TLR 2
Encyclopedia
Toll-like receptor 2 also known as TLR-2 is a protein
that in humans is encoded by the TLR2 gene
. TLR2 has also been designated as CD282 (cluster of differentiation
282). TLR-2 plays a role in the immune system
. TLR-2 is a membrane protein
, a receptor, which is expressed on the surface of certain cells and recognizes foreign substances and passes on appropriate signals to the cells of the immune system.
(TLR) family, which plays a fundamental role in pathogen
recognition and activation of innate immunity. TLRs are highly conserved from Drosophila
to humans and share structural and functional similarities. They recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) that are expressed on infectious agents, and mediate the production of cytokine
s necessary for the development of effective immunity. The various TLRs exhibit different patterns of expression. This gene is expressed most abundantly in peripheral blood leukocytes, and mediates host response to Gram-positive bacteria and yeast
via stimulation of NF-κB.
s and eliminates them. This occurs in several phases. In the early inflammation phase, the pathogens are recognized by antibodies
that are already present (innate or acquired through prior infection; see also cross-reactivity
). Immune-system components (e.g. complement
) that are bound to the antibodies and kept around in reserve then disable them, and they are phagocytized by scavenger cells (e.g. macrophage
s). Dendritic cell
s are likewise capable of phagocytizing but do not do it for the purpose of direct pathogen elimination. Rather, they infiltrate the spleen
and lymph node
s, and each presents
components of an antigen
there, as the result of which specific antibodies are formed that recognize precisely that antigen.
These newly formed antibodies would arrive too late in an acute infection, however, so what we think of as "immunology" constitutes only the second half of the process. Because this phase would always start too late to play an essential role in the defense process, a faster-acting principle is applied ahead of it, one that occurs only in forms of life that are phylogenetically
more highly developed.
What are called pattern-recognition receptors come into play here. This refers to receptors that recognize the gross, primarily structural features of molecules not innate to the host organism. These include, for example, lipid
s with a totally different basic chemical structure. Such receptors are bound directly to cells of the immune system and cause immediate activation of their respective nonspecific immune cells.
A prime example of such a foreign ligand is bacterial endotoxin
, whose effects have been known for generations. When it enters the bloodstream it causes systematic activation of the early-phase response, with all the side effects of septic shock
. This is known in the laboratory as the Shwartzman phenomenon
. The intended effect is to mobilize the organism for combat, so to speak, and eliminate most of the pathogens.
, fungal
, viral
, and certain endogenous substances. In general, this results in the uptake (internalization, phagocytosis) of bound molecules by endosome
s/phagosome
s and in cellular activation; thus such elements of innate immunity as macrophages, PMNs
and dendritic cells assume functions of nonspecific immune defense, B1a and MZ B cells form the first antibodies, and specific antibody formation gets started in the process. Cytokine
s participating in this include tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and various interleukins (IL-1α
, IL-1β
, IL-6
, IL-8
, IL-12
). Before the TLRs were known, several of the substances mentioned were classified as modulins. Due to the cytokine pattern, which corresponds more closely to Th1
, an immune deviation is seen in this direction in most experimental models, away from Th2
characteristics. Conjugate
s are being developed as vaccine
s or are already being used without a priori knowledge.
A peculiarity first recognized in 2006 is the expression
of TLR-2 on Tregs (a type of T cell), which experience both TCR
-controlled proliferation
and functional inactivation. This leads to disinhibition of the early inflammation
phase and of specific antibody formation. Following a reduction in pathogen count, many pathogen-specific Tregs are present that, now without a TLR-2 signal, become active and inhibit the specific and inflammatory immune reactions (see also TNF-β
, IL-10
). Older literature that ascribes a direct immunity-stimulating effect via TLR-2 to a given molecule must be interpreted in light of the fact that the TLR-2 knockouts employed typically have very few Tregs.
Functionally relevant polymorphisms
are reported that cause functional impairment and thus, in general, reduced survival rates, in particular in infections/sepsis with Gram-positive bacteria.
Signal transduction
is depicted under Toll-like receptor
.
on microglia
, Schwann cell
s, monocyte
s, macrophages, dendritic cells, polymorphonuclear leukocytes
(PMNs or PMLs), B cell
s (B1a, MZ B, B2), and T cell
s, including Tregs (CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells). In some cases, it occurs in a heterodimer (combination molecule), e.g., paired with TLR-1
or TLR-6
. TLR-2 is also found in the epithelia
of air passages
, pulmonary alveoli
, renal tubules, and the Bowman's capsule
s in renal corpuscle
s. In the skin
, it is found on keratinocyte
s and sebaceous gland
s; spc1
is induced here, allowing a bactericidal sebum to be formed.
Agonist
with TLR 1
and TOLLIP
.
Protein
Proteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of...
that in humans is encoded by the TLR2 gene
Gene
A gene is a molecular unit of heredity of a living organism. It is a name given to some stretches of DNA and RNA that code for a type of protein or for an RNA chain that has a function in the organism. Living beings depend on genes, as they specify all proteins and functional RNA chains...
. TLR2 has also been designated as CD282 (cluster of differentiation
Cluster of differentiation
The cluster of differentiation is a protocol used for the identification and investigation of cell surface molecules present on white blood cells, providing targets for immunophenotyping of cells...
282). TLR-2 plays a role in the immune system
Immune system
An immune system is a system of biological structures and processes within an organism that protects against disease by identifying and killing pathogens and tumor cells. It detects a wide variety of agents, from viruses to parasitic worms, and needs to distinguish them from the organism's own...
. TLR-2 is a membrane protein
Membrane protein
A membrane protein is a protein molecule that is attached to, or associated with the membrane of a cell or an organelle. More than half of all proteins interact with membranes.-Function:...
, a receptor, which is expressed on the surface of certain cells and recognizes foreign substances and passes on appropriate signals to the cells of the immune system.
Function
The protein encoded by this gene is a member of the Toll-like receptorToll-like receptor
Toll-like receptors are a class of proteins that play a key role in the innate immune system. They are single, membrane-spanning, non-catalytic receptors that recognize structurally conserved molecules derived from microbes...
(TLR) family, which plays a fundamental role in pathogen
Pathogen
A pathogen gignomai "I give birth to") or infectious agent — colloquially, a germ — is a microbe or microorganism such as a virus, bacterium, prion, or fungus that causes disease in its animal or plant host...
recognition and activation of innate immunity. TLRs are highly conserved from Drosophila
Drosophila
Drosophila is a genus of small flies, belonging to the family Drosophilidae, whose members are often called "fruit flies" or more appropriately pomace flies, vinegar flies, or wine flies, a reference to the characteristic of many species to linger around overripe or rotting fruit...
to humans and share structural and functional similarities. They recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) that are expressed on infectious agents, and mediate the production of cytokine
Cytokine
Cytokines are small cell-signaling protein molecules that are secreted by the glial cells of the nervous system and by numerous cells of the immune system and are a category of signaling molecules used extensively in intercellular communication...
s necessary for the development of effective immunity. The various TLRs exhibit different patterns of expression. This gene is expressed most abundantly in peripheral blood leukocytes, and mediates host response to Gram-positive bacteria and yeast
Yeast
Yeasts are eukaryotic micro-organisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with 1,500 species currently described estimated to be only 1% of all fungal species. Most reproduce asexually by mitosis, and many do so by an asymmetric division process called budding...
via stimulation of NF-κB.
Background
The immune system recognizes foreign pathogenPathogen
A pathogen gignomai "I give birth to") or infectious agent — colloquially, a germ — is a microbe or microorganism such as a virus, bacterium, prion, or fungus that causes disease in its animal or plant host...
s and eliminates them. This occurs in several phases. In the early inflammation phase, the pathogens are recognized by antibodies
Antibody
An antibody, also known as an immunoglobulin, is a large Y-shaped protein used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects such as bacteria and viruses. The antibody recognizes a unique part of the foreign target, termed an antigen...
that are already present (innate or acquired through prior infection; see also cross-reactivity
Cross-reactivity
Cross-reactivity is the reaction between an antibody and an antigen that differs from the immunogen. It is sometimes also referred to as crossimmunity or cross-protective immunity...
). Immune-system components (e.g. complement
Complement system
The complement system helps or “complements” the ability of antibodies and phagocytic cells to clear pathogens from an organism. It is part of the immune system called the innate immune system that is not adaptable and does not change over the course of an individual's lifetime...
) that are bound to the antibodies and kept around in reserve then disable them, and they are phagocytized by scavenger cells (e.g. macrophage
Macrophage
Macrophages are cells produced by the differentiation of monocytes in tissues. Human macrophages are about in diameter. Monocytes and macrophages are phagocytes. Macrophages function in both non-specific defense as well as help initiate specific defense mechanisms of vertebrate animals...
s). Dendritic cell
Dendritic cell
Dendritic cells are immune cells forming part of the mammalian immune system. Their main function is to process antigen material and present it on the surface to other cells of the immune system. That is, dendritic cells function as antigen-presenting cells...
s are likewise capable of phagocytizing but do not do it for the purpose of direct pathogen elimination. Rather, they infiltrate the spleen
Spleen
The spleen is an organ found in virtually all vertebrate animals with important roles in regard to red blood cells and the immune system. In humans, it is located in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen. It removes old red blood cells and holds a reserve of blood in case of hemorrhagic shock...
and lymph node
Lymph node
A lymph node is a small ball or an oval-shaped organ of the immune system, distributed widely throughout the body including the armpit and stomach/gut and linked by lymphatic vessels. Lymph nodes are garrisons of B, T, and other immune cells. Lymph nodes are found all through the body, and act as...
s, and each presents
Antigen presentation
Antigen presentation is a process in the body's immune system by which macrophages, dendritic cells and other cell types capture antigens and then enable their recognition by T-cells....
components of an antigen
Antigen
An antigen is a foreign molecule that, when introduced into the body, triggers the production of an antibody by the immune system. The immune system will then kill or neutralize the antigen that is recognized as a foreign and potentially harmful invader. These invaders can be molecules such as...
there, as the result of which specific antibodies are formed that recognize precisely that antigen.
These newly formed antibodies would arrive too late in an acute infection, however, so what we think of as "immunology" constitutes only the second half of the process. Because this phase would always start too late to play an essential role in the defense process, a faster-acting principle is applied ahead of it, one that occurs only in forms of life that are phylogenetically
Phylogenetics
In biology, phylogenetics is the study of evolutionary relatedness among groups of organisms , which is discovered through molecular sequencing data and morphological data matrices...
more highly developed.
What are called pattern-recognition receptors come into play here. This refers to receptors that recognize the gross, primarily structural features of molecules not innate to the host organism. These include, for example, lipid
Lipid
Lipids constitute a broad group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins , monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, phospholipids, and others...
s with a totally different basic chemical structure. Such receptors are bound directly to cells of the immune system and cause immediate activation of their respective nonspecific immune cells.
A prime example of such a foreign ligand is bacterial endotoxin
Endotoxin
Endotoxins are toxins associated with some Gram-negative bacteria. An "endotoxin" is a toxin that is a structural molecule of the bacteria that is recognized by the immune system.-Gram negative:...
, whose effects have been known for generations. When it enters the bloodstream it causes systematic activation of the early-phase response, with all the side effects of septic shock
Septic shock
Septic shock is a medical emergency caused by decreased tissue perfusion and oxygen delivery as a result of severe infection and sepsis, though the microbe may be systemic or localized to a particular site. It can cause multiple organ dysfunction syndrome and death...
. This is known in the laboratory as the Shwartzman phenomenon
Shwartzman phenomenon
Shwartzman phenomenon, also known as Shwartzman reaction, is a rare reaction of a body to particular types of toxins, called endotoxins, which cause thrombosis in the affected tissue. A clearing of the thrombosis results in a reticuloendothelial blockade, which prevents re-clearing of the...
. The intended effect is to mobilize the organism for combat, so to speak, and eliminate most of the pathogens.
Mechanism
As a membrane surface receptor, TLR-2 recognizes many bacterialBacteria
Bacteria are a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals...
, fungal
Fungus
A fungus is a member of a large group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds , as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from plants, animals, and bacteria...
, viral
Virus
A virus is a small infectious agent that can replicate only inside the living cells of organisms. Viruses infect all types of organisms, from animals and plants to bacteria and archaea...
, and certain endogenous substances. In general, this results in the uptake (internalization, phagocytosis) of bound molecules by endosome
Endosome
In biology, an endosome is a membrane-bound compartment inside eukaryotic cells. It is a compartment of the endocytic membrane transport pathway from the plasma membrane to the lysosome. Molecules internalized from the plasma membrane can follow this pathway all the way to lysosomes for...
s/phagosome
Phagosome
In cell biology, a phagosome is a vacuole formed around a particle absorbed by phagocytosis. The vacuole is formed by the fusion of the cell membrane around the particle. A phagosome is a cellular compartment in which pathogenic microorganisms can be killed and digested...
s and in cellular activation; thus such elements of innate immunity as macrophages, PMNs
Granulocyte
Granulocytes are a category of white blood cells characterized by the presence of granules in their cytoplasm. They are also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes because of the varying shapes of the nucleus, which is usually lobed into three segments...
and dendritic cells assume functions of nonspecific immune defense, B1a and MZ B cells form the first antibodies, and specific antibody formation gets started in the process. Cytokine
Cytokine
Cytokines are small cell-signaling protein molecules that are secreted by the glial cells of the nervous system and by numerous cells of the immune system and are a category of signaling molecules used extensively in intercellular communication...
s participating in this include tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and various interleukins (IL-1α
IL1A
Interleukin-1 alpha is a protein that in humans is encoded by the IL1A gene.The protein encoded by this gene is a cytokine of the interleukin-1 family. Interleukin-1 alpha possesses a wide spectrum of metabolic, physiological, haematopoietic activities, and plays one of the central roles in the...
, IL-1β
IL1B
Interleukin-1 beta also known as catabolin, is a cytokine protein that in humans is encoded by the IL1B gene. IL-1β precursor is cleaved by caspase 1 . Cytosolic thiol protease cleaves the product to form mature IL-1β.- Function :Interleukin 1 was discovered by Gery in 1972...
, IL-6
Interleukin 6
Interleukin-6 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the IL6 gene.IL-6 is an interleukin that acts as both a pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokine. It is secreted by T cells and macrophages to stimulate immune response, e.g. during infection and after trauma, especially burns or other...
, IL-8
Interleukin 8
Interleukin-8 is a chemokine produced by macrophages and other cell types such as epithelial cells. It is also synthesized by endothelial cells, which store IL-8 in their storage vesicles, the Weibel-Palade bodies...
, IL-12
Interleukin 12
Interleukin 12 is an interleukin that is naturally produced by dendritic cells, macrophages and human B-lymphoblastoid cells in response to antigenic stimulation.-Gene and structure:...
). Before the TLRs were known, several of the substances mentioned were classified as modulins. Due to the cytokine pattern, which corresponds more closely to Th1
T helper cell
T helper cells are a sub-group of lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell, that play an important role in the immune system, particularly in the adaptive immune system. These cells have no cytotoxic or phagocytic activity; they cannot kill infected host cells or pathogens. Rather, they help other...
, an immune deviation is seen in this direction in most experimental models, away from Th2
T helper cell
T helper cells are a sub-group of lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell, that play an important role in the immune system, particularly in the adaptive immune system. These cells have no cytotoxic or phagocytic activity; they cannot kill infected host cells or pathogens. Rather, they help other...
characteristics. Conjugate
Conjugate vaccine
A conjugate vaccine is created by covalently attaching a poor antigen to a carrier protein , thereby conferring the immunological attributes of the carrier on the attached antigen...
s are being developed as vaccine
Vaccine
A vaccine is a biological preparation that improves immunity to a particular disease. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism, and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe or its toxins...
s or are already being used without a priori knowledge.
A peculiarity first recognized in 2006 is the expression
Gene expression
Gene expression is the process by which information from a gene is used in the synthesis of a functional gene product. These products are often proteins, but in non-protein coding genes such as ribosomal RNA , transfer RNA or small nuclear RNA genes, the product is a functional RNA...
of TLR-2 on Tregs (a type of T cell), which experience both TCR
T cell receptor
The T cell receptor or TCR is a molecule found on the surface of T lymphocytes that is responsible for recognizing antigens bound to major histocompatibility complex molecules...
-controlled proliferation
Cell growth
The term cell growth is used in the contexts of cell development and cell division . When used in the context of cell division, it refers to growth of cell populations, where one cell grows and divides to produce two "daughter cells"...
and functional inactivation. This leads to disinhibition of the early inflammation
Inflammation
Inflammation is part of the complex biological response of vascular tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. Inflammation is a protective attempt by the organism to remove the injurious stimuli and to initiate the healing process...
phase and of specific antibody formation. Following a reduction in pathogen count, many pathogen-specific Tregs are present that, now without a TLR-2 signal, become active and inhibit the specific and inflammatory immune reactions (see also TNF-β
Lymphotoxin
Lymphotoxin is a lymphokine cytokine.It is a protein that is produced by Th1 type T-cells and induces vascular endothelial cells to change their surface adhesion molecules to allow phagocytic cells to bind to them.Lymphotoxin is homologous to Tumor Necrosis Factor beta, but secreted by T-cells...
, IL-10
Interleukin 10
Interleukin-10 , also known as human cytokine synthesis inhibitory factor , is an anti-inflammatory cytokine. In humans IL-10 is encoded by the IL10 gene....
). Older literature that ascribes a direct immunity-stimulating effect via TLR-2 to a given molecule must be interpreted in light of the fact that the TLR-2 knockouts employed typically have very few Tregs.
Functionally relevant polymorphisms
Polymorphism (biology)
Polymorphism in biology occurs when two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the same population of a species — in other words, the occurrence of more than one form or morph...
are reported that cause functional impairment and thus, in general, reduced survival rates, in particular in infections/sepsis with Gram-positive bacteria.
Signal transduction
Signal transduction
Signal transduction occurs when an extracellular signaling molecule activates a cell surface receptor. In turn, this receptor alters intracellular molecules creating a response...
is depicted under Toll-like receptor
Toll-like receptor
Toll-like receptors are a class of proteins that play a key role in the innate immune system. They are single, membrane-spanning, non-catalytic receptors that recognize structurally conserved molecules derived from microbes...
.
Expression
TLR-2 is expressedGene expression
Gene expression is the process by which information from a gene is used in the synthesis of a functional gene product. These products are often proteins, but in non-protein coding genes such as ribosomal RNA , transfer RNA or small nuclear RNA genes, the product is a functional RNA...
on microglia
Microglia
Microglia are a type of glial cell that are the resident macrophages of the brain and spinal cord, and thus act as the first and main form of active immune defense in the central nervous system . Microglia constitute 20% of the total glial cell population within the brain...
, Schwann cell
Schwann cell
Schwann cells or neurolemmocytes are the principal glia of the peripheral nervous system . Glial cells function to support neurons and in the PNS, also include satellite cells, olfactory ensheathing cells, enteric glia and glia that reside at sensory nerve endings, such as the Pacinian corpuscle...
s, monocyte
Monocyte
Monocytes are a type of white blood cell and are part of the innate immune system of vertebrates including all mammals , birds, reptiles, and fish. Monocytes play multiple roles in immune function...
s, macrophages, dendritic cells, polymorphonuclear leukocytes
Granulocyte
Granulocytes are a category of white blood cells characterized by the presence of granules in their cytoplasm. They are also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes because of the varying shapes of the nucleus, which is usually lobed into three segments...
(PMNs or PMLs), B cell
B cell
B cells are lymphocytes that play a large role in the humoral immune response . The principal functions of B cells are to make antibodies against antigens, perform the role of antigen-presenting cells and eventually develop into memory B cells after activation by antigen interaction...
s (B1a, MZ B, B2), and T cell
T cell
T cells or T lymphocytes belong to a group of white blood cells known as lymphocytes, and play a central role in cell-mediated immunity. They can be distinguished from other lymphocytes, such as B cells and natural killer cells , by the presence of a T cell receptor on the cell surface. They are...
s, including Tregs (CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells). In some cases, it occurs in a heterodimer (combination molecule), e.g., paired with TLR-1
TLR 1
TLR 1 is a member of the Toll-like receptor family of pattern recognition receptors of the innate immune system. TLR1 recognizes pathogen-associated molecular pattern with a specificity for gram-positive bacteria...
or TLR-6
TLR6
Toll-like receptor 6 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TLR6 gene. TLR6 has also been designated as CD286 .-External links:...
. TLR-2 is also found in the epithelia
Epithelium
Epithelium is one of the four basic types of animal tissue, along with connective tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue. Epithelial tissues line the cavities and surfaces of structures throughout the body, and also form many glands. Functions of epithelial cells include secretion, selective...
of air passages
Vertebrate trachea
In tetrapod anatomy the trachea, or windpipe, is a tube that connects the pharynx or larynx to the lungs, allowing the passage of air. It is lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium cells with goblet cells that produce mucus...
, pulmonary alveoli
Pulmonary alveolus
An alveolus is an anatomical structure that has the form of a hollow cavity. Found in the lung parenchyma, the pulmonary alveoli are the dead ends of the respiratory tree, which outcrop from either alveolar sacs or alveolar ducts, which are both sites of gas exchange with the blood as well...
, renal tubules, and the Bowman's capsule
Bowman's capsule
The Bowman's capsule is a cup-like sac at the beginning of the tubular component of a nephron in the mammalian kidney that performs the first step in the filtration of blood to form urine. A glomerulus is enclosed in the sac...
s in renal corpuscle
Renal corpuscle
In the kidney, a renal corpuscle is the initial blood-filtering component of a nephron. It consists of two structures: a glomerulus and a Bowman's capsule. The glomerulus is a small tuft of capillaries containing two cell types. Endothelial cells, which have large fenestrae, are not covered by...
s. In the skin
Skin
-Dermis:The dermis is the layer of skin beneath the epidermis that consists of connective tissue and cushions the body from stress and strain. The dermis is tightly connected to the epidermis by a basement membrane. It also harbors many Mechanoreceptors that provide the sense of touch and heat...
, it is found on keratinocyte
Keratinocyte
Keratinocytes are the predominant cell type in the epidermis, the outermost layer of the human skin, constituting 95% of the cells found there. Those keratinocytes found in the basal layer of the skin are sometimes referred to as "basal cells" or "basal keratinocytes"...
s and sebaceous gland
Sebaceous gland
The sebaceous glands are microscopic glands in the skin that secrete an oily/waxy matter, called sebum, to lubricate and waterproof the skin and hair of mammals...
s; spc1
Furin
Furin is a protein that in humans is encoded by the FURIN gene. It was named furin because it was in the upstream region of an oncogene known as FES. The gene was known as FUR and therefore the protein was named furin...
is induced here, allowing a bactericidal sebum to be formed.
AgonistAgonistAn agonist is a chemical that binds to a receptor of a cell and triggers a response by that cell. Agonists often mimic the action of a naturally occurring substance...
s
| Agonist | Organism >- | Lipoteichoic acid Lipoteichoic acid Lipoteichoic acid is a major constituent of the cell wall of Gram-positive bacteria. These organisms have an inner membrane and, external to it, a thick peptidoglycan layer. It consists of teichoic acids, long chains of ribitol phosphate and is anchored to the lipid bilayer via a glyceride... |
>- | Leptospirosis Leptospirosis Leptospirosis is caused by infection with bacteria of the genus Leptospira, and affects humans as well as other mammals, birds, amphibians, and reptiles.The... and Porphyromonas gingivalis Porphyromonas gingivalis Porphyromonas gingivalis belongs to the phylum Bacteroidetes and is a non-motile, gram-negative, rod-shaped, anaerobic pathogenic bacterium. It forms black colonies on blood agar.... >- | MALP-2 and MALP-404 (lipoprotein Lipoprotein A lipoprotein is a biochemical assembly that contains both proteins and lipids water-bound to the proteins. Many enzymes, transporters, structural proteins, antigens, adhesins, and toxins are lipoproteins... s) |
Mycoplasma Mycoplasma Mycoplasma refers to a genus of bacteria that lack a cell wall. Without a cell wall, they are unaffected by many common antibiotics such as penicillin or other beta-lactam antibiotics that target cell wall synthesis. They can be parasitic or saprotrophic. Several species are pathogenic in humans,... >- | - |
Chlamydophila pneumoniae Chlamydophila pneumoniae Chlamydophila pneumoniae is a species of Chlamydophila, an obligate intracellular bacteria that infects humans and is a major cause of pneumonia.... >- | OspA |
Borrelia burgdorferi Borrelia burgdorferi Borrelia burgdorferi is a species of Gram negative bacteria of the spirochete class of the genus Borrelia. B. burgdorferi is predominant in North America, but also exists in Europe, and is the agent of Lyme disease.... (Lyme disease Lyme disease Lyme disease, or Lyme borreliosis, is an emerging infectious disease caused by at least three species of bacteria belonging to the genus Borrelia. Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto is the main cause of Lyme disease in the United States, whereas Borrelia afzelii and Borrelia garinii cause most... ) >- | Porin Porin (protein) Porins are beta barrel proteins that cross a cellular membrane and act as a pore through which molecules can diffuse. Unlike other membrane transport proteins, porins are large enough to allow passive diffusion, i.e., they act as channels that are specific to different types of molecules... |
Neisseria meningitidis Neisseria meningitidis Neisseria meningitidis, often referred to as meningococcus, is a bacterium that can cause meningitis and other forms of meningococcal disease such as meningococcemia, a life threatening sepsis. N. meningitidis is a major cause of morbidity and mortality during childhood in industrialized countries... Haemophilus influenzae Haemophilus influenzae Haemophilus influenzae, formerly called Pfeiffer's bacillus or Bacillus influenzae, Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium first described in 1892 by Richard Pfeiffer during an influenza pandemic. A member of the Pasteurellaceae family, it is generally aerobic, but can grow as a facultative anaerobe. H... >- | Antigen mixtures |
Propionibacterium acnes Propionibacterium acnes Propionibacterium acnes is a relatively slow growing, typically aerotolerant anaerobic gram positive bacterium that is linked to the skin condition acne; it can also cause chronic blepharitis and endophthalmitis, the latter particularly following intraocular surgery... >- | LcrV LcrV LcrV is a somewhat unstudied part of the Yersinia pestis virulence protein factors that also includes all Yop's, which used to stand for Yersinia outer protein, but now has kept the name out of convention. LcrV's main function is not actually known, but it is essential for the production of other... |
Yersinia Yersinia Yersinia is a genus of bacteria in the family Enterobacteriaceae. Yersinia are Gram-negative rod shaped bacteria, a few micrometers long and fractions of a micrometer in diameter, and are facultative anaerobes. Some members of Yersinia are pathogenic in humans; in particular, Y. pestis is the... >- | Lipomannan |
Mycobacterium Mycobacterium Mycobacterium is a genus of Actinobacteria, given its own family, the Mycobacteriaceae. The genus includes pathogens known to cause serious diseases in mammals, including tuberculosis and leprosy... : Mycobacterium tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a pathogenic bacterial species in the genus Mycobacterium and the causative agent of most cases of tuberculosis . First discovered in 1882 by Robert Koch, M... >- | GPI anchor |
Trypanosoma cruzi Trypanosoma cruzi Trypanosoma cruzi is a species of parasitic euglenoid trypanosomes. This species causes the trypanosomiasis diseases in humans and animals in America... >- | Lysophosphatidylserine Lysophosphatidylserine Lysophosphatidylserine is a lysophospholipid which triggers TLR 2.A recent study showed that it does not stimulate normal leukocytes. It also enhances glucose transport, lowering blood glucose levels while leaving secretion of insulin unaffected.... |
Schistosoma mansoni Schistosoma mansoni Schistosoma mansoni is a significant parasite of humans, a trematode that is one of the major agents of the disease schistosomiasis. The schistosomiasis caused by Schistosoma mansoni is intestinal schistosomiasis.... >- | Lipophosphoglycan (LPG) |
Leishmania major Leishmania major Leishmania major is a species of Leishmania.It is associated with zoonotic cutaneous leishmaniasis.The genome has been sequenced.... >- | Glycophosphatidylinositol Glycophosphatidylinositol Glycosylphosphatidylinositol is a glycolipid that can be attached to the C-terminus of a protein during posttranslational modification... (GPI) |
Plasmodium falciparum Plasmodium falciparum Plasmodium falciparum is a protozoan parasite, one of the species of Plasmodium that cause malaria in humans. It is transmitted by the female Anopheles mosquito. Malaria caused by this species is the most dangerous form of malaria, with the highest rates of complications and mortality... >- | Zymosan Zymosan Zymosan is a glucan with repeating glucose units connected by β-1,3-glycosidic linkages. It binds to TLR 2.Zymosan is prepared from yeast cell wall and consists of protein-carbohydrate complexes. It is used to induce experimental sterile inflammation... (a beta-glucan Beta-glucan β-Glucans are polysaccharides of D-glucose monomers linked by β-glycosidic bonds. β-glucans are a diverse group of molecules that can vary with respect to molecular mass, solubility, viscosity, and three-dimensional configuration... ) |
Saccharomyces cerevisiae Saccharomyces cerevisiae Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a species of yeast. It is perhaps the most useful yeast, having been instrumental to baking and brewing since ancient times. It is believed that it was originally isolated from the skin of grapes... >- | - |
>- | Aspergillus fumigatus Aspergillus fumigatus Aspergillus fumigatus is a fungus of the genus Aspergillus, and is one of the most common Aspergillus species to cause disease in individuals with an immunodeficiency.... , Candida albicans Candida albicans Candida albicans is a diploid fungus that grows both as yeast and filamentous cells and a causal agent of opportunistic oral and genital infections in humans. Systemic fungal infections including those by C... >- | hsp60, as peptide transporter and adjuvant Adjuvant An adjuvant is a pharmacological or immunological agent that modifies the effect of other agents, such as a drug or vaccine, while having few if any direct effects when given by itself... for antigen presentation |
>- | Herpes simplex virus Herpes simplex virus Herpes simplex virus 1 and 2 , also known as Human herpes virus 1 and 2 , are two members of the herpes virus family, Herpesviridae, that infect humans. Both HSV-1 and HSV-2 are ubiquitous and contagious... >- | - |
Varicella zoster virus Varicella zoster virus Varicella zoster virus is one of eight herpes viruses known to infect humans . It commonly causes chicken-pox in children and Herpes zoster in adults and rarely in children.-Nomenclature:... >- | - |
Cytomegalovirus Cytomegalovirus Cytomegalovirus is a viral genus of the viral group known as Herpesviridae or herpesviruses. It is typically abbreviated as CMV: The species that infects humans is commonly known as human CMV or human herpesvirus-5 , and is the most studied of all cytomegaloviruses... (CMV) >- | Hemagglutinin Hemagglutinin Influenza hemagglutinin or haemagglutinin is a type of hemagglutinin found on the surface of the influenza viruses. It is an antigenic glycoprotein. It is responsible for binding the virus to the cell that is being infected... |
Measles Measles Measles, also known as rubeola or morbilli, is an infection of the respiratory system caused by a virus, specifically a paramyxovirus of the genus Morbillivirus. Morbilliviruses, like other paramyxoviruses, are enveloped, single-stranded, negative-sense RNA viruses... |
Interactions
TLR 2 has been shown to interactProtein-protein interaction
Protein–protein interactions occur when two or more proteins bind together, often to carry out their biological function. Many of the most important molecular processes in the cell such as DNA replication are carried out by large molecular machines that are built from a large number of protein...
with TLR 1
TLR 1
TLR 1 is a member of the Toll-like receptor family of pattern recognition receptors of the innate immune system. TLR1 recognizes pathogen-associated molecular pattern with a specificity for gram-positive bacteria...
and TOLLIP
TOLLIP
Toll interacting protein, also known as TOLLIP, is an inhibitory adaptor protein that in humans is encoded by the TOLLIP gene.-Function:It is an inhibitory adaptor protein within Toll-like receptors...
.