Sound reinforcement system - AbsoluteAstronomy.com

A sound reinforcement system is the combination of microphone

Microphone

A microphone is an acoustic-to-electric transducer or sensor that converts sound into an electrical signal. In 1877, Emile Berliner invented the first microphone used as a telephone voice transmitter...

s, signal processor

Signal processor

A signal processor is an electronic circuit that removes information from an analog signal as quantifiable units for further analysis. Most modern signal processors are either dedicated microprocessor integrated circuits or general-purpose programmable microprocessors. A DSP is an electronic...

s, amplifier

Amplifier

Generally, an amplifier or simply amp, is a device for increasing the power of a signal.In popular use, the term usually describes an electronic amplifier, in which the input "signal" is usually a voltage or a current. In audio applications, amplifiers drive the loudspeakers used in PA systems to...

s, and loudspeaker

Loudspeaker

A loudspeaker is an electroacoustic transducer that produces sound in response to an electrical audio signal input. Non-electrical loudspeakers were developed as accessories to telephone systems, but electronic amplification by vacuum tube made loudspeakers more generally useful...

s that makes live or pre-recorded sounds louder and may also distribute those sounds to a larger or more distant audience. In some situations, a sound reinforcement system is also used to enhance the sound of the sources on the stage, as opposed to simply amplifying the sources unaltered. A sound reinforcement system may be very complex, including hundreds of microphones, complex audio mixing

Audio mixing

Audio mixing may refer to:*Audio mixing *Audio mixing *Live sound mixing...

and signal processing

Signal processing

Signal processing is an area of systems engineering, electrical engineering and applied mathematics that deals with operations on or analysis of signals, in either discrete or continuous time...

systems, tens of thousands of watt

Watt

The watt is a derived unit of power in the International System of Units , named after the Scottish engineer James Watt . The unit, defined as one joule per second, measures the rate of energy conversion.-Definition:...

s of amplification, and multiple loudspeaker arrays, all overseen by a team of audio engineers and technicians. On the other hand, a sound reinforcement system can be as simple as a small public address

Public address

A public address system is an electronic amplification system with a mixer, amplifier and loudspeakers, used to reinforce a sound source, e.g., a person giving a speech, a DJ playing prerecorded music, and distributing the sound throughout a venue or building.Simple PA systems are often used in...

(PA) system in a coffeehouse

Coffeehouse

A coffeehouse or coffee shop is an establishment which primarily serves prepared coffee or other hot beverages. It shares some of the characteristics of a bar, and some of the characteristics of a restaurant, but it is different from a cafeteria. As the name suggests, coffeehouses focus on...

, consisting of a single microphone connected to a self-powered 100-watt loudspeaker system. In both cases, these systems reinforce sound to make it louder or distribute it to a wider audience.

Some audio engineers and others in the professional audio

Professional audio

Professional audio, also 'pro audio', refers to both an activity and a type of audio equipment. Typically it encompasses the production or reproduction of sound for an audience, by individuals who do such work as an occupation like live event support, using sound reinforcement systems designed for...

industry disagree over whether these audio systems should be called sound reinforcement (SR) systems or PA systems. Distinguishing between the two terms by technology and capability is common, while others distinguish by intended use (e.g., SR systems are for live event support and PA systems are for reproduction of speech and recorded music in buildings and institutions). In some regions or markets, the distinction between the two terms is important, though the terms are considered interchangeable in many professional circles.

Basic concept

A typical sound reinforcement system consists of; input transducer
Transducer
A transducer is a device that converts one type of energy to another. Energy types include electrical, mechanical, electromagnetic , chemical, acoustic or thermal energy. While the term transducer commonly implies the use of a sensor/detector, any device which converts energy can be considered a...

s (e.g., microphones), which convert sound energy into an electric signal, signal processors
Audio signal processing
Audio signal processing, sometimes referred to as audio processing, is the intentional alteration of auditory signals, or sound. As audio signals may be electronically represented in either digital or analog format, signal processing may occur in either domain...

which alter the signal characteristics, amplifier
Amplifier
Generally, an amplifier or simply amp, is a device for increasing the power of a signal.In popular use, the term usually describes an electronic amplifier, in which the input "signal" is usually a voltage or a current. In audio applications, amplifiers drive the loudspeakers used in PA systems to...

s, which add power to the signal without otherwise changing its content, and output transducers (e.g., loudspeakers) , which convert the signal back into sound energy. These primary parts involve varying amounts of individual components to achieve the desired goal of reinforcing and clarifying the sound to the audience, performers, or other individuals.

Signal path

Sound reinforcement in a large format system typically involves a signal path that starts with an instrument pickup or a microphone

Microphone

(transducer) which is plugged into a multicore cable (often called a "snake"). The snake then routes the signals of all of the inputs on two mixing console

Mixing console

In professional audio, a mixing console, or audio mixer, also called a sound board, mixing desk, or mixer is an electronic device for combining , routing, and changing the level, timbre and/or dynamics of audio signals. A mixer can mix analog or digital signals, depending on the type of mixer...

s: Front of the House (FOH) Main mix, and Monitor mix at the side of the stage. Once the signal is at a channel on the console, this signal can be equalized

Equalization

Equalization, is the process of adjusting the balance between frequency components within an electronic signal. The most well known use of equalization is in sound recording and reproduction but there are many other applications in electronics and telecommunications. The circuit or equipment used...

, compressed, or panned

Panning (audio)

Panning is the spread of a sound signal into a new stereo or multi-channel sound field. A typical physical recording console pan control is a knob with a pointer which can be placed from the 8 o'clock dial position fully left to the 4 o'clock position fully right...

before being routed to an output bus

Electrical bus

Electric bus is a bus powered by electric energy. "Electric bus" can also refer to:* Bus , used for connecting components of a computer or communication between computers* Busbars, thick conductors acting as nodes in electrical substations...

. The signal may also be routed into an external effects processor, which outputs a wet (effected) version of the signal, which is typically mixed in varying amounts with the dry (ineffected) signal.

The signal is then routed to a bus, also known as a mix group, subgroup or simply 'group'. A group of signals may be routed through an additional bus before being sent to the main bus to allow the engineer to control the levels of several related signals at once. For example, all of the different microphones for a drum set might be sent to their own bus so that the volume of the entire drum set sound can be controlled with a single fader or a pair of faders. A bus can often be processed just like an individual input channel, allowing the engineer to process a whole group of signals at once. The signal is then typically routed with everything else to the stereo masters on a console. Mixing consoles also have additional sends, also referred to as auxes, on each input channel so that a different mix can be created and sent elsewhere.

The next step in the signal path generally depends on the size of the system in place. In smaller systems, the main outputs are often sent to an additional equalizer

Equalization

, or directly to a power amplifier, with one or more loudspeakers (typically two) then connected to that amplifier. In large-format systems, the signal is typically first routed through an equalizer then to a crossover

Audio crossover

Audio crossovers are a class of electronic filter used in audio applications. Most individual loudspeaker drivers are incapable of covering the entire audio spectrum from low frequencies to high frequencies with acceptable relative volume and lack of distortion so most hi-fi speaker systems use a...

. A crossover splits the signal into multiple frequency bands with each band being sent to separate amplifiers and speaker enclosures for low, middle, and high-frequency signals. Low-frequency sounds are sent to subwoofer

Subwoofer

A subwoofer is a woofer, or a complete loudspeaker, which is dedicated to the reproduction of low-pitched audio frequencies known as the "bass". The typical frequency range for a subwoofer is about 20–200 Hz for consumer products, below 100 Hz for professional live sound, and below...

s, and middle and high-frequency sounds are typically sent to full-range speaker

Loudspeaker

cabinets.

Input transducers

Many types of input transducers can be found in a sound reinforcement system, with microphone

Microphone

s being the most commonly used input device. They can be classified according to their method of transduction, pickup (or polar) pattern or their functional application. Most microphones used in sound reinforcement are either dynamic or condenser microphones.

Microphones used for sound reinforcement are positioned and mounted in many ways, including base-weighted upright stands, podium mounts, tie-clips, instrument mounts, and headset mounts. Headset mounted and tie-clip mounted microphones are often used with wireless transmission to allow performers or speakers to move freely. Early adopters of headset mounted microphones technology included country singer Garth Brooks

Garth Brooks

Troyal Garth Brooks , best known as Garth Brooks, is an American country music artist who helped make country music a worldwide phenomenon. His eponymous first album was released in 1989 and peaked at number 2 in the US country album chart while climbing to number 13 on the Billboard 200 album chart...

, Kate Bush

Kate Bush

Kate Bush is an English singer-songwriter, musician and record producer. Her eclectic musical style and idiosyncratic vocal style have made her one of the United Kingdom's most successful solo female performers of the past 30 years.In 1978, at the age of 19, Bush topped the UK Singles Chart...

, and Madonna

Madonna (entertainer)

Madonna is an American singer-songwriter, actress and entrepreneur. Born in Bay City, Michigan, she moved to New York City in 1977 to pursue a career in modern dance. After performing in the music groups Breakfast Club and Emmy, she released her debut album in 1983...

.

There are many other types of input transducers which may be used occasionally, including magnetic pickups used in electric guitars and electric basses, contact microphone

Contact microphone

A contact microphone, otherwise known as a pickup or a piezo, is a form of microphone designed to sense audio vibrations through solid objects. Unlike normal air microphones, contact mics act as transducers which pick up vibrations and convert them into a voltage which can then be made audible...

s used on stringed instruments, and piano and phonograph

Phonograph

The phonograph record player, or gramophone is a device introduced in 1877 that has had continued common use for reproducing sound recordings, although when first developed, the phonograph was used to both record and reproduce sounds...

pickups (cartridges) used in record players.
Wireless technology has become popular in sound reinforcement, typically used for electric guitar, bass, and handheld microphones. This lets performers move about the stage during the show without the worry of tripping over or disconnecting the cable.

Mixing consoles

Mixing console

s are the heart of a sound reinforcement system. This is where the operator can mix, equalize and add effects to sound sources. Multiple consoles can be used for different applications in a single sound reinforcement system. The Front of House (FOH) mixing console must be located where the operator can see the action on stage and hear the output of the loudspeaker system. Some venues with permanently installed systems such as religious facilities and theaters place the mixing console within an enclosed booth but this approach is more common for broadcast and recording applications. This is far less common in live sound reproduction since the engineer performs best when they can hear what the audience hears.

Large music productions often use a separate stage monitor mixing console which is dedicated to creating mixes for the performers' on-stage or in-ear monitors. These consoles are typically placed at the side of the stage so that the operator can communicate with the performers on stage. In cases where performers have to play at a venue that does not have a monitor engineer near the stage, the monitor mixing is done by the FOH engineer from the FOH console, which is located amongst the audience or at the back of the hall. This arrangement can be problematic because the performers end up having to request changes to the monitor mixes with "...hand signals and clever cryptic phrases". The engineer also cannot hear the changes that he is applying to the monitors on stage, often resulting in a reduction of the quality of the mix.

Digital signal processors

Small PA systems for venues such as bars and clubs are now available with features that were formerly only available on professional-level equipment, such as digital reverb effects, graphic equalizers, and, in some models, feedback prevention circuits which electronically sense and prevent feedback "howls" before they become a problem. Digital effects units may offer multiple pre-set and variable reverb, echo and related effects. Digital loudspeaker management systems offer sound engineers digital delay, limiting, crossover functions, EQ filters, compression and other functions in a single rack-mountable unit. In previous decades, sound engineers typically had to transport a substantial number of rack-mounted analog devices to accomplish these tasks.

Equalizers

Equalization (audio)

Equalization is the process commonly used in sound recording and reproduction to alter the frequency response of an audio system using linear filters. Most hi-fi equipment uses relatively simple filters to make bass and treble adjustments. Graphic and parametric equalizers have much more...

exist in sound reinforcement systems in two forms: graphic and parametric. A high-pass

High-pass filter

A high-pass filter is a device that passes high frequencies and attenuates frequencies lower than its cutoff frequency. A high-pass filter is usually modeled as a linear time-invariant system...

(low-cut) and/or low-pass

Low-pass filter

A low-pass filter is an electronic filter that passes low-frequency signals but attenuates signals with frequencies higher than the cutoff frequency. The actual amount of attenuation for each frequency varies from filter to filter. It is sometimes called a high-cut filter, or treble cut filter...

(high-cut) filter may also be included. Parametric equalizers are often built into each channel in mixing consoles and are also available as separate units. Parametric equalizers first became popular in the 1970s and have remained the program equalizer of choice for many engineers since then.

Graphic equalizers have faders (slide controls) which together resemble a frequency response curve plotted on a graph. Sound reinforcement systems typically use graphic equalizers with one-third octave

Octave

In music, an octave is the interval between one musical pitch and another with half or double its frequency. The octave relationship is a natural phenomenon that has been referred to as the "basic miracle of music", the use of which is "common in most musical systems"...

frequency centers. These are typically used to equalize output signals going to the main loudspeaker system or the monitors on stage.

High-pass (low-cut) and low-pass (high-cut) filters restrict a given channel's bandwidth extremes. Cutting very low frequency energy (termed infrasonic, or subsonic, a misnomer) reduces the waste of amplifier power which does not produce sound and which moreover can be hard on the speakers. A low-pass filter to cut ultrasonic energy is useful to prevent interference from radio frequencies, lighting control, or digital circuitry creeping into the power amplifiers. Such filters are often included with graphic and parametric equalizers to give full control of the frequency range. If their response is steep enough, high-pass filters and low-pass filters function as end-cut filters. A feedback suppressor is an automatically-adjusted band-reject or notch filter which includes a microprocessor

Embedded system

An embedded system is a computer system designed for specific control functions within a larger system. often with real-time computing constraints. It is embedded as part of a complete device often including hardware and mechanical parts. By contrast, a general-purpose computer, such as a personal...

to detect the onset of feedback

Audio feedback

Audio feedback is a special kind of positive feedback which occurs when a sound loop exists between an audio input and an audio output...

and direct the filter to suppress the feedback by lowering the gain right at the offending frequency.

Compressors

Audio level compression

Dynamic range compression, also called DRC or simply compression reduces the volume of loud sounds or amplifies quiet sounds by narrowing or "compressing" an audio signal's dynamic range...

are designed to manage the dynamic range of an audio signal. A compressor accomplishes this by reducing the gain of a signal that is above a defined level (threshold) by a defined amount (ratio). Without this gain reduction, a signal that gets, say 10% louder as an input, will be 10% louder at the output. With the gain reduced, a signal that gets 10% louder at the input will be perhaps 3% louder at the output. Most compressors available are designed to allow the operator to select a ratio within a range typically between 1:1 and 20:1, with some allowing settings of up to ∞:1. A compressor with an infinite ratio is typically referred to as a limiter. The speed that the compressor adjusts the gain of the signal (called the attack) is typically adjustable as is the final output of the device.

Compressor applications vary widely from objective system design criterion to subjective applications determined by variances in program material and engineer preference. Some system design criteria specify limiters for component protection and gain structure control. Artistic signal manipulation is a subjective technique widely utilized by mix engineers to improve clarity or to creatively alter the signal in relation to the program material. An example of artistic compression is the typical heavy compression used on the various components of a modern rock drum kit. The drums are processed to be perceived as sounding more punchy and full.

Noise gates

A noise gate

Noise gate

A Noise Gate or gate is an electronic device or software that is used to control the volume of an audio signal. In its most simple form, a noise gate allows a signal to pass through only when it is above a set threshold: the gate is 'open'. If the signal falls below the threshold no signal is...

sets a threshold where if it is quieter it will not let the signal pass and if it is louder it opens the gate. A noise gate's function is in a sense the opposite to that of a compressor. Noise gates are useful for microphones which will pick up noise which is not relevant to the program, such as the hum of a miked electric guitar amplifier or the rustling of papers on a minister's podium.

Noise gates are also used to process the microphones placed near the drums of a drum kit in many hard rock and metal bands. Without a noise gate, the microphone for a specific instrument such as the floor tom will also pick up signal from nearby drums or cymbals. With a noise gate, the threshold of sensitivity for each microphone on the drum kit can be set so that only the direct strike and subsequent decay of the drum will be heard, not the nearby sounds.

Effects

Reverberation

Reverberation is the persistence of sound in a particular space after the original sound is removed. A reverberation, or reverb, is created when a sound is produced in an enclosed space causing a large number of echoes to build up and then slowly decay as the sound is absorbed by the walls and air...

and delay

Delay (audio effect)

Delay is an audio effect which records an input signal to an audio storage medium, and then plays it back after a period of time. The delayed signal may either be played back multiple times, or played back into the recording again, to create the sound of a repeating, decaying echo.-Early delay...

effects are widely used in sound reinforcement systems to enhance the mix relative to the desired artistic impact of the program material. Modulation effects such as flanger, phaser

Phaser (effect)

A phaser is an audio signal processing technique used to filter a signal by creating a series of peaks and troughs in the frequency spectrum. The position of the peaks and troughs is typically modulated so that they vary over time, creating a sweeping effect...

, and chorus

Chorus effect

In music, a chorus effect occurs when individual sounds with roughly the same timbre and nearly the same pitch converge and are perceived as one...

are also applied to some instruments. An exciter

Exciter (effect)

An Exciter is an audio signal processing technique used to enhance a signal by dynamic equalization, phase manipulation, harmonic synthesis of high frequency signals, and through the addition of subtle harmonic distortion...

"livens up" the sound of audio signals by applying dynamic equalization, phase manipulation and harmonic synthesis of typically high frequency signals.

The appropriate type, variation, and level of effects is quite subjective and is often collectively determined by a production's engineer, artist, or musical director. Reverb, for example, can give the effect of signal being present in anything from a small room to a massive stadium, or even in a space that doesn't exist in the physical world. The use of reverb often goes unnoticed by the audience, as it often sounds more natural than if the signal was left dry. The use of effects in the reproduction of modern music is often in an attempt to mimic the sound of the studio version of the artist's music.

Power amplifiers

Audio amplifier

An audio amplifier is an electronic amplifier that amplifies low-power audio signals to a level suitable for driving loudspeakers and is the final stage in a typical audio playback chain.The preceding stages in such a chain are low power audio amplifiers which perform tasks like pre-amplification,...

boost a low-voltage level signal and provide electrical power to drive a loudspeaker. All speakers require power amplification of the low-level signal by an amplifier, including headphones. Most professional audio amplifiers also provide protection from overdriven signals, short circuits across the output, and excess temperature. A limiter is often used to protect loudspeakers and amplifiers from overload.

Like most sound reinforcement equipment products, professional amplifiers are designed to be mounted within standard 19-inch rack

19-inch rack

A 19-inch rack is a standardized frame or enclosure for mounting multiple equipment modules. Each module has a front panel that is wide, including edges or ears that protrude on each side which allow the module to be fastened to the rack frame with screws.-Overview and history:Equipment designed...

s. Many power amplifiers feature internal fans to draw air across their heat sinks. Since they can generate a significant amount of heat, thermal dissipation is an important factor for operators to consider when mounting amplifiers into equipment racks. Active loudspeakers feature internally mounted amplifiers that have been selected by the manufacturer to be the best amplifier for use with the given loudspeaker.

Power amplifiers have become lighter, smaller, more powerful and more efficient due to increasing use of switching power supplies and Class D amplifiers, which offer significant weight and space savings as well as increased efficiency. In the 1970s and 1980s, most PA amplifiers were heavy Class AB amplifiers. In the late 1990s these lightweight technologies spread into PA applications. Installations in railroad stations, stadia and airports, their high efficiency allow them to run with minimal additional cooling and with higher rack densities compared to older amplifiers. The use of class A

Class A

Class A may refer to:* Class A airfield, a standardised design for military airfields built throughout Britain from 1942* Class A airspace, an airspace class defined by the ICAO* class A amplifier, a category of electronic amplifier...

amplifiers is typically limited to studio applications, where the highly detailed clarity of an amplifier is going to be much more noticeable and the power requirements are much less.

Digital loudspeaker management systems (DLMS) that combine digital crossover functions, compression, limiting, and other features in a single unit have become popular since their introduction. They are used to process the mix from the mixing console and route it to the various amplifiers in use. Systems may include several loudspeakers, each with its own output optimized for a specific range of frequencies (i.e. bass, midrange and treble). Bi, tri, or quad amplifying a sound reinforcement system with the aide of a DLMS results in a more efficient use of amplifier power by sending each amplifier only the frequencies appropriate for its respective loudspeaker. Most DLMS units that are designed for use by non-professionals have calibration and testing functions such as a pink noise

Pink noise

Pink noise or 1/ƒ noise is a signal or process with a frequency spectrum such that the power spectral density is inversely proportional to the frequency. In pink noise, each octave carries an equal amount of noise power...

generator coupled with a real-time analyzer to allow automated room equalization.

The amount of amplifier power used in a performance setting depends on a number of factors, such as the desired Sound Pressure Level of the performers, whether the venue is indoors or outdoors, and the presence of competing background noise. The following list gives a rough "rule of thumb" for the amount of amplifier power used in different settings:

"Small Vocal" system - About 500 watts
"Large Vocal" system - About 1,000 watts
"Small Club" system - About 9,000 watts
"Large Club" system - About 18,000 watts
"Small Stadium" system - About 28,000 watts

Main loudspeakers

A simple and inexpensive PA loudspeaker

Loudspeaker

may have a single full-range loudspeaker driver, housed in a suitable enclosure. More elaborate, professional-caliber sound reinforcement loudspeakers may incorporate separate drivers to produce low, middle, and high frequency

Frequency

Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time. It is also referred to as temporal frequency.The period is the duration of one cycle in a repeating event, so the period is the reciprocal of the frequency...

sounds. A crossover network

Audio crossover

routes the different frequencies to the appropriate drivers. In the 1960s, horn loaded theater

Theatre

Theatre is a collaborative form of fine art that uses live performers to present the experience of a real or imagined event before a live audience in a specific place. The performers may communicate this experience to the audience through combinations of gesture, speech, song, music or dance...

loudspeakers and PA speakers were almost always "columns" of multiple drivers mounted in a vertical line within a tall enclosure. The 1970s to early 1980s was a period of innovation in loudspeaker design with many sound reinforcement companies designing their own speakers. The basic designs were based on commonly known designs and the speaker components were commercial speakers.
The areas of innovation were in cabinet design, durability, ease of packing and transport, and ease of setup. This period also saw the introduction of the hanging or "flying" of main loudspeakers at large concerts. During the 1980s the large speaker manufactures started producing standard products using the innovations of the 1970s. These were mostly smaller two way systems with 12", 15" or double 15" woofers and a high frequency driver

Compression driver

A compression driver is a type of loudspeaker driver which uses the technique of "compression" to achieve high efficiencies. In this context compression refers to the fact that the area of the loudspeaker diaphragm is significantly larger than the aperture through which the sound is radiated....

attached to a high frequency horn. The 1980s also saw the start of loudspeaker companies focused on the sound reinforcement market. The 1990s saw the introduction of Line array

Line array

A line array is a loudspeaker system that is made up of a number of loudspeaker elements coupled together in a line segment to create a near-line source of sound...

s, where long vertical arrays of loudspeakers with a smaller cabinet are used to increase efficiency and provide even dispersion and frequency response. This period also saw the introduction of inexpensive molded plastic speaker enclosures mounted on tripod stands. Many feature built-in power amplifiers which made them practical for non-professionals to set up and operate successfully. The sound quality available from these simple 'powered speakers' varies widely depending on the implementation.

Many sound reinforcement loudspeaker systems incorporate protection circuitry, preventing damage from excessive power or operator error. Positive temperature coefficient resistors, specialized current-limiting light bulbs, and circuit-breakers were used alone or in combination to reduce driver failures. During the same period, the professional sound reinforcement industry made the Neutrik Speakon NL4 and NL8 connectors the standard input connectors, replacing 1/4" jacks, XLR connector

XLR connector

The XLR connector is a style of electrical connector, primarily found on professional audio, video, and stage lighting equipment. The connectors are circular in design and have between 3 and 7 pins...

s, and Cannon

Cannon (ITT Corporation)

Cannon is a division of ITT Corporation that specialises in the manufacture of connectors, cable assemblies, keypads and LAN components. In 1952 it invented the industry-standard D-sub connector....

multipin connectors which are all limited to a maximum of 15 amps of current. XLR connectors are still the standard input connector on active loudspeaker cabinets.

The three different types of transducers are subwoofers, compression drivers, and tweeters. They all feature the combination of a voicecoil, magnet

Magnet

A magnet is a material or object that produces a magnetic field. This magnetic field is invisible but is responsible for the most notable property of a magnet: a force that pulls on other ferromagnetic materials, such as iron, and attracts or repels other magnets.A permanent magnet is an object...

, cone or diaphragm

Diaphragm (acoustics)

In the field of acoustics, a diaphragm is a transducer intended to faithfully inter-convert mechanical motion and sound. It is commonly constructed of a thin membrane or sheet of various materials. The varying air pressure of the sound waves imparts vibrations onto the diaphragm which can then be...

, and a frame or structure. Loudspeakers have a power rating (in watt

Watt

s) which indicates their maximum power capacity, to help users avoid overpowering them. Thanks to the efforts of the Audio Engineering Society

Audio Engineering Society

Established in 1948, the Audio Engineering Society draws its membership from amongst engineers, scientists, other individuals with an interest or involvement in the professional audio industry. The membership largely comprises engineers developing devices or products for audio, and persons working...

(AES) and the loudspeaker industry group ALMA, power-handling specifications became more trustworthy, although adoption of the EIA-426-B standard is far from universal. Around the mid 1990s trapezoidal-shaped enclosures became popular as this shape allowed many of them to be easily arrayed together.

A number of companies are now making lightweight, portable speaker systems for small venues that route the low-frequency parts of the music (electric bass, bass drum, etc.) to a powered subwoofer

Subwoofer

. Routing the low-frequency energy to a separate amplifier and subwoofer can substantially improve the bass-response of the system. Also, clarity may be enhanced, because low-frequency sounds take a great deal of power to amplify; with only a single amplifier for the entire sound spectrum, the power-hungry low-frequency sounds can take a disproportionate amount of the sound system's power.

Professional sound reinforcement speaker systems often include dedicated hardware for "flying" them above the stage area, to provide more even sound coverage and to maximize sight lines within performance venues.

The number of speaker enclosures used in a performance varies a great deal, but the following list gives a rough idea of how many cabinets are used in a typical venue:

"Small Vocal" system - Two full range speakers mounted on tripod stands.
"Large Vocal" system - Four full-range speakers for wide-area coverage.
"Small Club" system - Two subwoofers and two mid/high speakers.
"Large Club" system - Four subwoofers and four mid/high speakers.
"Small Stadium" system - Four subwoofers, four mid-bass speakers, and four mid/high speakers.

Monitor loudspeakers

Monitor loudspeakers, also called 'foldback' loudspeakers, are speaker cabinets which are used onstage to help performers to hear their singing or playing. As such, monitor speakers are pointed towards a performer or a section of the stage. They are generally sent a different mix of vocals or instruments than the mix that is sent to the main loudspeaker system. Monitor loudspeaker cabinets are often a wedge shape, directing their output upwards towards the performer when set on the floor of the stage. Two-way, dual driver designs are common as monitor loudspeakers need to be smaller to save space on the stage. These loudspeakers typically require less power and volume than the main loudspeaker system, as they only need to provide sound for a few people who are in relatively close proximity to the loudspeaker. Some manufacturers have designed loudspeakers for use either as a component of a small PA system or as a monitor loudspeaker.

Using monitor speakers instead of in ear monitors typically results in an increase of stage volume, which can lead to more feedback issues and progressive hearing damage for the performers in front of them. The clarity of the mix for the performer on stage is also typically not as clear as they hear more extraneous noise from around them. The use of monitor loudspeakers, active or passive, requires more cabling and gear on stage, resulting in an even more cluttered stage. These factors, amongst others, have led to the increasing popularity of in- ear monitors.

In-Ear Monitors

In-ear monitor

In-ear monitors are devices used by musicians, audio engineers and audiophiles to listen to music or to hear a custom crafted mix of vocals and stage instrumentation for live performance or recording studio mixing...

s are headphones that have been designed for use as monitors by a live performer. They are either of a "universal fit" or "custom fit" design. The universal fit in ear monitors feature rubber or foam tips that can be inserted into virtually anybody's ear. Custom fit in ear monitors are created from an impression of the users ear that has been made by an audiologist. In-ear monitors are almost always used in conjunction with a wireless transmitting system, allowing the performer to freely move about the stage whilst maintaining their monitor mix.

In-ear monitors offer considerable isolation for the performer using them, meaning that the monitor engineer can craft a much more accurate and clear mix for the performer. A downside of this isolation is that the performer cannot hear the crowd or other performers on stage that do not have microphones. This has been remedied by larger productions by setting up a pair of microphones on each side of the stage facing the audience that are mixed into the in-ear monitor sends.

Since their introduction in the mid-1980s, in-ear monitors have grown to be the most popular monitoring choice for large touring acts. The reduction or elimination of loudspeakers other than instrument amplifiers on stage has allowed for cleaner and less problematic mixing situations for both the front of house and monitor engineers. Feedback is easier to manage and there is less sound reflecting off the back wall of the stage out into the audience, which affects the clarity of the mix the front of house engineer is attempting to create.

Applications

Sound reinforcement systems are used in a broad range of different settings, each of which poses different challenges.

Rental systems

Audio visual (AV) rental systems have to be able to withstand heavy use, and even abuse from renters. For this reason, rental companies tend to own speaker cabinets which are heavily braced and protected with steel corners, and electronic equipment such as power amplifiers or effects are often mounted into protective road cases. As well, rental companies tend to select gear which has electronic protection features, such as speaker-protection circuitry and amplifier limiters.

As well, rental systems for non-professionals need to be easy to use and set up, and they must be easy to repair and maintain for the renting company. From this perspective, speaker cabinets need to have easy-to-access horns, speakers, and crossover circuitry, so that repairs or replacements can be made. Some rental companies often rent powered amplifier-mixers, mixers with onboard effects, and powered subwoofers for use by non-professionals, which are easier to set up and use.

Many touring acts and large venue corporate events will rent large sound reinforcement Systems that typically include an audio engineer on staff with the renting company. In the case of rental systems for tours, there are typically several Engineers and Technicians from the Rental company that tour with the act to set up and calibrate the equipment for use by the band's production crew. The individual that actually mixes the act is often selected and provided by the band, as they are someone who has become familiar with the various aspects of the show and have worked with the act to establish a general idea of how they want the show to sound. The mixing engineer for an act sometimes also happens to be on staff with the rental company selected to provide the gear for the tour.

Live music clubs

Setting up sound reinforcement for live music clubs often poses unique challenges, because there is such a large variety of venues which are used as clubs, ranging from former warehouses or music theaters to small restaurants or basement pubs with concrete walls. In some cases, clubs are housed in multi-story venues with balconies or in "L"-shaped rooms, which makes it hard to get a consistent sound for all audience members. The solution is to use fill-in speakers to obtain good coverage, using a delay to ensure that the audience does not hear the same sound at different times.

Another problem with designing sound systems for live music clubs is that the sound system may need to be used for both prerecorded music played by DJs and live music. If the sound system is optimized for prerecorded DJ music, then it will not provide the appropriate sound qualities (or mixing and monitoring equipment) needed for live music, and vice versa. Lastly, live music clubs can be a hostile environment for sound gear, in that the air may be hot, humid, and smoky; in some clubs, keeping racks of power amplifiers cool may be a challenge. Often an air conditioned room just for the amplifiers is utilised.

Church sound

Designing systems in churches and similar religious facilities often poses a challenge, because the speakers may have to be unobtrusive to blend in with antique woodwork and stonework. In some cases, audio designers have designed custom-painted speaker cabinets so that the speakers will blend in with the church architecture. Some church facilities, such as sanctuaries or chapels are long rooms with low ceilings, which means that additional fill-in speakers are needed throughout the room to give good coverage. An additional challenge with church SR systems is that, once installed, they are often operated by amateur volunteers from the congregation, which means that they must be easy to run and troubleshoot.

Some mixing consoles designed for houses of worship have automatic mixers, which turn down unused channels to reduce noise, and automatic feedback elimination circuits which detect and notch out frequencies that are feeding back. These features may also be available in multi-function consoles used in convention facilities and multi-purpose venues.

Touring systems

Touring sound systems have to be powerful and versatile enough to cover many different rooms, often being of many different sizes and shapes. They also need to use "field-replaceable" components such as speakers, horns, and fuses, which are easily accessible for repairs during a tour. Tour sound systems are often designed with substantial redundancy features, so that in the event of equipment failure or amplifier overheating, the system will continue to function. Touring systems for acts performing for crowds of a few thousand people and up are typically set up and operated by a team of technicians and engineers that travel with the talent to every show.

It is not uncommon for mainstream acts that are going to perform in mid to large venues during their tour to schedule one to two weeks of tech rehearsal with the entire concert system and production staff at hand. This allows the audio and lighting engineers to become familiar with the show and establish presets on their digital equipment for each part of the show, if needed. Many modern musical groups work with their Front of House and Monitor Mixing Engineers during this time to establish what their general idea is of how the show should sound, both for themselves on stage and for the audience. This often involves programming different effects and signal processing for use on specific songs in an attempt to make the songs sound somewhat similar to the studio versions. To manage a show with a lot of these types of changes, the mixing engineers for the show often choose to use a digital mixing console

Digital mixing console

In professional audio, a Digital Mixing Console , is an electronic device for combining, routing, and changing the dynamics of digital audio samples. The digital audio samples are summed to produce a combined output. A professional digital mixing console is a dedicated desk or control surface...

so that they can recall these many settings in between each song. This time is also used by the system technicians to get familiar with the specific combination of gear that is going to be used on the tour and how it acoustically responds during the show. These technicians remain busy during the show, making sure the SR system is operating properly and that the system is tuned correctly, as the acoustic response of a room will respond differently throughout the day depending on the temperature, humidity, and number of people in the room.

Weekend band PA systems are a niche market for touring SR gear. Weekend bands need systems that are small enough to fit into a minivan or a car trunk, and yet powerful enough to give adequate and even sound dispersion and vocal intelligibility in a noisy club or bar. As well, the systems need to be easy and quick to set up. Sound reinforcement companies have responded to this demand by offering equipment that fulfills multiple roles, such as "amp-mixers" (a mixer with an integrated power amplifier and effects) and powered subwoofers (a subwoofer with an integrated power amplifier and crossover). These products minimize the amount of wiring connections that bands have to make to set up the system. Some subwoofers have speaker mounts built into the top, so that they can double as a base for the stand-mounted full-range PA speaker cabinets.

Live theater

Sound for live theater, operatic theater, and other dramatic applications may pose problems similar to those of churches, in cases where a theater is an old heritage building where speakers and wiring may have to blend in with woodwork. The need for clear sight lines in some theaters may make the use of regular speaker cabinets unacceptable; instead, slim, low-profile speakers are often used instead.

In live theater and drama, performers move around onstage, which means that wireless

Wireless

Wireless telecommunications is the transfer of information between two or more points that are not physically connected. Distances can be short, such as a few meters for television remote control, or as far as thousands or even millions of kilometers for deep-space radio communications...

microphones may have to be used. Wireless microphones need to be set up and maintained properly, to avoid interference and reception problems.

Some of the higher budget theater shows and musicals are mixed in surround sound live, often with the show's sound operator triggering sound effects that are being mixed with music and dialogue by the show's mixing engineer. These systems are usually much more extensive to design, typically involving a separate sets of speakers for different zones in the theater.

Classical music and opera

A subtle type of sound reinforcement called acoustic enhancement

Acoustic enhancement

Acoustic enhancement is a subtle type of sound reinforcement system used to augment direct, reflected, or reverberant sound. While sound reinforcement systems are usually used to increase the sound level of the sound source , acoustic enhancement systems are typically used to increase the...

is used in some concert halls where classical music such as symphonies and opera is performed. Acoustic enhancement systems help give a more even sound in the hall and prevent "dead spots" in the audience seating area by "...augment[ing] a hall's intrinsic acoustic characteristics." The systems use "...an array of microphones connected to a computer [which is] connected to an array of loudspeakers." However, as concertgoers have become aware of the use of these systems, debates have arisen, because "...purists maintain that the natural acoustic sound of [Classical] voices [or] instruments in a given hall should not be altered."

Kai Harada's article Opera's Dirty Little Secret states that opera houses have begun using electronic acoustic enhancement systems "...to compensate for flaws in a venue's acoustical architecture." Despite the uproar that has arisen amongst operagoers, Harada points out that none of the opera houses using acoustic enhancement systems "...use traditional, Broadway-style sound reinforcement, in which most if not all singers are equipped with radio microphones mixed to a series of unsightly loudspeakers scattered throughout the theatre." Instead, most opera houses use the sound reinforcement system for acoustic enhancement, and for subtle boosting of offstage voices, onstage dialogue, and sound effects (e.g., church bells in Tosca

Tosca

Tosca is an opera in three acts by Giacomo Puccini to an Italian libretto by Luigi Illica and Giuseppe Giacosa. It premiered at the Teatro Costanzi in Rome on 14 January 1900...

or thunder in Wagnerian operas).

Acoustic enhancement systems include LARES

LARES

LARES is an electronic sound enhancement system that uses microprocessors to control multiple loudspeakers and microphones placed around a performance space for the purpose of providing active acoustic treatment. LARES was invented in Massachusetts in 1988, by engineers working at Lexicon,...

(Lexicon Acoustic Reinforcement and Enhancement System) and SIAP, the System for Improved Acoustic Performance. These systems use microphones, computer processing "with delay, phase, and frequency-response changes", and then send the signal "... to a large number of loudspeakers placed in extremities of the performance venue." Another acoustic enhancement system, VRAS (Variable Room Acoustics System) uses "...different algorithms based on microphones placed around the room." The Deutsche Staatsoper in Berlin and the Hummingbird Centre in Toronto use a LARES system. The Ahmanson Theatre in Los Angeles, the Royal National Theatre in London, and the Vivian Beaumont Theatre in New York City use the SIAP system.

Lecture halls and conference rooms

Lecture halls and conference rooms pose the challenge of reproducing speech clearly to a large hall, which may have reflective, echo

Echo (phenomenon)

In audio signal processing and acoustics, an echo is a reflection of sound, arriving at the listener some time after the direct sound. Typical examples are the echo produced by the bottom of a well, by a building, or by the walls of an enclosed room and an empty room. A true echo is a single...

-producing surfaces. In some conferences, sound engineers have to provide microphones for a large number of people, in the case of a panel conference or debate. In some cases, automatic mixers are used to control the levels of the microphones.

Sports sound systems

Systems for outdoor sports facilities and ice rinks often have to deal with substantial echo, which can make speech unintelligible. Sports and recreational sound systems often face environmental challenges as well, such as the need for weather-proof outdoor speakers in outdoor stadiums and humidity

Humidity

Humidity is a term for the amount of water vapor in the air, and can refer to any one of several measurements of humidity. Formally, humid air is not "moist air" but a mixture of water vapor and other constituents of air, and humidity is defined in terms of the water content of this mixture,...

- and splash-resistant speakers in swimming pools.

Setting up and testing

Large-scale sound reinforcement systems are designed, installed, and operated by audio engineers and audio technicians. During the design phase of a newly constructed venue, audio engineers work with architects and contractors, to ensure that the proposed design will accommodate the speakers and provide an appropriate space for sound technicians and the racks of audio equipment. Sound engineers will also provide advice on which audio components would best suit the space and its intended use, and on the correct placement and installation of these components. During the installation phase, sound engineers ensure that high-power electrical components are safely installed and connected and that ceiling or wall mounted speakers are properly mounted (or "flown") onto rigging

Rigging

Rigging is the apparatus through which the force of the wind is used to propel sailboats and sailing ships forward. This includes masts, yards, sails, and cordage.-Terms and classifications:...

. When the sound reinforcement components are installed, the sound engineers test and calibrate the system so that its sound production will be even across the frequency spectrum.

System testing

A sound reinforcement system should be able to accurately reproduce a signal from its input, through any processing, to its output without any coloration or distortion. However, due to inconsistencies in venue sizes, shapes, building materials, and even crowd densities, this is not always possible without prior calibration of the system. This can be done in one of several ways.

The oldest method of system calibration

Calibration

Calibration is a comparison between measurements – one of known magnitude or correctness made or set with one device and another measurement made in as similar a way as possible with a second device....

involves a set of healthy ears, test program material (i.e. music or speech), a graphic equalizer, and last but certainly not least, a familiarity with the proper (or desired) frequency response. One must then listen to the program material through the system, take note of any noticeable frequency changes or resonances, and subtly correct them using the equalizer. Experienced engineers typically use a specific playlist of music every time they calibrate a system that they have become very familiar with. This process is still done by many engineers, even when analysis equipment is used, as a final check of how the system sounds with music or speech playing through the system.

Another method of manual calibration requires a pair of high-quality headphones patched into the input signal before any processing (such as the pre-fade-listen of the test program input channel of the mixing console, or the headphone output of the CD player or tape deck). One can then use this direct signal as a near-perfect reference with which to find any differences in frequency response. This method may not be perfect, but it can be very helpful with limited resources or time, such as using pre-show music to correct for the changes in response caused by the arrival of a crowd.

Because this is still a very subjective method of calibration, and because the human ear is so dynamic in its own response, the program material used for testing should be as similar as possible to that for which the system is being used.

Since the development of digital signal processing

Digital signal processing

Digital signal processing is concerned with the representation of discrete time signals by a sequence of numbers or symbols and the processing of these signals. Digital signal processing and analog signal processing are subfields of signal processing...

(DSP), there have been many pieces of equipment and computer software designed to shift the bulk of the work of system calibration from human auditory interpretation to software algorithms that run on microprocessors.

One tool for calibrating a sound system using either DSP or Analog Signal Processing is a Real Time Analyzer

Real Time Analyzer

A Real Time Analyzer is a professional audio device that measures and displays the frequency spectrum of an audio signal; a spectrum analyzer that works in real time. An RTA can range from a small PDA-sized device to a rackmounted hardware unit to software running on a laptop...

(RTA). This tool is usually used by piping pink noise

Pink noise

into the system and measuring the result with a special calibrated microphone connected to the RTA. Using this information, the system can be adjusted to help achieve the desired response. The displayed response from the RTA mic cannot be taken as a perfect representation of the room as the analysis will be different, sometimes drastically, when the mic is placed in different position in front of the system.

More recently, sound engineers have seen the introduction of dual fft (fast-fourier transform) based audio analysis software which allows an engineer to view not only frequency vs. amplitude (pitch vs. volume) information that an rta provides, but also to see the same signals (sounds) in the time domain. This provides the engineer with much more meaningful data than an rta alone. Also, dual fft analysis allows one to compare the source signal with the output signal and view the difference. This is a very fast way to calibrate a system to sound as close as possible to the original source material. As with any such measurement tool, it must always be verified using actual human ears.

Some DSP system processing devices have been designed for use by non-professionals that automatically make adjustments in the system EQ based upon what is being read from the RTA mic. These are practically never used by professionals, as they almost never calibrate the system as well as a professional audio engineer can manually.

Papers

Benson, J.E. "Theory and Design of Loudspeaker Enclosures", Amalgamated Wireless Australia Technical Review, (1968, 1971, 1972).
Beranek, L., "Loudspeakers and Microphones", J. Acoustical Society of America, volume 26, number 5 (1954).
Damaske, P., "Subjective Investigation of Sound Fields", Acustica, Vol. 19, pp. 198–213 (1967–1968).
Davis, D & Wickersham, R., "Experiments in the Enhancement of the Artist's Ability to Control His Interface with the Acoustic Environment in Large Halls", presented at the 51st AES Convention, 13–16 May 1975; preprint number 1033.
Eargle J. & Gelow, W., "Performance of Horn Systems: Low-Frequency Cut-off, Pattern Control, and Distortion Trade-offs", presented at the 101st Audio Engineering Society Convention, Los Angeles, 8–11 November 1996. Preprint number 4330.
Engebretson, M., "Low Frequency Sound Reproduction", J. Audio Engineering Society, volume 32, number 5, pp. 340–352 (May 1984)
French, N. & Steinberg, J., "Factors Governing the Intelligibility of Speech Sounds", J. Acoustical Society of America, volume 19 (1947).
Gander, M. & Eargle, J., "Measurement and Estimation of Large Loudspeaker Array Performance", J. Audio Engineering Society, volume 38, number 4 (1990).
Henricksen, C. & Ureda, M., "The Manta-Ray Horns", J. Audio Engineering Society, volume 26, number, pp. 629–634 (September 1978).
Hilliard, J., "Historical Review of Horns Used for Audience-Type Sound Reproduction", J. Acoustical Society of America, volume 59, number 1, pp. 1 – 8, (January 1976)
Houtgast, T. and Steeneken, H., "Envelope Spectrum Intelligibility of Speech in Enclosures", presented at IEEAFCRL Speech Conference, 1972.
Klipsch, P. "Modulation Distortion in Loudspeakers: Parts 1, 2, and 3" J. Audio Engineering Society, volume 17, number 2 (April 1969), volume 18, number 1 (February 1970), and volume 20, number 10 (December 1972).
Lochner, P. & Burger, J., "The Influence of Reflections on Auditorium Acoustics", Sound and Vibration, volume 4, pp. 426–54 (196).
Meyer, D., "Digital Control of Loudspeaker Array Directivity", J. Audio Engineering Society, volume 32, number 10 (1984).
Peutz, V., "Articulation Loss of Consonants as a Criterion for Speech Transmission in a Room", J. Audio Engineering Society, volume 19, number 11 (1971).
Rathe, E., "Note on Two Common Problems of Sound Reproduction", J. Sound and Vibration, volume 10, pp. 472–479 (1969).
Schroeder, M., "Progress in Architectural Acoustics and Artificial Reverberation", J. Audio Engineering Society, volume 32, number 4, p. 194 (1984)
Smith, D., Keele, D., and Eargle, J., "Improvements in Monitor Loudspeaker Design", J. Audio Engineering Society, volume 31, number 6, pp. 408–422 (June 1983).
Toole, F., "Loudspeaker Measurements and Their Relationship to Listener Preferences, Parts 1 and 2", J. Audio Engineering Society, volume 34, numbers 4 & 5 (1986).
Veneklasen, P., "Design Considerations from the Viewpoint of the Consultant", Auditorium Acoustics, pp. 21–24, Applied Science Publishers, London (1975).
Wente, E. & Thuras, A., "Auditory Perspective — Loudspeakers and Microphones", Electrical Engineering, volume 53, pp. 17–24 (January 1934). Also, BSTJ, volume XIII, number 2, p. 259 (April 1934) and Journal AES, volume 26, number 3 (March 1978).

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