
Nuclear chemistry is the subfield of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes and nuclear properties.It is the chemistry of radioactive elements such as the actinides, radium and radon together with the chemistry associated with equipment which are designed to perform nuclear...
, especially in isotope separation (before and during World War II), more recent discoveries in astrochemistry
Astrochemistry
Astrochemistry is the study of the abundance and reactions of chemical elements and molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation. The discipline is an overlap of astronomy and chemistry. The word "astrochemistry" may be applied to both the Solar System and the interstellar medium...
, as well as the development of calculation algorithms in field of "additive physicochemical properties" (practically all of physicochemical properties, as: boiling point, critical point, surface tension, vapor pressure etc. - more than 20 in all, can be precisely calculated from chemical structure, even if such chemical molecule is still non existent), and in this area is concentrated practical importance of contemporary physical chemistry.
See Group contribution method
Group contribution method
A group contribution method is a technique to estimate and predict thermodynamic and other properties from molecular structures.- Introduction :In today's chemical processes hundreds of thousands of components are used...
, Joback method
Joback method
The Joback method predicts eleven important and commonly used pure component thermodynamic properties from molecular structure only.- Group Contribution Method :The Joback method is a group contribution method...
, QSPR, QSAR
Journals
Some journals that deal with physical chemistry include:- Zeitschrift für Physikalische ChemieZeitschrift für Physikalische ChemieZeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie is a physical chemistry journal published in Germany. Its name literally means "Journal of Physical Chemistry", but its official English-language subtitle is "International journal of research in physical chemistry and chemical physics". Its emphasis is on...
(1887) - Journal of Physical Chemistry AJournal of Physical Chemistry AThe Journal of Physical Chemistry A is a scientific journal which reports research on the chemistry of molecules - including their dynamics, spectroscopy, kinetics, structure, bonding, and quantum chemistry...
(from 1896 as Journal of Physical Chemistry, renamed in 1997) - Physical Chemistry Chemical PhysicsPhysical Chemistry Chemical PhysicsPhysical Chemistry Chemical Physics is a peer-reviewed scientific journal publishing original research and review articles on any aspect of physical chemistry, chemical physics, and biophysical chemistry...
(from 1999, formerly Faraday TransactionsFaraday TransactionsJournal of the Chemical Society, Faraday Transactions was a peer-reviewed scientific journal published from 1905 until 1998. The journal was originally published by the Faraday Society under the name Transactions of the Faraday Society.-History:...
with a history dating back to 1905) - Macromolecular Chemistry and PhysicsMacromolecular Chemistry and PhysicsMacromolecular Chemistry and Physics is a peer-reviewed polymer science journal published bi-weekly. It publishes Full Papers, Talents, Trends, and Highlights in all areas of polymer science, from chemistry to physical chemistry, physics, and materials science...
(1947) - Annual Review of Physical Chemistry (1950)
- Molecular PhysicsMolecular Physics (journal)Molecular Physics is an international peer-reviewed scientific journal covering the interface between chemistry and physics, in particular chemical physics and physical chemistry. It covers both theoretical and experiment molecular science, including electronic structure, molecular dynamics,...
(1957) - Journal of Physical Organic ChemistryJournal of Physical Organic ChemistryThe Journal of Physical Organic Chemistry is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal, published since 1988 by John Wiley & Sons. It covers research in physical organic chemistry in its broadest sense and is available both online and in print...
(1988) - Journal of Physical Chemistry BJournal of Physical Chemistry BThe Journal of Physical Chemistry B is a peer-reviewed scientific journal that covers research on several fields of material chemistry as well as statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, and biophysical chemistry...
(1997) - ChemPhysChemChemPhysChemChemPhysChem is a scientific journal published by John Wiley & Sons since 2000. The journal covers physical chemistry.-External links:*...
(2000) - Journal of Physical Chemistry CJournal of Physical Chemistry CThe Journal of Physical Chemistry C publishes scientific articles reporting research on several subdisciplines of physical chemistry:*Nanoparticles and nanostructures*Surfaces, interfaces, and catalysis*Electron transport, optical and electronic devices...
(2007) - Journal of Physical Chemistry LettersJournal of Physical Chemistry LettersThe Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters is a scientific journal published by the American Chemical Society. It was designed to complement the Journal of Physical Chemistry. The editor-in-chief is George C. Schatz...
(from 2010, combined letters previously published in the separate journals)
Historical journals that covered both chemistry and physics include Annales de chimie et de physique
Annales de chimie et de physique
Annales de chimie et de physique is a scientific journal that was founded in Paris, France, in 1789 under the title Annales de chimie. One of the early editors was the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier. In 1815, it became the Annales de chimie et de physique, and was published under that name for...
(started in 1789, published under the name given here from 1815–1914).
Branches and related topics
- ThermochemistryThermochemistryThermochemistry is the study of the energy and heat associated with chemical reactions and/or physical transformations. A reaction may release or absorb energy, and a phase change may do the same, such as in melting and boiling. Thermochemistry focuses on these energy changes, particularly on the...
- Chemical kineticsChemical kineticsChemical kinetics, also known as reaction kinetics, is the study of rates of chemical processes. Chemical kinetics includes investigations of how different experimental conditions can influence the speed of a chemical reaction and yield information about the reaction's mechanism and transition...
- Quantum chemistryQuantum chemistryQuantum chemistry is a branch of chemistry whose primary focus is the application of quantum mechanics in physical models and experiments of chemical systems...
- ElectrochemistryElectrochemistryElectrochemistry is a branch of chemistry that studies chemical reactions which take place in a solution at the interface of an electron conductor and an ionic conductor , and which involve electron transfer between the electrode and the electrolyte or species in solution.If a chemical reaction is...
- PhotochemistryPhotochemistryPhotochemistry, a sub-discipline of chemistry, is the study of chemical reactions that proceed with the absorption of light by atoms or molecules.. Everyday examples include photosynthesis, the degradation of plastics and the formation of vitamin D with sunlight.-Principles:Light is a type of...
- Surface chemistry
- Solid-state chemistrySolid-state chemistrySolid-state chemistry, also sometimes referred to as materials chemistry, is the study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials, particularly, but not necessarily exclusively of, non-molecular solids...
- SpectroscopySpectroscopySpectroscopy is the study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy. Historically, spectroscopy originated through the study of visible light dispersed according to its wavelength, e.g., by a prism. Later the concept was expanded greatly to comprise any interaction with radiative...
- Biophysical chemistryBiophysical chemistryBiophysical chemistry is a relatively new branch of chemistry that covers a broad spectrum of research activities involving biological systems. The most common feature of the research in this subject is to seek explanation of the various phenomena in biological systems in terms of either the...
- Materials scienceMaterials scienceMaterials science is an interdisciplinary field applying the properties of matter to various areas of science and engineering. This scientific field investigates the relationship between the structure of materials at atomic or molecular scales and their macroscopic properties. It incorporates...
- Physical organic chemistryPhysical organic chemistryPhysical organic chemistry is the study of the interrelationships between structure and reactivity in organic molecules. It can be seen as the study of organic chemistry using tools of physical chemistry such as chemical equilibrium, chemical kinetics, thermochemistry, and quantum chemistry...
- MicromeriticsMicromeriticsMicromeritics is the science and technology of small particles. The knowledge and control of the size of particles is of importance in pharmacy and materials science. The size, and hence the surface area of a particle, can be related to the physical, chemical and pharmacologic properties of drugs...
See also
- List of important publications in chemistry#Physical chemistry
- List of unsolved problems in chemistry#Physical chemistry problems
- :Category:Physical chemists
External links
- Physical Chemistry (Keith J. Laidler, John H. Meiser and Bryan C. Sanctuary)
- The World of Physical Chemistry (Keith J. Laidler, 1993)
- Physical Chemistry from Ostwald to Pauling (John W. Servos, 1996)
- 100 Years of Physical Chemistry (Royal Society of Chemistry, 2004)
- Physical Chemistry: neither Fish nor Fowl? (Joachim Schummer, The Autonomy of Chemistry, Würzburg, Königshausen & Neumann, 1998, pp. 135–148)
- Cathedrals of Science (Patrick Coffey, 2008)
- The Cambridge History of Science: The modern physical and mathematical sciences (Mary Jo Nye, 2003)