Effects unit
Encyclopedia
Effects units are electronic
devices that alter how a musical instrument
or other audio source sounds. Some effects subtly "color" a sound, while others transform it dramatically. Effects are used during live performances or in the studio
, typically with electric guitar
, keyboard
and bass
. While most frequently used with electric or electronic
instruments, effects can also be used with acoustic
instruments, drum
s and vocals. Examples of common effects units include wah-wah pedal
s, fuzzboxes and reverb units.
Effects are housed in amplifier
s, table top units, "stompboxes" and "rackmounts", or they are built into the instruments themselves. A stompbox (or "pedal") is a small metal or plastic box placed on the floor in front of the musician and connected to his or her instrument. The box is typically controlled by one or more foot-pedal on-off switches and contains only one or two effects. A rackmount is mounted on a standard 19-inch equipment rack
and usually contains several different types of effects.
While there is currently no consensus on how to categorize effects, the following are seven common classifications: distortion
, dynamics
, filter
, modulation
, pitch
/frequency
, time-based and feedback
/sustain
. Rock guitarists derive their signature sound or "tone
" from their choice of instrument and effects.
or digital
circuitry. During a live performance, the effect is plugged into the electrical "signal" path of the instrument. In the studio, the instrument or other sound-source's auxiliary output
is patched into the effect. Form factors are part of a studio or musician's outboard gear
.
and be turned on and off with the user's feet. They typically house a single effect. The simplest stompbox pedals have a single footswitch; one to three potentiometers for controlling the effect, gain
or tone
; and a single LED
display to indicate whether the effect is on. The most complex stompbox pedals have multiple footswitches, eight to ten knobs, additional switches, and an alphanumeric display screen that indicates the status of the effect with short acronyms (e.g. DIST for "distortion").
An "effects chain" or "signal chain" may be formed by connecting two or more stompboxes. Effect chains are typically created between a preamplifier
(“preamp”) and the guitar amplifier
. When a pedal is off or inactive, the electric audio signal
coming in to the pedal is diverted onto a "bypass
", resulting in a "dry" signal which continues on to other effects down the chain. In this way, the effects within a chain can be combined in a variety of ways without having to reconnect boxes during a performance. A "controller" or "effects management system" allows for multiple effect chain loops to be created, so that one or several effects can be engaged or disengaged by tapping just one switch. The switches are usually organized in a row or a simple grid.
To preserve the clarity of the tone, it is most common to put compression, wah and overdrive pedals at the start of the chain; modulation (chorus, flanger, phase shifter) in the middle; and time-based units (delay
/echo, reverb) at the end. When using many effects, unwanted noise and hum can be introduced into the sound. Some performers use a noise gate pedal at the end of a chain to reduce unwanted noise and hum introduced by overdrive units or vintage gear.
standard to the telecommunication
and computing
industries. A rackmount unit may contain electronic circuit
ry identical to a stompbox's, although its circuits are typically more complex. Unlike stompboxes, rackmounts usually have several different types of effects.
Rackmounts are most commonly used in recording studio
s and "front of house" live sound mixing
situations, though many musicians use them in lieu of stompboxes. Rackmounts are controlled by knobs or switches on their front panel, and often by a MIDI digital control interface. During live performances, a musician can operate rackmounted effects using a "foot controller".
"Shock mount" racks are designed for musicians who are shipping gear on major tours. Devices that are less than 19 inches wide may use special "ear" adapters that allow them to be mounted on a rack.
s and even some types of instruments. Electric guitar amplifiers typically have built-in reverb and distortion
, while acoustic guitar and keyboard amplifiers tend to only have built-in reverb. Since the 2000s, guitar amplifiers began having built-in multi-effects units or digital modeling effects. Bass amplifiers are less likely to have built-in effects, although some may have a compressor/limiter
or distortion. Instruments with built-in effects include Hammond organ
s, electronic organ
s, electronic piano
s and digital synthesizer
s. Occasionally, acoustic-electric and electric guitars will have built-in effects.
A tabletop unit is a type of multi-effects device that sits on a desk and is controlled manually. One such example is the Pod
guitar amplifier modeler. Digital effects designed for DJs are often sold in tabletop models, so that the units can be placed alongside a mixer, turntables and CD scratching gear.
The earliest sound effects were strictly studio
productions. In the mid to late 1940s, recording engineers and experimental musicians such as Les Paul
began manipulating reel-to-reel recording tape
to create echo effects and unusual, futuristic sounds. Microphone placement (“miking”) techniques were used in spaces with specially designed acoustic properties to simulate echo chamber
s.
In 1948 DeArmond
released the Trem-Trol, the first commercially available stand-alone effects unit. This device produced a tremolo by passing an instrument's electrical signal through a water-based electrolytic fluid. Most stand-alone effects of the 1950s and early 60s such as the Gibson GA-VI vibrato unit and the Fender reverb box, were expensive and impractical, requiring bulky transformer
s and high voltage
s. The original stand-alone units were not especially in-demand as many effects came built into amplifiers. The first popular stand-alone was the 1958 Watkins Copicat, a relatively portable tape echo effect made famous by the British band, The Shadows
.
Amplifiers
Amplifier built-ins were the first effects to be used regularly outside the studio by guitar players. From the late 1940s onward, the Gibson
Guitar Corp. began including vibrato
circuits in combo amplifiers. The 1950 Ray Butts EchoSonic amp was the first to feature the "slapback” echo sound, which quickly became popular with guitarists such as Chet Atkins
, Carl Perkins
, Scotty Moore
, Luther Perkins
, and Roy Orbison
. By the 1950s, tremolo
, vibrato and reverb were available as built-in effects on many guitar amplifiers. Both Premier
and Gibson built tube-powered amps with spring reverb. Fender
began manufacturing the tremolo amps Tremolux in 1955 and Vibrolux in 1956.
Distortion was not an effect originally intended by amplifier manufacturers, but could often easily be achieved by “overdriving” the power supply in early tube amplifiers. In the 1950s, guitarists such as Willie Johnson
of Howlin' Wolf
, Paul Burlison of Johnny Burnette
& The Rock N Roll Trio and Link Wray
deliberately increased gain
beyond its intended levels to achieve "warm" distorted sounds. Wray's seminal 1958 recording "Rumble" inspired young musicians such as Pete Townshend
of The Who
, Jimmy Page
of Led Zeppelin
, Dave Davies
of The Kinks
, and Neil Young
to explore distortion. Davies would famously doctor the speakers of his amp by slitting them with a razor blade to achieve an even grittier guitar sound on the 1964 song "You Really Got Me
". In 1966, the British company Marshall Amplification
began producing the Marshall 1963, a guitar amplifier capable of producing the distorted "crunch" that rock musicians were starting to covet.
Stompboxes
The electronic transistor
finally made it possible to cram the aural creativity of the recording studio into small, highly portable stompbox units. Transistors replaced vacuum tubes, allowing for much more compact formats and greater stability. The first transistorized guitar effect was the 1962 Maestro Fuzz Tone pedal, which became a sensation after its use in the 1965 Rolling Stones hit “(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction
”.
Warwick Electronics manufactured the first wah-wah pedal
, The Clyde McCoy, in 1967 and that same year Roger Mayer issued the first octave effect
, the Octavia
. In 1968, Univox
began marketing its Uni-Vibe pedal, an effect designed by noted audio engineer Fumio Mieda that mimicked the odd phase shift and chorus
effects of the Leslie rotating speakers used in Hammond organ
s. The pedals soon became favorite effects of guitarists Jimi Hendrix
and Robin Trower
. Upon first hearing the Octavia, Hendrix allegedly rushed back to the studio and immediately used it to record the guitar solos on "Purple Haze
" and "Fire" By the mid-1970s a variety of solid-state effects pedals including flangers, chorus pedals, ring modulators and phase shifters were available.
In the 1980s, digitized rackmount units began replacing stompboxes as the effects format of choice. Often musicians would record "dry", unaltered tracks in the studio and effects would be added in post-production. The success of Nirvana
's 1991 album Nevermind
helped to re-ignite interest in stompboxes. Throughout the 1990s, musicians committed to a "lo-fi
" aesthic such as J Mascis
of Dinosaur Jr., Stephen Malkmus
of Pavement
and Robert Pollard
of Guided by Voices
continued to use non-digital (analog
) effects pedals.
" an instrument's audio signal
, which distort
s the shape of its wave form and adds overtone
s. Distortion effects are sometimes called “gain
” effects, as distorted guitar sounds were first achieved by increasing the electric power supply (i.e. gain) to tube amplifiers.
Distortion and overdrive: Distortion and overdrive units re-shape or "clip" an audio signal
's wave form so that it has flattened peaks, creating "warm" sounds by adding harmonics or "gritty" sounds by adding inharmonic overtones. In tube amplifiers
, distortion is created by compressing the instrument's out-going electrical signal in vacuum tube
s or "valves". Distortion effects differ from overdrive effects in that they produce roughly the same amount of distortion at any volume. Overdrive units, much like tube amps, produce “clean” sounds at quieter volumes and distorted sounds at louder volumes.
Distortion and overdrive effects: Boss DS-1 Distortion
, Ibanez Tube Screamer
, Marshall ShredMaster
, MXR Distortion +, Pro Co RAT
.
Fuzz: A fuzz pedal or “fuzzbox” is a type of overdrive pedal that clips a sound-wave until it is nearly a squarewave, resulting in a heavily distorted or "fuzzy" sound. Fuzzboxes also contain frequency multiplier
circuitry
to achieve an even harsher timbre
by adding complex harmonics. The Rolling Stones
’ "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction
" greatly popularized the use of fuzz effects.
Fuzz effects: Arbiter Fuzz Face
, Electro-Harmonix Big Muff
, Shin-ei Companion FY-2
, Univox Super-Fuzz
, Vox Tone Bender
, Z.Vex Fuzz Factory
.
effects, dynamics effects modify the volume of an instrument. Dynamics effects were the first effects to be introduced to guitarists.
Boost/volume pedal: A boost or "clean boost" amplifies the volume of an instrument by increasing the amplitude
of its audio signal
. These units are generally used for “boosting” volume during solos and preventing signal loss in long "effects chains". A guitarist switching from rhythm guitar
to lead guitar may use a boost to increase the volume of his or her solo.
Volume effects: Electro-Harmonix LPB-1
, Fender Volume Pedal
, MXR Micro Amp
.
Compressor: Compressors make loud sounds quieter and quiet sounds louder by decreasing or "compressing" the dynamic range of an audio signal
. A compressor is often used to stabilize volume and smooth a note’s "attack" by dampening its onset and amplifying its sustain. A compressor can also function as a limiter
with extreme settings of its controls.
Compressor effects: Keeley Compressor
, MXR Dyna Comp
.
Noise gate
: Noise gates eliminate “hum”, “hiss” and “static” by greatly diminishing the volume of sounds that fall below a set threshold. Noise gates are expanders, meaning unlike compressors they increase the dynamic range of an audio signal
in order to make quiet sounds even quieter. If used with extreme settings along with reverb, they can create unusual sounds, such as the gated drum effect
used in 1980s pop songs, a style popularized by the Phil Collins
song "In the Air Tonight
".
Noise gate effects: Boss NS-2 Noise Suppressor
.
content of an audio signal
that passes through them by either boosting or weakening specific frequencies or frequency regions.
Equalizer
: An equalizer is a set of linear filter
s that strengthen ("boost") or weaken ("cut") specific frequency
regions. Stereos often have equalizers that adjust bass and treble. Audio engineers use highly sophisticated equalizers to eliminate unwanted sounds, make an instrument or voice more prominent, and enhance particular aspects of an instrument's tone.
Equalizer effects: Boss GE-7 Equalizer
.
Talk box
: A talk box directs the sound from a guitar or synthesizer into the mouth of a performer, allowing him or her to shape the sound into vowel
s and consonant
s. The modified sound is then picked up by a microphone. In this way the guitar is able to “talk”. Some famous uses of the talkbox include Bon Jovi
’s “Living on a Prayer”, Stevie Wonder
's “Black Man
” and Peter Frampton
's "Show Me the Way
".
Talk boxes: Dunlop HT1 Heil Talk Box
, Rocktron Banshee
.
Wah-wah
: A wah-wah pedal creates vowel
-like sounds by altering the frequency spectrum produced by an instrument—i.e. how loud it is at each separate frequency
—in what is known as a spectral glide
or "sweep".
The device is operated by a foot treadle that opens and closes a potentiometer
. Wah-wah pedals are often used by funk
and psychedelic rock
guitarists.
Wah effects: Dunlop Cry Baby
, Morley Power Wah
, Musitronics Mu-Tron III.
s in order to create sounds with unusual tonal properties. Some modulation effects mix ("modulate
") an instrument's audio signal
with a signal generated by the effect called a carrier wave
. Other modulation effects split an instrument's audio signal in two, altering one portion of the signal and mixing it with the unaltered portion.
Chorus
: Chorus pedals mimic the effect choir
s and string orchestra
s produce naturally by mixing sounds with slight differences in timbre
and pitch
. A chorus effect splits the instrument-to-amplifier audio signal
, adding a slight delay and frequency
variations or “vibrato
” to part of the signal while leaving the rest unaltered. A well-known usage of chorus is the lead guitar in “Come As You Are” by Nirvana
.
Chorus effects: Boss CE-1 Chorus Ensemble
, Electro-Harmonix Small Clone
, TC Electronic Stereo Chorus
.
Flanger: A flanger creates a "jet plane" or "spaceship" sound, simulating a studio effect produced by recording a track on two synchronized tapes
and periodically slowing one tape by pressing the edge of its reel (the “flange”). When the two tapes' audio signal
s are later mixed, a comb filter
effect can be heard. Flanger units add a variably delayed version of the audio signal to the original or signal, creating a comb filter or Doppler effect
. Some famous uses of flanger effects include "Walking on the Moon
" by The Police
and "Barracuda
" by Heart
.
Flanger effects: Electro-Harmonix Electric Mistress
, MXR Flanger
.
Phaser
: A phaser or "phase shifter" creates a slight rippling effect—amplifying some aspects of the tone while diminishing others—by splitting an audio signal
in two and altering the phase
of one portion. Two well-known examples of phaser are keyboard
parts on Billy Joel
’s “Just the Way You Are” and Paul Simon
's "Slip Slidin' Away".
Phase shift effects: Electro-Harmonix Small Stone
, MXR Phase 90
, Univox Uni-Vibe.
Ring modulator: A ring modulator produces a resonant, metallic sound by mixing an instrument's audio signal
with a carrier wave
generated by the device's internal oscillator
. The original sound wave is suppressed and replaced by a "ring" of inharmonic
higher and lower pitch
es or "sideband
s". A notable use of ring modulation
is the guitar in the Black Sabbath
song "Paranoid
".
Ring modulator effects: moogerfooger MF-102 Ring Modulator.
Tremolo
: A tremolo effect produces a slight, rapid variation in the volume of a note or chord. The "tremolo effect” should not be confused with the misleadingly-named "tremolo bar", a device on a guitar bridge which allows the player to create a vibrato
or “pitch-bending” effect. In transistor
ized effects, a tremolo is produced by mixing an instrument's audio signal
with a sub-audible
carrier wave
in such a way that generates amplitude
variations in the sound wave.
The guitar intro in the Rolling Stones' "Gimme Shelter
" features a tremolo effect.
Tremolo effects: Demeter TRM-1 Tremulator
, Fender Tremolux
.
Vibrato
: Vibrato effects produce slight, rapid variations in pitch
, mimicking the fractional semitone
variations produced naturally by opera singers and violin
ists when prolonging a single note. Vibrato effects often allow the performer to control the rate of the variation as well as the difference in pitch (e.g. “depth”). A vibrato with an extreme "depth" setting (e.g., half a semitone or more) will produce a dramatic, ululating
sound. In transistor
ized effects, vibrato is produced by mixing an instrument's audio signal
with a carrier wave
in such a way that generates frequency
variations in the sound wave. Guitarists often use the terms "vibrato
" and "tremolo
" misleadingly. A so-called "vibrato unit" in a guitar amplifier actually produces tremolo, while a "tremolo arm
" or “whammy bar” on a guitar produces vibrato. The guitar intro on Blonde Redhead
's "In Particular
" features a pronounced vibrato effect.
Vibrato effects: Boss VB-2 Vibrato
.
by altering the frequency
of a sound wave or adding new harmonies
.
Pitch shifter and harmonizer: A pitch
shifter raises or lowers (e.g. "transposes
") each note a performer plays by a pre-set interval
. For example, a pitch shifter set to increase the pitch by a fourth will raise each note four diatonic intervals above the notes actually played. Simple pitch shifters raise or lower the pitch by one or two octave
s, while more sophisticated devices offer a range of interval alterations.
A harmonizer is a type of pitch shifter that combines the altered pitch with the original pitch to create a two or more note harmony
. Some hamonizers are able to create chorus-like effects by adding very tiny shifts in pitch.
Pitch shift effects: DigiTech Whammy
, Electro-Harmonix POG
.
Delay
/echo: Delay/echo units produce an echo effect by adding a duplicate instrument-to-amplifier electrical signal to the original signal at a slight time-delay. The effect can either be a single echo called a “slap” or “slapback,” or multiple echos. A well-known use of delay is the lead guitar in the U2
song "Where the Streets Have No Name
".
Delay effects: Boss DD-3 Digital Delay
, Electro-Harmonix Memory Man
, Line 6 DL4 Delay Modeler, Roland RE-201
.
Looper pedal: A looper pedal or "phrase looper" allows a performer to record and later replay a phrase or passage from a song. Loops can be created on the spot during a performance or they can be pre-recorded. Some units allow a performer to layer multiple loops. The first loop effects were created with reel-to-reel tape using a tape loop
. High-end boutique tape loop effects are still used by some studios who want a vintage sound. Digital loop effects recreate this effect using an electronic memory.
Looper effects: Boss RC-30 Loop Station
.
Reverb
: Reverb units simulate sounds produced in an echo chamber
by creating a large number of echoes that gradually fade or "decay". A plate reverb system uses an electromechanical transducer
to create vibrations in a plate of metal
. Spring reverb
systems, which are often used in guitar amplifiers, use a transducer to create vibrations in a spring. Digital reverb effects use various signal processing
algorithm
s to create the reverb effect, often by using multiple feedback delay circuits
. Rockabilly
and surf guitar are two genres that make heavy use of reverb.
Reverb effects: Electro-Harmonix Holy Grail
, Fender Reverb Unit
.
Audio feedback
as a desired guitar effect has been pioneered by guitarists such as Jimi Hendrix
. It is generated by playing an instrument directly in front of an amplifier set to a high volume turning the tone into a feedback tone with infinite sustain. Typically, these feedback tones turn quickly from basic notes into overtone
s. It can be difficult to get feedback conditions, because it depends on the sound volume and on the position of the guitar relative to the loudspeaker
The EBow, a handheld pickup
/string driver, uses two small coils. One coil has a permanent magnet. It picks up the string vibration similar to a guitar pickup. The electrical signal is amplified for driving the second coil which
acts as a magnetic string driver to vibrate the string. By this feedback loop a bow
-like infinitely sustained sound is generated. The Ebow can drive one string at the same time. Latest Ebow models contain a mode switch which allows the player to change from basic note to overtones feedback sustain .
Other magnetic string drivers use the guitar pickup signal as input.
Guitar built-in devices such as the Sustainiac Sustainer and the Fernandes Sustainer create feedback sustain with a string driver mounted in the guitar.
Many compressor pedals are often also marketed as "sustainer pedals". As a note is sustained, it loses energy and volume due to diminishing vibration in the string. The compressor pedal boosts its electrical signal to the specified dynamic range
, slightly prolonging the duration of the note.
", which produces a "wah" effect depending on how loud or soft the notes are being played.
Guitar amplifier
modeling: Amplifier modeling is a digital
effect that replicates the sound of various amplifiers, most often analog
“tube” amps. Sophisticated modeling effects can simulate speaker cabinets and miking techniques. A rotary speaker simulator mimics the doppler
sound of a vintage Leslie speaker
system by replicating its volume and pitch modulations, overdrive capacity and phase shifts.
Pitch correction
/vocal effects: Pitch correction effects use signal-processing algorithms to re-tune faulty intonation in a vocalist's performance.
Simulators: Simulators enable electric guitars to mimic the sound of other instruments such as acoustic guitar, electric bass
and sitar
. Pick up simulators used on guitars with single-coil pick ups replicate the sound of guitars with humbucker
pick ups, or vice-versa. A de-fret
ter is a bass guitar
effect that simulates the sound of a fretless bass. The effect uses an envelope-controlled filter
and voltage-controlled amplifier to “soften” a note's attack both in volume and timbre
.
Some boutique pedal manufacturers include: Analog Man, BJFE, Pete Cornish
, Emlyn Crowther
, Death By Audio
, Devi Ever
, Robert Keeley
, Roger Linn
, Lovetone
, Roger Mayer, Strymon
, T-Rex Engineering
, ToadWorks
and Z.Vex Effects
.
for modifying or "modding" effects. Typically, vendors provide either custom modification services or sell new effects pedals which have been modified. The Ibanez Tube Screamer
, Boss DS-1
, Pro Co RAT
and DigiTech Whammy
are some of the most often-modified effects. Common modifications include value changes in capacitors or resistors, adding true-bypass so that the effect's circuitry is no longer in the signal path, substituting higher-quality components, replacing the unit's original operational amplifiers (op-amps), or adding functions to the device such as allowing additional control of some factor or adding an additional output jack.
, a classic fuzzbox manufactured by Electro-Harmonix
, is commemorated by the Depeche Mode
song "Big Muff
" and the Mudhoney EP
Superfuzz Bigmuff
. Lyrics to Super Furry Animals
' "Play It Cool
" mention another Electro-Harmonix pedal, the Electric Mistress flanger. The Nine Inch Nails
song "Echoplex
" is titled after Maestro's vintage echo unit
. Other songs that reference effects include "Interstellar Overdrive
" by Pink Floyd
, "Wah-Wah
" by George Harrison
, and "Stomp Box
" by They Might Be Giants
. Joy Division
's "Digital
" was inspired by engineer/producer Martin Hannett
's AMS
digital delay unit. We've Got a Fuzzbox and We're Gonna Use It
were an all-female British band from the 1980s, and The Fuzztones
were a 1980s garage rock
revival band.
or flat. A footswitch pedal such as the "A/B" pedal route a guitar signal to an amplifier or enable a performer to switch between two guitars. Guitar amplifiers and electronic keyboards may have switch pedals for turning built-in effects on and off. Some musicians who use rackmounted effects or laptop
s employ a MIDI controller pedalboard or armband remote controls to trigger sound samples
, switch between different effects or control effect settings.
Technologies
Electronics
Electronics is the branch of science, engineering and technology that deals with electrical circuits involving active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits, and associated passive interconnection technologies...
devices that alter how a musical instrument
Musical instrument
A musical instrument is a device created or adapted for the purpose of making musical sounds. In principle, any object that produces sound can serve as a musical instrument—it is through purpose that the object becomes a musical instrument. The history of musical instruments dates back to the...
or other audio source sounds. Some effects subtly "color" a sound, while others transform it dramatically. Effects are used during live performances or in the studio
Recording studio
A recording studio is a facility for sound recording and mixing. Ideally both the recording and monitoring spaces are specially designed by an acoustician to achieve optimum acoustic properties...
, typically with electric guitar
Electric guitar
An electric guitar is a guitar that uses the principle of direct electromagnetic induction to convert vibrations of its metal strings into electric audio signals. The signal generated by an electric guitar is too weak to drive a loudspeaker, so it is amplified before sending it to a loudspeaker...
, keyboard
Electronic keyboard
An electronic keyboard is an electronic or digital keyboard instrument.The major components of a typical modern electronic keyboard are:...
and bass
Electric Bass
Electric bass can mean:*Electric upright bass, the electric version of a double bass*Electric bass guitar*Bass synthesizer*Big Mouth Billy Bass, a battery-powered singing fish...
. While most frequently used with electric or electronic
Electronic musical instrument
An electronic musical instrument is a musical instrument that produces its sounds using electronics. Such an instrument sounds by outputting an electrical audio signal that ultimately drives a loudspeaker....
instruments, effects can also be used with acoustic
Acoustic music
Acoustic music comprises music that solely or primarily uses instruments which produce sound through entirely acoustic means, as opposed to electric or electronic means...
instruments, drum
Drum
The drum is a member of the percussion group of musical instruments, which is technically classified as the membranophones. Drums consist of at least one membrane, called a drumhead or drum skin, that is stretched over a shell and struck, either directly with the player's hands, or with a...
s and vocals. Examples of common effects units include wah-wah pedal
Wah-wah pedal
A wah-wah pedal is a type of guitar effects pedal that alters the tone of the signal to create a distinctive effect, mimicking the human voice...
s, fuzzboxes and reverb units.
Effects are housed in amplifier
Guitar amplifier
A guitar amplifier is an electronic amplifier designed to make the signal of an electric or acoustic guitar louder so that it will produce sound through a loudspeaker...
s, table top units, "stompboxes" and "rackmounts", or they are built into the instruments themselves. A stompbox (or "pedal") is a small metal or plastic box placed on the floor in front of the musician and connected to his or her instrument. The box is typically controlled by one or more foot-pedal on-off switches and contains only one or two effects. A rackmount is mounted on a standard 19-inch equipment rack
19-inch rack
A 19-inch rack is a standardized frame or enclosure for mounting multiple equipment modules. Each module has a front panel that is wide, including edges or ears that protrude on each side which allow the module to be fastened to the rack frame with screws.-Overview and history:Equipment designed...
and usually contains several different types of effects.
While there is currently no consensus on how to categorize effects, the following are seven common classifications: distortion
Distortion
A distortion is the alteration of the original shape of an object, image, sound, waveform or other form of information or representation. Distortion is usually unwanted, and often many methods are employed to minimize it in practice...
, dynamics
Dynamics (music)
In music, dynamics normally refers to the volume of a sound or note, but can also refer to every aspect of the execution of a given piece, either stylistic or functional . The term is also applied to the written or printed musical notation used to indicate dynamics...
, filter
Linear filter
Linear filters in the time domain process time-varying input signals to produce output signals, subject to the constraint of linearity.This results from systems composed solely of components classified as having a linear response....
, modulation
Modulation
In electronics and telecommunications, modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of a high-frequency periodic waveform, called the carrier signal, with a modulating signal which typically contains information to be transmitted...
, pitch
Pitch (music)
Pitch is an auditory perceptual property that allows the ordering of sounds on a frequency-related scale.Pitches are compared as "higher" and "lower" in the sense associated with musical melodies,...
/frequency
Frequency
Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time. It is also referred to as temporal frequency.The period is the duration of one cycle in a repeating event, so the period is the reciprocal of the frequency...
, time-based and feedback
Feedback
Feedback describes the situation when output from an event or phenomenon in the past will influence an occurrence or occurrences of the same Feedback describes the situation when output from (or information about the result of) an event or phenomenon in the past will influence an occurrence or...
/sustain
Sustain
In music, sustain is a parameter of musical sound over time. As its name implies, it denotes the period of time during which the sound remains before it becomes inaudible, or silent.Additionally, sustain is the third of the four segments in an ADSR envelope...
. Rock guitarists derive their signature sound or "tone
Timbre
In music, timbre is the quality of a musical note or sound or tone that distinguishes different types of sound production, such as voices and musical instruments, such as string instruments, wind instruments, and percussion instruments. The physical characteristics of sound that determine the...
" from their choice of instrument and effects.
Formats (form factor)
Effects units are available in a variety of formats or "form factors". A musician's choice of form factor is generally determined by the instrument he or she plays, the musical situation (recording or live performance) and what he or she can afford. Stompbox style pedals are usually the smallest, least expensive and most rugged type of effect. Rackmount devices are relatively expensive and offer a wider range of functions. An effects unit can consist of analogAnalogue electronics
Analogue electronics are electronic systems with a continuously variable signal, in contrast to digital electronics where signals usually take only two different levels. The term "analogue" describes the proportional relationship between a signal and a voltage or current that represents the signal...
or digital
Digital
A digital system is a data technology that uses discrete values. By contrast, non-digital systems use a continuous range of values to represent information...
circuitry. During a live performance, the effect is plugged into the electrical "signal" path of the instrument. In the studio, the instrument or other sound-source's auxiliary output
Aux-send
An aux-send is an electronic signal-routing output used on multi-channel sound mixing consoles used in recording and broadcasting settings and on PA system amplifier-mixers used in music concerts...
is patched into the effect. Form factors are part of a studio or musician's outboard gear
Outboard gear
Musical "outboard equipment" or "gear" alter how an musical instrument sounds. Outboard, can be used either during a live performance or in the recording studio. These are separate from the effects that may be applied by using a mixing console or a digital audio workstation...
.
Stompboxes
Stompboxes, or effects pedals, are effects units designed to sit on the floor or a pedalboardGuitar pedalboard
A guitar pedalboard is a flat board or panel which serves as a container, patch bay and power supply for effects pedals for the electric guitar. Some pedalboards contain their own transformer and power cables, in order to power a number of different pedals. Pedalboards assist the player in...
and be turned on and off with the user's feet. They typically house a single effect. The simplest stompbox pedals have a single footswitch; one to three potentiometers for controlling the effect, gain
Gain
In electronics, gain is a measure of the ability of a circuit to increase the power or amplitude of a signal from the input to the output. It is usually defined as the mean ratio of the signal output of a system to the signal input of the same system. It may also be defined on a logarithmic scale,...
or tone
Pitch (music)
Pitch is an auditory perceptual property that allows the ordering of sounds on a frequency-related scale.Pitches are compared as "higher" and "lower" in the sense associated with musical melodies,...
; and a single LED
LEd
LEd is a TeX/LaTeX editing software working under Microsoft Windows. It is a freeware product....
display to indicate whether the effect is on. The most complex stompbox pedals have multiple footswitches, eight to ten knobs, additional switches, and an alphanumeric display screen that indicates the status of the effect with short acronyms (e.g. DIST for "distortion").
An "effects chain" or "signal chain" may be formed by connecting two or more stompboxes. Effect chains are typically created between a preamplifier
Preamplifier
A preamplifier is an electronic amplifier that prepares a small electrical signal for further amplification or processing. A preamplifier is often placed close to the sensor to reduce the effects of noise and interference. It is used to boost the signal strength to drive the cable to the main...
(“preamp”) and the guitar amplifier
Guitar amplifier
A guitar amplifier is an electronic amplifier designed to make the signal of an electric or acoustic guitar louder so that it will produce sound through a loudspeaker...
. When a pedal is off or inactive, the electric audio signal
Audio signal
An audio signal is an analog representation of sound, typically as an electrical voltage. Audio signals may be synthesized directly, or may originate at a transducer such as a microphone, musical instrument pickup, phonograph cartridge, or tape head. Loudspeakers or headphones convert an electrical...
coming in to the pedal is diverted onto a "bypass
Source direct
Source direct, also known as tone defeat or bypass is a sound engineering term. It describes a feature on a piece of audio equipment which allows the audio effect such as bass and treble controls to be bypassed, leaving the sound unaltered by the equipment...
", resulting in a "dry" signal which continues on to other effects down the chain. In this way, the effects within a chain can be combined in a variety of ways without having to reconnect boxes during a performance. A "controller" or "effects management system" allows for multiple effect chain loops to be created, so that one or several effects can be engaged or disengaged by tapping just one switch. The switches are usually organized in a row or a simple grid.
To preserve the clarity of the tone, it is most common to put compression, wah and overdrive pedals at the start of the chain; modulation (chorus, flanger, phase shifter) in the middle; and time-based units (delay
Delay (audio effect)
Delay is an audio effect which records an input signal to an audio storage medium, and then plays it back after a period of time. The delayed signal may either be played back multiple times, or played back into the recording again, to create the sound of a repeating, decaying echo.-Early delay...
/echo, reverb) at the end. When using many effects, unwanted noise and hum can be introduced into the sound. Some performers use a noise gate pedal at the end of a chain to reduce unwanted noise and hum introduced by overdrive units or vintage gear.
Rackmounts
Rackmounted effects are built into a case designed to integrate into a 19-inch rack19-inch rack
A 19-inch rack is a standardized frame or enclosure for mounting multiple equipment modules. Each module has a front panel that is wide, including edges or ears that protrude on each side which allow the module to be fastened to the rack frame with screws.-Overview and history:Equipment designed...
standard to the telecommunication
Telecommunication
Telecommunication is the transmission of information over significant distances to communicate. In earlier times, telecommunications involved the use of visual signals, such as beacons, smoke signals, semaphore telegraphs, signal flags, and optical heliographs, or audio messages via coded...
and computing
Computing
Computing is usually defined as the activity of using and improving computer hardware and software. It is the computer-specific part of information technology...
industries. A rackmount unit may contain electronic circuit
Electronic circuit
An electronic circuit is composed of individual electronic components, such as resistors, transistors, capacitors, inductors and diodes, connected by conductive wires or traces through which electric current can flow...
ry identical to a stompbox's, although its circuits are typically more complex. Unlike stompboxes, rackmounts usually have several different types of effects.
Rackmounts are most commonly used in recording studio
Recording studio
A recording studio is a facility for sound recording and mixing. Ideally both the recording and monitoring spaces are specially designed by an acoustician to achieve optimum acoustic properties...
s and "front of house" live sound mixing
Live sound mixing
Live sound mixing is the art of combining and processing a number of audio signals together to create a "mix" that the audience or performers at a live show hear. There can be a variety of different mixes required, depending on the performance requirements...
situations, though many musicians use them in lieu of stompboxes. Rackmounts are controlled by knobs or switches on their front panel, and often by a MIDI digital control interface. During live performances, a musician can operate rackmounted effects using a "foot controller".
"Shock mount" racks are designed for musicians who are shipping gear on major tours. Devices that are less than 19 inches wide may use special "ear" adapters that allow them to be mounted on a rack.
Built-in units
Effects are often incorporated into amplifierAmplifier
Generally, an amplifier or simply amp, is a device for increasing the power of a signal.In popular use, the term usually describes an electronic amplifier, in which the input "signal" is usually a voltage or a current. In audio applications, amplifiers drive the loudspeakers used in PA systems to...
s and even some types of instruments. Electric guitar amplifiers typically have built-in reverb and distortion
Distortion
A distortion is the alteration of the original shape of an object, image, sound, waveform or other form of information or representation. Distortion is usually unwanted, and often many methods are employed to minimize it in practice...
, while acoustic guitar and keyboard amplifiers tend to only have built-in reverb. Since the 2000s, guitar amplifiers began having built-in multi-effects units or digital modeling effects. Bass amplifiers are less likely to have built-in effects, although some may have a compressor/limiter
Limiter
In electronics, a limiter is a circuit that allows signals below a specified input power to pass unaffected while attenuating the peaks of stronger signals that exceed this input power....
or distortion. Instruments with built-in effects include Hammond organ
Hammond organ
The Hammond organ is an electric organ invented by Laurens Hammond in 1934 and manufactured by the Hammond Organ Company. While the Hammond organ was originally sold to churches as a lower-cost alternative to the wind-driven pipe organ, in the 1960s and 1970s it became a standard keyboard...
s, electronic organ
Electronic organ
An electronic organ is an electronic keyboard instrument which was derived from the harmonium, pipe organ and theatre organ. Originally, it was designed to imitate the sound of pipe organs, theatre organs, band sounds, or orchestral sounds....
s, electronic piano
Electronic piano
An electronic piano is a keyboard instrument designed to simulate the timbre of a piano using analog circuitry....
s and digital synthesizer
Digital synthesizer
A digital synthesizer is a synthesizer that uses digital signal processing techniques to make musical sounds.Electronic keyboards make music through sound waves.-History:...
s. Occasionally, acoustic-electric and electric guitars will have built-in effects.
Multi-effects and tabletop units
A multi-effects device (also called a "multi-FX" device) is a single electronics effects pedal or rackmount device that contains many different electronic effects. Multi-FX devices allow users to "preset" combinations of different effects, allowing musicians quick on-stage access to different effects combinations.A tabletop unit is a type of multi-effects device that sits on a desk and is controlled manually. One such example is the Pod
Pod (amp modeler)
Pod is a series of digital guitar amplifier modelers from Line 6. Pods are designed to digitally simulate amplifiers. Most Pods also include cabinet models, and all Pods include effects models. All Pod variants include headphone ports and recording ports, and can be used to feed a signal into an...
guitar amplifier modeler. Digital effects designed for DJs are often sold in tabletop models, so that the units can be placed alongside a mixer, turntables and CD scratching gear.
History
Studio effects and early stand alone unitsThe earliest sound effects were strictly studio
Recording studio
A recording studio is a facility for sound recording and mixing. Ideally both the recording and monitoring spaces are specially designed by an acoustician to achieve optimum acoustic properties...
productions. In the mid to late 1940s, recording engineers and experimental musicians such as Les Paul
Les Paul
Lester William Polsfuss —known as Les Paul—was an American jazz and country guitarist, songwriter and inventor. He was a pioneer in the development of the solid-body electric guitar which made the sound of rock and roll possible. He is credited with many recording innovations...
began manipulating reel-to-reel recording tape
Reel-to-reel audio tape recording
Reel-to-reel, open reel tape recording is the form of magnetic tape audio recording in which the recording medium is held on a reel, rather than being securely contained within a cassette....
to create echo effects and unusual, futuristic sounds. Microphone placement (“miking”) techniques were used in spaces with specially designed acoustic properties to simulate echo chamber
Echo chamber
thumb|right|Echo chamber of the Dresden University of Technologythumb|right|Hamilton Mausoleum has a spectacularly long lasting unplanned echoAn echo chamber is a hollow enclosure used to produce echoing sounds, usually for recording purposes...
s.
In 1948 DeArmond
Harry DeArmond
Harry DeArmond invented the first commercially available attachable guitar pickup in the mid 1930s. He established a working relationship with Horace 'Bud' Rowe's company to manufacture and develop these items...
released the Trem-Trol, the first commercially available stand-alone effects unit. This device produced a tremolo by passing an instrument's electrical signal through a water-based electrolytic fluid. Most stand-alone effects of the 1950s and early 60s such as the Gibson GA-VI vibrato unit and the Fender reverb box, were expensive and impractical, requiring bulky transformer
Transformer
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductors—the transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic field...
s and high voltage
Voltage
Voltage, otherwise known as electrical potential difference or electric tension is the difference in electric potential between two points — or the difference in electric potential energy per unit charge between two points...
s. The original stand-alone units were not especially in-demand as many effects came built into amplifiers. The first popular stand-alone was the 1958 Watkins Copicat, a relatively portable tape echo effect made famous by the British band, The Shadows
The Shadows
The Shadows are a British pop group with a total of 69 UK hit-charted singles: 35 as 'The Shadows' and 34 as 'Cliff Richard and the Shadows', from the 1950s to the 2000s. Cliff Richard in casual conversation with the British rock press frequently refers to the Shadows by their nickname: 'The Shads'...
.
Amplifiers
Amplifier built-ins were the first effects to be used regularly outside the studio by guitar players. From the late 1940s onward, the Gibson
Gibson
Gibson may refer to:* Gibson Amphitheatre* Gibson Appliance* Gibson Girl* Gibson Guitar Corporation* Gibson * Gibson Generating Station-Places:In the United States:* Gibson, Arkansas* Gibson, Georgia* Gibson, Iowa* Gibson, Louisiana...
Guitar Corp. began including vibrato
Vibrato
Vibrato is a musical effect consisting of a regular, pulsating change of pitch. It is used to add expression to vocal and instrumental music. Vibrato is typically characterised in terms of two factors: the amount of pitch variation and the speed with which the pitch is varied .-Vibrato and...
circuits in combo amplifiers. The 1950 Ray Butts EchoSonic amp was the first to feature the "slapback” echo sound, which quickly became popular with guitarists such as Chet Atkins
Chet Atkins
Chester Burton Atkins , known as Chet Atkins, was an American guitarist and record producer who, along with Owen Bradley, created the smoother country music style known as the Nashville sound, which expanded country's appeal to adult pop music fans as well.Atkins's picking style, inspired by Merle...
, Carl Perkins
Carl Perkins
Carl Lee Perkins was an American rockabilly musician who recorded most notably at Sun Records Studio in Memphis, Tennessee, beginning during 1954...
, Scotty Moore
Scotty Moore
Winfield Scott "Scotty" Moore III is an American guitarist. He is best known for his backing of Elvis Presley in the first part of his career, between 1954 and the beginning of Elvis' Hollywood years...
, Luther Perkins
Luther Perkins
Luther Monroe Perkins was an American country music guitarist and a member of the Tennessee Three, the backup band for singer Johnny Cash. Perkins was an iconic figure in what would become known as rockabilly music...
, and Roy Orbison
Roy Orbison
Roy Kelton Orbison was an American singer-songwriter, well known for his distinctive, powerful voice, complex compositions, and dark emotional ballads. Orbison grew up in Texas and began singing in a rockabilly/country & western band in high school until he was signed by Sun Records in Memphis...
. By the 1950s, tremolo
Tremolo
Tremolo, or tremolando, is a musical term that describes various trembling effects, falling roughly into two types. The first is a rapid reiteration...
, vibrato and reverb were available as built-in effects on many guitar amplifiers. Both Premier
Premier
Premier is a title for the head of government in some countries and states.-Examples by country:In many nations, "premier" is used interchangeably with "prime minister"...
and Gibson built tube-powered amps with spring reverb. Fender
Fender
Fender Musical Instruments Corporation, commonly referred to as simply Fender, of Scottsdale, Arizona is a manufacturer of stringed instruments and amplifiers, such as solid-body electric guitars, including the Stratocaster and the Telecaster...
began manufacturing the tremolo amps Tremolux in 1955 and Vibrolux in 1956.
Distortion was not an effect originally intended by amplifier manufacturers, but could often easily be achieved by “overdriving” the power supply in early tube amplifiers. In the 1950s, guitarists such as Willie Johnson
Willie Johnson
Willie Johnson was an American blues guitarist. He is best known as the principal guitarist in Howlin' Wolf's band from 1948 to 1953. His raucous, distorted guitar playing features on Howlin' Wolf's Memphis recordings of 1951-3, including the 1951 hit "How Many More Years"...
of Howlin' Wolf
Howlin' Wolf
Chester Arthur Burnett , known as Howlin' Wolf, was an influential American blues singer, guitarist and harmonica player....
, Paul Burlison of Johnny Burnette
Johnny Burnette
John Joseph "Johnny" Burnette was an American rockabilly musician. Along with his older brother Dorsey Burnette, and also a friend named Paul Burlison, Burnette was a founding member of The Rock and Roll Trio. He was the father of 1980s rockabilly singer Rocky Burnette.-Early life:Johnny Burnette...
& The Rock N Roll Trio and Link Wray
Link Wray
Fred Lincoln "Link" Wray Jr was an American rock and roll guitarist, songwriter and occasional singer....
deliberately increased gain
Gain
In electronics, gain is a measure of the ability of a circuit to increase the power or amplitude of a signal from the input to the output. It is usually defined as the mean ratio of the signal output of a system to the signal input of the same system. It may also be defined on a logarithmic scale,...
beyond its intended levels to achieve "warm" distorted sounds. Wray's seminal 1958 recording "Rumble" inspired young musicians such as Pete Townshend
Pete Townshend
Peter Dennis Blandford "Pete" Townshend is an English rock guitarist, vocalist, songwriter and author, known principally as the guitarist and songwriter for the rock group The Who, as well as for his own solo career...
of The Who
The Who
The Who are an English rock band formed in 1964 by Roger Daltrey , Pete Townshend , John Entwistle and Keith Moon . They became known for energetic live performances which often included instrument destruction...
, Jimmy Page
Jimmy Page
James Patrick "Jimmy" Page, OBE is an English multi-instrumentalist, songwriter, and record producer. He began his career as a studio session guitarist in London and was subsequently a member of The Yardbirds from 1966 to 1968, after which he founded the English rock band Led Zeppelin.Jimmy Page...
of Led Zeppelin
Led Zeppelin
Led Zeppelin were an English rock band, active in the late 1960s and throughout the 1970s. Formed in 1968, they consisted of guitarist Jimmy Page, singer Robert Plant, bassist/keyboardist John Paul Jones, and drummer John Bonham...
, Dave Davies
Dave Davies
David Russell Gordon "Dave" Davies is an English rock musician best known for his role as lead guitarist and vocalist for the English rock band The Kinks....
of The Kinks
The Kinks
The Kinks were an English rock band formed in Muswell Hill, North London, by brothers Ray and Dave Davies in 1964. Categorised in the United States as a British Invasion band, The Kinks are recognised as one of the most important and influential rock acts of the era. Their music was influenced by a...
, and Neil Young
Neil Young
Neil Percival Young, OC, OM is a Canadian singer-songwriter who is widely regarded as one of the most influential musicians of his generation...
to explore distortion. Davies would famously doctor the speakers of his amp by slitting them with a razor blade to achieve an even grittier guitar sound on the 1964 song "You Really Got Me
You Really Got Me
"You Really Got Me" is a rock song written by Ray Davies and performed by his band, The Kinks. It was released on 4th August 1964 as the group's third single, and reached Number 1 on the UK singles chart the next month, remaining for two weeks...
". In 1966, the British company Marshall Amplification
Marshall Amplification
Marshall Amplification is a British company, founded by drummer Jim Marshall, that designs and manufactures music amplifiers, brands personal headphones/earphones , and, after acquiring Natal Drums, drums and bongos. Marshall amplifiers, and specifically their guitar amplifiers, are among the most...
began producing the Marshall 1963, a guitar amplifier capable of producing the distorted "crunch" that rock musicians were starting to covet.
Stompboxes
The electronic transistor
Transistor
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and power. It is composed of a semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current...
finally made it possible to cram the aural creativity of the recording studio into small, highly portable stompbox units. Transistors replaced vacuum tubes, allowing for much more compact formats and greater stability. The first transistorized guitar effect was the 1962 Maestro Fuzz Tone pedal, which became a sensation after its use in the 1965 Rolling Stones hit “(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction
(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction
" Satisfaction" is a song by the English rock band The Rolling Stones, released in 1965. It was written by Mick Jagger and Keith Richards and produced by Andrew Loog Oldham. Richards's throwaway three-note guitar riff — intended to be replaced by horns — opens and drives the song...
”.
Warwick Electronics manufactured the first wah-wah pedal
Wah-wah pedal
A wah-wah pedal is a type of guitar effects pedal that alters the tone of the signal to create a distinctive effect, mimicking the human voice...
, The Clyde McCoy, in 1967 and that same year Roger Mayer issued the first octave effect
Octave effect
Octave-effect boxes are a type of special effects unit which mix the input signal with a synthesised signal whose musical tone is an octave lower or higher than the original. The synthesised octave signal is derived from the original input signal by halving or doubling the frequency...
, the Octavia
Octavia (effects pedal)
The Octavia was an effects pedal designed for Jimi Hendrix by his sound technician, Jim Morris of Kelsey-Morris Sound Co., London, in early 1967...
. In 1968, Univox
Univox
For Univox portable keyboards, see Vox In the early 1960s the Unicord Corporation, a manufacturer of electronic transformers purchased the Amplifier Corporation of America of Westbury, New York. They began marketing a line of amplifiers under the name of Univox. The company was purchased by Gulf +...
began marketing its Uni-Vibe pedal, an effect designed by noted audio engineer Fumio Mieda that mimicked the odd phase shift and chorus
Chorus effect
In music, a chorus effect occurs when individual sounds with roughly the same timbre and nearly the same pitch converge and are perceived as one...
effects of the Leslie rotating speakers used in Hammond organ
Hammond organ
The Hammond organ is an electric organ invented by Laurens Hammond in 1934 and manufactured by the Hammond Organ Company. While the Hammond organ was originally sold to churches as a lower-cost alternative to the wind-driven pipe organ, in the 1960s and 1970s it became a standard keyboard...
s. The pedals soon became favorite effects of guitarists Jimi Hendrix
Jimi Hendrix
James Marshall "Jimi" Hendrix was an American guitarist and singer-songwriter...
and Robin Trower
Robin Trower
Robin Leonard Trower , known professionally as Robin Trower, is an English rock guitarist who achieved success with Procol Harum during the 1960s, and then again as the bandleader of his own power trio.-Biography:...
. Upon first hearing the Octavia, Hendrix allegedly rushed back to the studio and immediately used it to record the guitar solos on "Purple Haze
Purple Haze
"Purple Haze" is a song written in 1966 and recorded in 1967 by The Jimi Hendrix Experience and released as a single in both the United Kingdom and the United States. It appeared on their 1967 album Are You Experienced...
" and "Fire" By the mid-1970s a variety of solid-state effects pedals including flangers, chorus pedals, ring modulators and phase shifters were available.
In the 1980s, digitized rackmount units began replacing stompboxes as the effects format of choice. Often musicians would record "dry", unaltered tracks in the studio and effects would be added in post-production. The success of Nirvana
Nirvana (band)
Nirvana was an American rock band that was formed by singer/guitarist Kurt Cobain and bassist Krist Novoselic in Aberdeen, Washington in 1987...
's 1991 album Nevermind
Nevermind
Nevermind is the second studio album by the American rock band Nirvana, released on September 24, 1991. Produced by Butch Vig, Nevermind was the group's first release on DGC Records...
helped to re-ignite interest in stompboxes. Throughout the 1990s, musicians committed to a "lo-fi
Lo-fi music
Lo-fi is lower quality of sound recordings than the usual standard for music. The qualities of lo-fi are usually achieved by either degrading the quality of the recorded audio, or using certain equipment. Recent uses of the phrase have led to it becoming a genre, although it still remains as an...
" aesthic such as J Mascis
J Mascis
J Mascis is an American musician, best known as the singer, guitarist and songwriter for Dinosaur Jr.. In 2011, he was ranked in Rolling Stone's list of the 100 greatest guitarists of all time.- Biography :...
of Dinosaur Jr., Stephen Malkmus
Stephen Malkmus
Stephen Joseph Malkmus is an indie rock musician and icon, and a member of the band Pavement. He currently performs with Stephen Malkmus and the Jicks.-Early years:...
of Pavement
Pavement (band)
Pavement is an American alternative rock band that formed in Stockton, California in 1989. In their career, they achieved a significant cult following, and they were called the best band of the 1990s by prominent music critics Robert Christgau and Stephen Thomas Erlewine...
and Robert Pollard
Robert Pollard
Robert Pollard is an American rock musician and singer-songwriter who is the leader and creative force behind indie rock group Guided by Voices, who disbanded in 2004, only to reform in 2010...
of Guided by Voices
Guided by Voices
Guided by Voices is an American indie rock band originating from Dayton, Ohio. Beginning with the band's formation in 1983, it made frequent personnel changes but always maintained the presence of principal songwriter Robert Pollard...
continued to use non-digital (analog
Analogue electronics
Analogue electronics are electronic systems with a continuously variable signal, in contrast to digital electronics where signals usually take only two different levels. The term "analogue" describes the proportional relationship between a signal and a voltage or current that represents the signal...
) effects pedals.
Distortion
Distortion effects create "warm", "gritty" and "fuzzy" sounds by "clippingClipping (audio)
Clipping is a form of waveform distortion that occurs when an amplifier is overdriven and attempts to deliver an output voltage or current beyond its maximum capability...
" an instrument's audio signal
Audio signal
An audio signal is an analog representation of sound, typically as an electrical voltage. Audio signals may be synthesized directly, or may originate at a transducer such as a microphone, musical instrument pickup, phonograph cartridge, or tape head. Loudspeakers or headphones convert an electrical...
, which distort
Distortion
A distortion is the alteration of the original shape of an object, image, sound, waveform or other form of information or representation. Distortion is usually unwanted, and often many methods are employed to minimize it in practice...
s the shape of its wave form and adds overtone
Overtone
An overtone is any frequency higher than the fundamental frequency of a sound. The fundamental and the overtones together are called partials. Harmonics are partials whose frequencies are whole number multiples of the fundamental These overlapping terms are variously used when discussing the...
s. Distortion effects are sometimes called “gain
Gain
In electronics, gain is a measure of the ability of a circuit to increase the power or amplitude of a signal from the input to the output. It is usually defined as the mean ratio of the signal output of a system to the signal input of the same system. It may also be defined on a logarithmic scale,...
” effects, as distorted guitar sounds were first achieved by increasing the electric power supply (i.e. gain) to tube amplifiers.
Distortion and overdrive: Distortion and overdrive units re-shape or "clip" an audio signal
Audio signal
An audio signal is an analog representation of sound, typically as an electrical voltage. Audio signals may be synthesized directly, or may originate at a transducer such as a microphone, musical instrument pickup, phonograph cartridge, or tape head. Loudspeakers or headphones convert an electrical...
's wave form so that it has flattened peaks, creating "warm" sounds by adding harmonics or "gritty" sounds by adding inharmonic overtones. In tube amplifiers
Guitar amplifier
A guitar amplifier is an electronic amplifier designed to make the signal of an electric or acoustic guitar louder so that it will produce sound through a loudspeaker...
, distortion is created by compressing the instrument's out-going electrical signal in vacuum tube
Vacuum tube
In electronics, a vacuum tube, electron tube , or thermionic valve , reduced to simply "tube" or "valve" in everyday parlance, is a device that relies on the flow of electric current through a vacuum...
s or "valves". Distortion effects differ from overdrive effects in that they produce roughly the same amount of distortion at any volume. Overdrive units, much like tube amps, produce “clean” sounds at quieter volumes and distorted sounds at louder volumes.
Distortion and overdrive effects: Boss DS-1 Distortion
Boss DS-1
The Boss DS-1 is a distortion pedal for guitar, manufactured by the Roland Corporation under the brand name Boss since 1978. The first distortion unit made by Boss, it has become a classic effect, used by many notable guitar players. Boss produced a successor, the DS-2.-Circuit design:The DS-1 has...
, Ibanez Tube Screamer
Ibanez Tube Screamer
The Ibanez Tube Screamer is a guitar overdrive pedal, made by Ibanez. The pedal has a characteristic mid-boosted tone popular with blues players...
, Marshall ShredMaster
Marshall ShredMaster
The Marshall ShredMaster is a discontinued distortion pedal which was manufactured by Marshall Amps.-Controls:The ShredMaster has 5 knobs, which are, from left to right:*Gain – controls intensity of the drive...
, MXR Distortion +, Pro Co RAT
Pro Co Rat
The Pro Co "The RAT" is a guitar effects pedal produced by Pro Co Sound. The original RAT was developed in the basement of Pro Co's Kalamazoo, Michigan facility in 1978...
.
Fuzz: A fuzz pedal or “fuzzbox” is a type of overdrive pedal that clips a sound-wave until it is nearly a squarewave, resulting in a heavily distorted or "fuzzy" sound. Fuzzboxes also contain frequency multiplier
Frequency multiplier
In electronics, a frequency multiplier is an electronic circuit that generates an output signal whose output frequency is a harmonic of its input frequency. Frequency multipliers consist of a nonlinear circuit that distorts the input signal and consequently generates harmonics of the input signal...
circuitry
Electronic circuit
An electronic circuit is composed of individual electronic components, such as resistors, transistors, capacitors, inductors and diodes, connected by conductive wires or traces through which electric current can flow...
to achieve an even harsher timbre
Timbre
In music, timbre is the quality of a musical note or sound or tone that distinguishes different types of sound production, such as voices and musical instruments, such as string instruments, wind instruments, and percussion instruments. The physical characteristics of sound that determine the...
by adding complex harmonics. The Rolling Stones
The Rolling Stones
The Rolling Stones are an English rock band, formed in London in April 1962 by Brian Jones , Ian Stewart , Mick Jagger , and Keith Richards . Bassist Bill Wyman and drummer Charlie Watts completed the early line-up...
’ "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction
(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction
" Satisfaction" is a song by the English rock band The Rolling Stones, released in 1965. It was written by Mick Jagger and Keith Richards and produced by Andrew Loog Oldham. Richards's throwaway three-note guitar riff — intended to be replaced by horns — opens and drives the song...
" greatly popularized the use of fuzz effects.
Fuzz effects: Arbiter Fuzz Face
Fuzz Face
The Fuzz Face is an effects pedal used mainly by electric guitarists, and by some bass players. It is a stompbox designed to produce a distorted sound from an electric guitar. This "fuzz" sound is sometimes compared to the sound of a damaged speaker...
, Electro-Harmonix Big Muff
Big Muff
The Big Muff is a fuzzbox produced in New York City by the Electro-Harmonix company, along with their Russian sister company Sovtek, primarily for use with the electric guitar...
, Shin-ei Companion FY-2
Shin-ei Companion FY-2
The Shin-ei Companion FY-2 is a discontinued fuzz box which was made by the Shin-ei company in the 1970s in Japan. FY-2 pedals are considered a rarity, and can be occasionally found on eBay.-Sound:The FY-2 is well known for its raw, distinctive, gated fuzz...
, Univox Super-Fuzz
Univox Super-Fuzz
For the Italian film, see Super FuzzThe Univox Super-Fuzz is a fuzzbox produced by the Univox company, primarily for use with the electric guitar or bass...
, Vox Tone Bender
Tone Bender
Tone Bender is the name of several fuzzboxes. Macari's Ltd currently owns the Tone Bender trademark. Korg used to own Tone Bender trademarks in the 1990s.-Sola Sound Tone Bender MKI:...
, Z.Vex Fuzz Factory
Z.Vex Fuzz Factory
The Z.Vex Fuzz Factory is a fuzz box made by the American inventor and musician Zachary Vex of the Z.Vex Effects company.The Fuzz Factory is based on, yet vastly expands the tonal palette of, classic fuzztone designs from the 1960s...
.
Dynamics
Also called volume and amplitudeAmplitude
Amplitude is the magnitude of change in the oscillating variable with each oscillation within an oscillating system. For example, sound waves in air are oscillations in atmospheric pressure and their amplitudes are proportional to the change in pressure during one oscillation...
effects, dynamics effects modify the volume of an instrument. Dynamics effects were the first effects to be introduced to guitarists.
Boost/volume pedal: A boost or "clean boost" amplifies the volume of an instrument by increasing the amplitude
Amplitude
Amplitude is the magnitude of change in the oscillating variable with each oscillation within an oscillating system. For example, sound waves in air are oscillations in atmospheric pressure and their amplitudes are proportional to the change in pressure during one oscillation...
of its audio signal
Audio signal
An audio signal is an analog representation of sound, typically as an electrical voltage. Audio signals may be synthesized directly, or may originate at a transducer such as a microphone, musical instrument pickup, phonograph cartridge, or tape head. Loudspeakers or headphones convert an electrical...
. These units are generally used for “boosting” volume during solos and preventing signal loss in long "effects chains". A guitarist switching from rhythm guitar
Rhythm guitar
Rhythm guitar is a technique and rôle that performs a combination of two functions: to provide all or part of the rhythmic pulse in conjunction with singers or other instruments; and to provide all or part of the harmony, ie. the chords, where a chord is a group of notes played together...
to lead guitar may use a boost to increase the volume of his or her solo.
Volume effects: Electro-Harmonix LPB-1
Electro-Harmonix
Electro-Harmonix is a New York-based company that makes high-end electronic audio processors. The company was founded by Mike Matthews in 1968. They are most famous for a series of popular guitar effects pedals introduced in the 1970s and 1990s....
, Fender Volume Pedal
Fender Volume Pedal
The Fender Volume Pedal is a passive electronic device that is normally connected between an electric guitar and an amplifier. The foot operated pedal allows volume control via a tilt mechanism. It was the first outboard device offered by Fender...
, MXR Micro Amp
MXR
MXR, also known as MXR Innovations, was a manufacturer of guitar effects units, co-founded in 1973 by Keith Barr and Terry Sherwood . MXR was based in the United States in Rochester, New York. MXR Innovations, Inc. was incorporated in 1974...
.
Compressor: Compressors make loud sounds quieter and quiet sounds louder by decreasing or "compressing" the dynamic range of an audio signal
Audio signal
An audio signal is an analog representation of sound, typically as an electrical voltage. Audio signals may be synthesized directly, or may originate at a transducer such as a microphone, musical instrument pickup, phonograph cartridge, or tape head. Loudspeakers or headphones convert an electrical...
. A compressor is often used to stabilize volume and smooth a note’s "attack" by dampening its onset and amplifying its sustain. A compressor can also function as a limiter
Limiter
In electronics, a limiter is a circuit that allows signals below a specified input power to pass unaffected while attenuating the peaks of stronger signals that exceed this input power....
with extreme settings of its controls.
Compressor effects: Keeley Compressor
Robert Keeley (instrument maker)
Robert Keeley is a British creator of effects pedals. He modifies pre-existing pedals made by companies such as Boss Corporation and as well as creating his own stomp boxes.-Pedals:...
, MXR Dyna Comp
MXR Dyna Comp
The MXR Dyna Comp is an effects unit produced by the MXR company intended for use with electric guitar. Made since the 1970s, the MXR Dyna Comp, which adds its own coloring to the tone, has become a frequently copied and widely used guitar effect, even a standard.-History:The MXR Dyna Comp was...
.
Noise gate
Noise gate
A Noise Gate or gate is an electronic device or software that is used to control the volume of an audio signal. In its most simple form, a noise gate allows a signal to pass through only when it is above a set threshold: the gate is 'open'. If the signal falls below the threshold no signal is...
: Noise gates eliminate “hum”, “hiss” and “static” by greatly diminishing the volume of sounds that fall below a set threshold. Noise gates are expanders, meaning unlike compressors they increase the dynamic range of an audio signal
Audio signal
An audio signal is an analog representation of sound, typically as an electrical voltage. Audio signals may be synthesized directly, or may originate at a transducer such as a microphone, musical instrument pickup, phonograph cartridge, or tape head. Loudspeakers or headphones convert an electrical...
in order to make quiet sounds even quieter. If used with extreme settings along with reverb, they can create unusual sounds, such as the gated drum effect
Gated reverb
Gated reverb is an audio processing technique that is applied to recordings of drums to make the drums sound powerful and "punchy," while keeping the overall mix clean and transparent-sounding...
used in 1980s pop songs, a style popularized by the Phil Collins
Phil Collins
Philip David Charles "Phil" Collins, LVO is an English singer-songwriter, drummer, pianist and actor best known as a drummer and vocalist for British progressive rock group Genesis and as a solo artist....
song "In the Air Tonight
In the Air Tonight
"In the Air Tonight" is a song by Phil Collins that first appeared on his 1981 album Face Value. It was recorded in 1979 and was the first single of Collins' solo career, and remains one of his best-known hits. The music video, directed by Stuart Orme, was released in 1981.-The song/recording:The...
".
Noise gate effects: Boss NS-2 Noise Suppressor
Boss Corporation
Boss is a manufacturer of effects pedals for electric guitar and bass guitar. It is a division of the Roland Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer that specializes in musical equipment and accessories...
.
Filter
Filter effects alter the frequencyFrequency
Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time. It is also referred to as temporal frequency.The period is the duration of one cycle in a repeating event, so the period is the reciprocal of the frequency...
content of an audio signal
Audio signal
An audio signal is an analog representation of sound, typically as an electrical voltage. Audio signals may be synthesized directly, or may originate at a transducer such as a microphone, musical instrument pickup, phonograph cartridge, or tape head. Loudspeakers or headphones convert an electrical...
that passes through them by either boosting or weakening specific frequencies or frequency regions.
Equalizer
Equalization (audio)
Equalization is the process commonly used in sound recording and reproduction to alter the frequency response of an audio system using linear filters. Most hi-fi equipment uses relatively simple filters to make bass and treble adjustments. Graphic and parametric equalizers have much more...
: An equalizer is a set of linear filter
Linear filter
Linear filters in the time domain process time-varying input signals to produce output signals, subject to the constraint of linearity.This results from systems composed solely of components classified as having a linear response....
s that strengthen ("boost") or weaken ("cut") specific frequency
Frequency
Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time. It is also referred to as temporal frequency.The period is the duration of one cycle in a repeating event, so the period is the reciprocal of the frequency...
regions. Stereos often have equalizers that adjust bass and treble. Audio engineers use highly sophisticated equalizers to eliminate unwanted sounds, make an instrument or voice more prominent, and enhance particular aspects of an instrument's tone.
Equalizer effects: Boss GE-7 Equalizer
Boss Corporation
Boss is a manufacturer of effects pedals for electric guitar and bass guitar. It is a division of the Roland Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer that specializes in musical equipment and accessories...
.
Talk box
Talk box
A talk box is an effects unit that allows a musician to modify the sound of a musical instrument. The musician controls the modification by lip syncing, or by changing the shape of the mouth...
: A talk box directs the sound from a guitar or synthesizer into the mouth of a performer, allowing him or her to shape the sound into vowel
Vowel
In phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, such as English ah! or oh! , pronounced with an open vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis. This contrasts with consonants, such as English sh! , where there is a constriction or closure at some...
s and consonant
Consonant
In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. Examples are , pronounced with the lips; , pronounced with the front of the tongue; , pronounced with the back of the tongue; , pronounced in the throat; and ,...
s. The modified sound is then picked up by a microphone. In this way the guitar is able to “talk”. Some famous uses of the talkbox include Bon Jovi
Bon Jovi
Bon Jovi is an American rock band from Sayreville, New Jersey. Formed in 1983, Bon Jovi consists of lead singer and namesake Jon Bon Jovi , guitarist Richie Sambora, keyboardist David Bryan, drummer Tico Torres, as well as current bassist Hugh McDonald...
’s “Living on a Prayer”, Stevie Wonder
Songs in the Key of Life
Songs in the Key of Life is the 13th album by American recording artist Stevie Wonder, released September 28, 1976, on Motown Records. It was the culmination of his "classic period" albums. An ambitious double LP with a 4-song bonus EP, Songs in the Key of Life became among the best-selling and...
's “Black Man
Black Man
Black Man is a 2007 science fiction novel by Richard Morgan. It won the 2008 Arthur C Clarke Award. It was published as Thirteen in North America. It is not part of the Takeshi Kovacs universe by the same author....
” and Peter Frampton
Peter Frampton
Peter Kenneth Frampton is an English musician, singer, producer, guitarist and multi-instrumentalist. He was previously associated with the bands Humble Pie and The Herd. Frampton's international breakthrough album was his live release, Frampton Comes Alive!. The album sold over 6 million copies...
's "Show Me the Way
Show Me the Way (Peter Frampton song)
"Show Me the Way" is a song written by Peter Frampton, which was originally released on his 1975 album Frampton and as a single, but gained its highest popularity as a song from his 1976 live album Frampton Comes Alive!...
".
Talk boxes: Dunlop HT1 Heil Talk Box
Dunlop Manufacturing
Dunlop Manufacturing, Inc., known colloquially as Jim Dunlop, is a manufacturer of musical accessories based in Benicia, California. Originally founded in 1965 by Jim Dunlop, Sr., the company has grown from a small home operation to being a large manufacturer of music gear for over 40 years.- Way...
, Rocktron Banshee
Bruce Egnater
Egnater is an American company that manufactures boutique guitar amplifiers.-History:The company was founded by Bruce Egnater in Detroit, Michigan. After attending the University of Detroit Engineering School, he opened a guitar and amplifier repair shop in 1975...
.
Wah-wah
Wah-wah pedal
A wah-wah pedal is a type of guitar effects pedal that alters the tone of the signal to create a distinctive effect, mimicking the human voice...
: A wah-wah pedal creates vowel
Vowel
In phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, such as English ah! or oh! , pronounced with an open vocal tract so that there is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis. This contrasts with consonants, such as English sh! , where there is a constriction or closure at some...
-like sounds by altering the frequency spectrum produced by an instrument—i.e. how loud it is at each separate frequency
Frequency
Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time. It is also referred to as temporal frequency.The period is the duration of one cycle in a repeating event, so the period is the reciprocal of the frequency...
—in what is known as a spectral glide
Spectral glide
A spectral glide is a "modification of the vowel quality of a tone" . Since the vowel quality of a tone is determined by the overtones, spectrum, or timbre of that tone, a spectral glide is a move from one spectrum characteristic of a vowel to another...
or "sweep".
The device is operated by a foot treadle that opens and closes a potentiometer
Potentiometer
A potentiometer , informally, a pot, is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used , it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat. Potentiometers are commonly used to control electrical devices such as volume controls on...
. Wah-wah pedals are often used by funk
Funk
Funk is a music genre that originated in the mid-late 1960s when African American musicians blended soul music, jazz and R&B into a rhythmic, danceable new form of music. Funk de-emphasizes melody and harmony and brings a strong rhythmic groove of electric bass and drums to the foreground...
and psychedelic rock
Psychedelic rock
Psychedelic rock is a style of rock music that is inspired or influenced by psychedelic culture and attempts to replicate and enhance the mind-altering experiences of psychedelic drugs. It emerged during the mid 1960s among folk rock and blues rock bands in United States and the United Kingdom...
guitarists.
Wah effects: Dunlop Cry Baby
Dunlop Cry Baby
The Dunlop Cry Baby is a popular wah-wah pedal, manufactured by Dunlop Manufacturing, Inc. It is the best selling guitar pedal of all time. The name Cry Baby was from the original pedal from which it was copied, the Thomas Organ/Vox Cry Baby wah-wah. Thomas Organ/Vox failed to register the name as...
, Morley Power Wah
Morley Pedals
Morley Pedals is the name of a guitar effects pedal company, famous for manufacturing wah-wah pedals and other treadle type effects for guitar. Morley pedals use electro-optical circuitry rather than a potentiometer to control the effect. The foot treadle controls a shutter inside the pedal that...
, Musitronics Mu-Tron III.
Modulation
Modulation effects combine multiple audio signalAudio signal
An audio signal is an analog representation of sound, typically as an electrical voltage. Audio signals may be synthesized directly, or may originate at a transducer such as a microphone, musical instrument pickup, phonograph cartridge, or tape head. Loudspeakers or headphones convert an electrical...
s in order to create sounds with unusual tonal properties. Some modulation effects mix ("modulate
Modulation
In electronics and telecommunications, modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of a high-frequency periodic waveform, called the carrier signal, with a modulating signal which typically contains information to be transmitted...
") an instrument's audio signal
Audio signal
An audio signal is an analog representation of sound, typically as an electrical voltage. Audio signals may be synthesized directly, or may originate at a transducer such as a microphone, musical instrument pickup, phonograph cartridge, or tape head. Loudspeakers or headphones convert an electrical...
with a signal generated by the effect called a carrier wave
Carrier wave
In telecommunications, a carrier wave or carrier is a waveform that is modulated with an input signal for the purpose of conveying information. This carrier wave is usually a much higher frequency than the input signal...
. Other modulation effects split an instrument's audio signal in two, altering one portion of the signal and mixing it with the unaltered portion.
Chorus
Chorus effect
In music, a chorus effect occurs when individual sounds with roughly the same timbre and nearly the same pitch converge and are perceived as one...
: Chorus pedals mimic the effect choir
Choir
A choir, chorale or chorus is a musical ensemble of singers. Choral music, in turn, is the music written specifically for such an ensemble to perform.A body of singers who perform together as a group is called a choir or chorus...
s and string orchestra
String orchestra
A string orchestra is an orchestra composed solely or primarily of instruments from the string family. These instruments are the violin, the viola, the cello, the double bass , the piano, the harp, and sometimes percussion...
s produce naturally by mixing sounds with slight differences in timbre
Timbre
In music, timbre is the quality of a musical note or sound or tone that distinguishes different types of sound production, such as voices and musical instruments, such as string instruments, wind instruments, and percussion instruments. The physical characteristics of sound that determine the...
and pitch
Pitch (music)
Pitch is an auditory perceptual property that allows the ordering of sounds on a frequency-related scale.Pitches are compared as "higher" and "lower" in the sense associated with musical melodies,...
. A chorus effect splits the instrument-to-amplifier audio signal
Audio signal
An audio signal is an analog representation of sound, typically as an electrical voltage. Audio signals may be synthesized directly, or may originate at a transducer such as a microphone, musical instrument pickup, phonograph cartridge, or tape head. Loudspeakers or headphones convert an electrical...
, adding a slight delay and frequency
Frequency
Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time. It is also referred to as temporal frequency.The period is the duration of one cycle in a repeating event, so the period is the reciprocal of the frequency...
variations or “vibrato
Vibrato
Vibrato is a musical effect consisting of a regular, pulsating change of pitch. It is used to add expression to vocal and instrumental music. Vibrato is typically characterised in terms of two factors: the amount of pitch variation and the speed with which the pitch is varied .-Vibrato and...
” to part of the signal while leaving the rest unaltered. A well-known usage of chorus is the lead guitar in “Come As You Are” by Nirvana
Nirvana (band)
Nirvana was an American rock band that was formed by singer/guitarist Kurt Cobain and bassist Krist Novoselic in Aberdeen, Washington in 1987...
.
Chorus effects: Boss CE-1 Chorus Ensemble
Boss Corporation
Boss is a manufacturer of effects pedals for electric guitar and bass guitar. It is a division of the Roland Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer that specializes in musical equipment and accessories...
, Electro-Harmonix Small Clone
Electro-Harmonix
Electro-Harmonix is a New York-based company that makes high-end electronic audio processors. The company was founded by Mike Matthews in 1968. They are most famous for a series of popular guitar effects pedals introduced in the 1970s and 1990s....
, TC Electronic Stereo Chorus
TC Electronic
TC Electronic is a Danish audio equipment manufacturer.Its current product ranges include guitar effects, bass amplification, computer audio interfaces, audio plug-in software, live sound equalisers, studio and post production equipment, studio effect processors and broadcast loudness processors...
.
Flanger: A flanger creates a "jet plane" or "spaceship" sound, simulating a studio effect produced by recording a track on two synchronized tapes
Reel-to-reel audio tape recording
Reel-to-reel, open reel tape recording is the form of magnetic tape audio recording in which the recording medium is held on a reel, rather than being securely contained within a cassette....
and periodically slowing one tape by pressing the edge of its reel (the “flange”). When the two tapes' audio signal
Audio signal
An audio signal is an analog representation of sound, typically as an electrical voltage. Audio signals may be synthesized directly, or may originate at a transducer such as a microphone, musical instrument pickup, phonograph cartridge, or tape head. Loudspeakers or headphones convert an electrical...
s are later mixed, a comb filter
Comb filter
In signal processing, a comb filter adds a delayed version of a signal to itself, causing constructive and destructive interference. The frequency response of a comb filter consists of a series of regularly spaced spikes, giving the appearance of a comb....
effect can be heard. Flanger units add a variably delayed version of the audio signal to the original or signal, creating a comb filter or Doppler effect
Doppler effect
The Doppler effect , named after Austrian physicist Christian Doppler who proposed it in 1842 in Prague, is the change in frequency of a wave for an observer moving relative to the source of the wave. It is commonly heard when a vehicle sounding a siren or horn approaches, passes, and recedes from...
. Some famous uses of flanger effects include "Walking on the Moon
Walking on the Moon
"Walking on the Moon" is a 1979 song by The Police, from their second album, Reggatta de Blanc. The song was The Police's second number-one hit single in the United Kingdom. It reached number nine in Australia but did not chart in the United States...
" by The Police
The Police
The Police were an English rock band formed in London in 1977. For the vast majority of their history, the band consisted of Sting , Andy Summers and Stewart Copeland...
and "Barracuda
Barracuda (song)
"Barracuda" is a song written and recorded by the rock band Heart. It was released as the first single from the band's second album Little Queen .-Reception:...
" by Heart
Heart (band)
Heart is an American rock band who first found success in Canada. Throughout several lineup changes, the only two members remaining constant are sisters Ann and Nancy Wilson. The group rose to fame in the 1970s with their music being influenced by hard rock as well as folk music...
.
Flanger effects: Electro-Harmonix Electric Mistress
Electro-Harmonix
Electro-Harmonix is a New York-based company that makes high-end electronic audio processors. The company was founded by Mike Matthews in 1968. They are most famous for a series of popular guitar effects pedals introduced in the 1970s and 1990s....
, MXR Flanger
MXR
MXR, also known as MXR Innovations, was a manufacturer of guitar effects units, co-founded in 1973 by Keith Barr and Terry Sherwood . MXR was based in the United States in Rochester, New York. MXR Innovations, Inc. was incorporated in 1974...
.
Phaser
Phaser (effect)
A phaser is an audio signal processing technique used to filter a signal by creating a series of peaks and troughs in the frequency spectrum. The position of the peaks and troughs is typically modulated so that they vary over time, creating a sweeping effect...
: A phaser or "phase shifter" creates a slight rippling effect—amplifying some aspects of the tone while diminishing others—by splitting an audio signal
Audio signal
An audio signal is an analog representation of sound, typically as an electrical voltage. Audio signals may be synthesized directly, or may originate at a transducer such as a microphone, musical instrument pickup, phonograph cartridge, or tape head. Loudspeakers or headphones convert an electrical...
in two and altering the phase
Phase (waves)
Phase in waves is the fraction of a wave cycle which has elapsed relative to an arbitrary point.-Formula:The phase of an oscillation or wave refers to a sinusoidal function such as the following:...
of one portion. Two well-known examples of phaser are keyboard
Musical keyboard
A musical keyboard is the set of adjacent depressible levers or keys on a musical instrument, particularly the piano. Keyboards typically contain keys for playing the twelve notes of the Western musical scale, with a combination of larger, longer keys and smaller, shorter keys that repeats at the...
parts on Billy Joel
Billy Joel
William Martin "Billy" Joel is an American musician and pianist, singer-songwriter, and classical composer. Since releasing his first hit song, "Piano Man", in 1973, Joel has become the sixth best-selling recording artist and the third best-selling solo artist in the United States, according to...
’s “Just the Way You Are” and Paul Simon
Paul Simon
Paul Frederic Simon is an American singer-songwriter and guitarist.Simon is best known for his success, beginning in 1965, as part of the duo Simon & Garfunkel, with musical partner Art Garfunkel. Simon wrote most of the pair's songs, including three that reached number one on the US singles...
's "Slip Slidin' Away".
Phase shift effects: Electro-Harmonix Small Stone
Electro-Harmonix
Electro-Harmonix is a New York-based company that makes high-end electronic audio processors. The company was founded by Mike Matthews in 1968. They are most famous for a series of popular guitar effects pedals introduced in the 1970s and 1990s....
, MXR Phase 90
MXR Phase 90
The MXR Phase 90 is a phaser effects pedal originally designed in the 1970s by MXR.-History:The Phase 90 was released in 1972. It was the first pedal sold by MXR and helped launch the company. The original came in a simple orange enclosure with MXR's "script" logo. In 1977 MXR changed its logo to...
, Univox Uni-Vibe.
Ring modulator: A ring modulator produces a resonant, metallic sound by mixing an instrument's audio signal
Audio signal
An audio signal is an analog representation of sound, typically as an electrical voltage. Audio signals may be synthesized directly, or may originate at a transducer such as a microphone, musical instrument pickup, phonograph cartridge, or tape head. Loudspeakers or headphones convert an electrical...
with a carrier wave
Carrier wave
In telecommunications, a carrier wave or carrier is a waveform that is modulated with an input signal for the purpose of conveying information. This carrier wave is usually a much higher frequency than the input signal...
generated by the device's internal oscillator
Electronic oscillator
An electronic oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a repetitive electronic signal, often a sine wave or a square wave. They are widely used in innumerable electronic devices...
. The original sound wave is suppressed and replaced by a "ring" of inharmonic
Inharmonicity
In music, inharmonicity is the degree to which the frequencies of overtones depart from whole multiples of the fundamental frequency....
higher and lower pitch
Pitch
Pitch may refer to:* Pitch , a viscous substance produced by plants or formed from petroleum* Pitch * sales pitch** elevator pitch, a very short sales pitch such as that made during an elevator ride* Pitch accent-Music and acoustics:...
es or "sideband
Sideband
In radio communications, a sideband is a band of frequencies higher than or lower than the carrier frequency, containing power as a result of the modulation process. The sidebands consist of all the Fourier components of the modulated signal except the carrier...
s". A notable use of ring modulation
Ring modulation
Ring modulation is a signal-processing effect in electronics, an implementation of amplitude modulation or frequency mixing, performed by multiplying two signals, where one is typically a sine-wave or another simple waveform. It is referred to as "ring" modulation because the analog circuit of...
is the guitar in the Black Sabbath
Black Sabbath
Black Sabbath are an English heavy metal band, formed in Aston, Birmingham in 1969 by Ozzy Osbourne , Tony Iommi , Geezer Butler , and Bill Ward . The band has since experienced multiple line-up changes, with Tony Iommi the only constant presence in the band through the years. A total of 22...
song "Paranoid
Paranoid (song)
"Paranoid" is a song by the British heavy metal band Black Sabbath, featured on their second album Paranoid . It is the first single from the album, while the B-side is the song "The Wizard". It reached number 4 on the UK Singles Chart and number 61 on the Billboard Hot 100...
".
Ring modulator effects: moogerfooger MF-102 Ring Modulator.
Tremolo
Tremolo
Tremolo, or tremolando, is a musical term that describes various trembling effects, falling roughly into two types. The first is a rapid reiteration...
: A tremolo effect produces a slight, rapid variation in the volume of a note or chord. The "tremolo effect” should not be confused with the misleadingly-named "tremolo bar", a device on a guitar bridge which allows the player to create a vibrato
Vibrato
Vibrato is a musical effect consisting of a regular, pulsating change of pitch. It is used to add expression to vocal and instrumental music. Vibrato is typically characterised in terms of two factors: the amount of pitch variation and the speed with which the pitch is varied .-Vibrato and...
or “pitch-bending” effect. In transistor
Transistor
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and power. It is composed of a semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current...
ized effects, a tremolo is produced by mixing an instrument's audio signal
Audio signal
An audio signal is an analog representation of sound, typically as an electrical voltage. Audio signals may be synthesized directly, or may originate at a transducer such as a microphone, musical instrument pickup, phonograph cartridge, or tape head. Loudspeakers or headphones convert an electrical...
with a sub-audible
Subaudible tone
For the use of subaudible tones in Two-way radio see: CTCSSA subaudible tone is a tone that is used to trigger an automated event at a radio station. A subaudible tone is not inaudible; however, it is usually at a low level that is not noticeable to the average listener at normal volumes...
carrier wave
Carrier wave
In telecommunications, a carrier wave or carrier is a waveform that is modulated with an input signal for the purpose of conveying information. This carrier wave is usually a much higher frequency than the input signal...
in such a way that generates amplitude
Amplitude
Amplitude is the magnitude of change in the oscillating variable with each oscillation within an oscillating system. For example, sound waves in air are oscillations in atmospheric pressure and their amplitudes are proportional to the change in pressure during one oscillation...
variations in the sound wave.
The guitar intro in the Rolling Stones' "Gimme Shelter
Gimme Shelter
"Gimme Shelter" is a song by English rock band The Rolling Stones. It first appeared as the opening track on the band's 1969 album Let It Bleed. Although the first word was spelled "Gimmie" on that album, subsequent recordings by the band and other musicians have made "Gimme" the customary spelling...
" features a tremolo effect.
Tremolo effects: Demeter TRM-1 Tremulator
Demeter TRM-1 Tremulator
The Demeter TRM-1 Tremulator is a tremolo pedal which has been manufactured by Demeter Amplification since 1982. It was apparently designed at the request of guitarist Ry Cooder, who wanted a pedal that sounded exactly like a vintage Fender tremolo unit for use with any amp.-Controls:The Tremulator...
, Fender Tremolux
Fender Tremolux
The Fender Tremolux was a guitar amplifier made by Fender. It was introduced in the summer of 1955 with a rated power output of 15 watts, cathode bias, two 6V6 output tubes, and a 5V4 tube rectifier...
.
Vibrato
Vibrato
Vibrato is a musical effect consisting of a regular, pulsating change of pitch. It is used to add expression to vocal and instrumental music. Vibrato is typically characterised in terms of two factors: the amount of pitch variation and the speed with which the pitch is varied .-Vibrato and...
: Vibrato effects produce slight, rapid variations in pitch
Pitch (music)
Pitch is an auditory perceptual property that allows the ordering of sounds on a frequency-related scale.Pitches are compared as "higher" and "lower" in the sense associated with musical melodies,...
, mimicking the fractional semitone
Semitone
A semitone, also called a half step or a half tone, is the smallest musical interval commonly used in Western tonal music, and it is considered the most dissonant when sounded harmonically....
variations produced naturally by opera singers and violin
Violin
The violin is a string instrument, usually with four strings tuned in perfect fifths. It is the smallest, highest-pitched member of the violin family of string instruments, which includes the viola and cello....
ists when prolonging a single note. Vibrato effects often allow the performer to control the rate of the variation as well as the difference in pitch (e.g. “depth”). A vibrato with an extreme "depth" setting (e.g., half a semitone or more) will produce a dramatic, ululating
Ululation
A is a long, wavering, high-pitched vocal sound resembling a howl with a trilling quality. It is produced by emitting a high pitched loud voice accompanied with a rapid movement of the tongue and the uvula. The term ululation is an onomatopoeic word derived from Latin...
sound. In transistor
Transistor
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and power. It is composed of a semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current...
ized effects, vibrato is produced by mixing an instrument's audio signal
Audio signal
An audio signal is an analog representation of sound, typically as an electrical voltage. Audio signals may be synthesized directly, or may originate at a transducer such as a microphone, musical instrument pickup, phonograph cartridge, or tape head. Loudspeakers or headphones convert an electrical...
with a carrier wave
Carrier wave
In telecommunications, a carrier wave or carrier is a waveform that is modulated with an input signal for the purpose of conveying information. This carrier wave is usually a much higher frequency than the input signal...
in such a way that generates frequency
Frequency
Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time. It is also referred to as temporal frequency.The period is the duration of one cycle in a repeating event, so the period is the reciprocal of the frequency...
variations in the sound wave. Guitarists often use the terms "vibrato
Vibrato
Vibrato is a musical effect consisting of a regular, pulsating change of pitch. It is used to add expression to vocal and instrumental music. Vibrato is typically characterised in terms of two factors: the amount of pitch variation and the speed with which the pitch is varied .-Vibrato and...
" and "tremolo
Tremolo
Tremolo, or tremolando, is a musical term that describes various trembling effects, falling roughly into two types. The first is a rapid reiteration...
" misleadingly. A so-called "vibrato unit" in a guitar amplifier actually produces tremolo, while a "tremolo arm
Tremolo arm
A whammy bar, tremolo arm/bar, or vibrato arm/bar is a component of a guitar, used to add vibrato to the sound by changing the tension of the strings, typically at the bridge or tailpiece...
" or “whammy bar” on a guitar produces vibrato. The guitar intro on Blonde Redhead
Blonde Redhead
Blonde Redhead is an American alternative rock band composed of vocalist/rhythm guitarist Kazu Makino and twin brothers Simone and Amedeo Pace , which formed in New York City in 1993....
's "In Particular
Melody of Certain Damaged Lemons
Melody of Certain Damaged Lemons is the fifth studio album by Blonde Redhead. It was produced by Guy Picciotto & Ryan Hadlock and released by Touch & Go Records in 2000.-Track listing:#"Equally Damaged" – 0:40#"In Particular" – 6:05...
" features a pronounced vibrato effect.
Vibrato effects: Boss VB-2 Vibrato
Boss Corporation
Boss is a manufacturer of effects pedals for electric guitar and bass guitar. It is a division of the Roland Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer that specializes in musical equipment and accessories...
.
Pitch/frequency
Pitch/frequency effects modify pitchPitch
Pitch may refer to:* Pitch , a viscous substance produced by plants or formed from petroleum* Pitch * sales pitch** elevator pitch, a very short sales pitch such as that made during an elevator ride* Pitch accent-Music and acoustics:...
by altering the frequency
Frequency
Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time. It is also referred to as temporal frequency.The period is the duration of one cycle in a repeating event, so the period is the reciprocal of the frequency...
of a sound wave or adding new harmonies
Harmony
In music, harmony is the use of simultaneous pitches , or chords. The study of harmony involves chords and their construction and chord progressions and the principles of connection that govern them. Harmony is often said to refer to the "vertical" aspect of music, as distinguished from melodic...
.
Pitch shifter and harmonizer: A pitch
Pitch (music)
Pitch is an auditory perceptual property that allows the ordering of sounds on a frequency-related scale.Pitches are compared as "higher" and "lower" in the sense associated with musical melodies,...
shifter raises or lowers (e.g. "transposes
Transposition (music)
In music transposition refers to the process, or operation, of moving a collection of notes up or down in pitch by a constant interval.For example, one might transpose an entire piece of music into another key...
") each note a performer plays by a pre-set interval
Interval (music)
In music theory, an interval is a combination of two notes, or the ratio between their frequencies. Two-note combinations are also called dyads...
. For example, a pitch shifter set to increase the pitch by a fourth will raise each note four diatonic intervals above the notes actually played. Simple pitch shifters raise or lower the pitch by one or two octave
Octave
In music, an octave is the interval between one musical pitch and another with half or double its frequency. The octave relationship is a natural phenomenon that has been referred to as the "basic miracle of music", the use of which is "common in most musical systems"...
s, while more sophisticated devices offer a range of interval alterations.
A harmonizer is a type of pitch shifter that combines the altered pitch with the original pitch to create a two or more note harmony
Harmony
In music, harmony is the use of simultaneous pitches , or chords. The study of harmony involves chords and their construction and chord progressions and the principles of connection that govern them. Harmony is often said to refer to the "vertical" aspect of music, as distinguished from melodic...
. Some hamonizers are able to create chorus-like effects by adding very tiny shifts in pitch.
Pitch shift effects: DigiTech Whammy
Digitech Whammy
-Overview:The WH-1 Whammy pedal, the original whammy, first engineered and manufactured in 1989 by IVL Technologies and discontinued in 1993, remains the most sought-after.-Controls:...
, Electro-Harmonix POG
Electro-Harmonix
Electro-Harmonix is a New York-based company that makes high-end electronic audio processors. The company was founded by Mike Matthews in 1968. They are most famous for a series of popular guitar effects pedals introduced in the 1970s and 1990s....
.
Time-based
Time-based effects delay the sound signal or adds echos.Delay
Delay (audio effect)
Delay is an audio effect which records an input signal to an audio storage medium, and then plays it back after a period of time. The delayed signal may either be played back multiple times, or played back into the recording again, to create the sound of a repeating, decaying echo.-Early delay...
/echo: Delay/echo units produce an echo effect by adding a duplicate instrument-to-amplifier electrical signal to the original signal at a slight time-delay. The effect can either be a single echo called a “slap” or “slapback,” or multiple echos. A well-known use of delay is the lead guitar in the U2
U2
U2 are an Irish rock band from Dublin. Formed in 1976, the group consists of Bono , The Edge , Adam Clayton , and Larry Mullen, Jr. . U2's early sound was rooted in post-punk but eventually grew to incorporate influences from many genres of popular music...
song "Where the Streets Have No Name
Where the Streets Have No Name
"Where the Streets Have No Name" is a song by rock band U2. It is the opening track from their 1987 album The Joshua Tree and was released as the album's third single in August 1987. The song's hook is a repeating guitar arpeggio using a delay effect, played during the song's introduction and...
".
Delay effects: Boss DD-3 Digital Delay
Boss Corporation
Boss is a manufacturer of effects pedals for electric guitar and bass guitar. It is a division of the Roland Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer that specializes in musical equipment and accessories...
, Electro-Harmonix Memory Man
Electro-Harmonix
Electro-Harmonix is a New York-based company that makes high-end electronic audio processors. The company was founded by Mike Matthews in 1968. They are most famous for a series of popular guitar effects pedals introduced in the 1970s and 1990s....
, Line 6 DL4 Delay Modeler, Roland RE-201
Roland RE-201
The Roland RE-201, commonly known as the Space Echo, is an audio analog delay effects unit produced by the Roland Corporation.A tape echo device records incoming audio to a loop of magnetic tape, then replays the audio over a series of several playback heads before it is erased again by new...
.
Looper pedal: A looper pedal or "phrase looper" allows a performer to record and later replay a phrase or passage from a song. Loops can be created on the spot during a performance or they can be pre-recorded. Some units allow a performer to layer multiple loops. The first loop effects were created with reel-to-reel tape using a tape loop
Tape loop
In music, tape loops are loops of prerecorded magnetic tape used to create repetitive, rhythmic musical patterns or dense layers of sound. Contemporary composers such as Steve Reich and Karlheinz Stockhausen used tape loops to create phase patterns and rhythms...
. High-end boutique tape loop effects are still used by some studios who want a vintage sound. Digital loop effects recreate this effect using an electronic memory.
Looper effects: Boss RC-30 Loop Station
Boss Corporation
Boss is a manufacturer of effects pedals for electric guitar and bass guitar. It is a division of the Roland Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer that specializes in musical equipment and accessories...
.
Reverb
Reverberation
Reverberation is the persistence of sound in a particular space after the original sound is removed. A reverberation, or reverb, is created when a sound is produced in an enclosed space causing a large number of echoes to build up and then slowly decay as the sound is absorbed by the walls and air...
: Reverb units simulate sounds produced in an echo chamber
Echo chamber
thumb|right|Echo chamber of the Dresden University of Technologythumb|right|Hamilton Mausoleum has a spectacularly long lasting unplanned echoAn echo chamber is a hollow enclosure used to produce echoing sounds, usually for recording purposes...
by creating a large number of echoes that gradually fade or "decay". A plate reverb system uses an electromechanical transducer
Transducer
A transducer is a device that converts one type of energy to another. Energy types include electrical, mechanical, electromagnetic , chemical, acoustic or thermal energy. While the term transducer commonly implies the use of a sensor/detector, any device which converts energy can be considered a...
to create vibrations in a plate of metal
Metal
A metal , is an element, compound, or alloy that is a good conductor of both electricity and heat. Metals are usually malleable and shiny, that is they reflect most of incident light...
. Spring reverb
Spring Reverb
Spring Reverb is the third studio album released by the rock and roll jam band The Big Wu. This was the last album recorded with former member Jason Fladager before he departed the band.-Track listing:# "Break of Day"# "SPMC"# "Make Believers"...
systems, which are often used in guitar amplifiers, use a transducer to create vibrations in a spring. Digital reverb effects use various signal processing
Digital signal processing
Digital signal processing is concerned with the representation of discrete time signals by a sequence of numbers or symbols and the processing of these signals. Digital signal processing and analog signal processing are subfields of signal processing...
algorithm
Algorithm
In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm is an effective method expressed as a finite list of well-defined instructions for calculating a function. Algorithms are used for calculation, data processing, and automated reasoning...
s to create the reverb effect, often by using multiple feedback delay circuits
Delay (audio effect)
Delay is an audio effect which records an input signal to an audio storage medium, and then plays it back after a period of time. The delayed signal may either be played back multiple times, or played back into the recording again, to create the sound of a repeating, decaying echo.-Early delay...
. Rockabilly
Rockabilly
Rockabilly is one of the earliest styles of rock and roll music, dating to the early 1950s.The term rockabilly is a portmanteau of rock and hillbilly, the latter a reference to the country music that contributed strongly to the style's development...
and surf guitar are two genres that make heavy use of reverb.
Reverb effects: Electro-Harmonix Holy Grail
Electro-Harmonix
Electro-Harmonix is a New York-based company that makes high-end electronic audio processors. The company was founded by Mike Matthews in 1968. They are most famous for a series of popular guitar effects pedals introduced in the 1970s and 1990s....
, Fender Reverb Unit
Fender Reverb Unit
The Fender Reverb Unit was a tube, spring reverb-equipped effects unit made by Fender. The Reverb Unit was originally introduced in 1961. It was discontinued in 1966 and was replaced by a solid-state model. The unit features three controls: Dwell, Mix and Tone and is run by two pre-amp tubes and a...
.
Feedback/sustain
Audio feedback
Audio feedback is a special kind of positive feedback which occurs when a sound loop exists between an audio input and an audio output...
as a desired guitar effect has been pioneered by guitarists such as Jimi Hendrix
Jimi Hendrix
James Marshall "Jimi" Hendrix was an American guitarist and singer-songwriter...
. It is generated by playing an instrument directly in front of an amplifier set to a high volume turning the tone into a feedback tone with infinite sustain. Typically, these feedback tones turn quickly from basic notes into overtone
Overtone
An overtone is any frequency higher than the fundamental frequency of a sound. The fundamental and the overtones together are called partials. Harmonics are partials whose frequencies are whole number multiples of the fundamental These overlapping terms are variously used when discussing the...
s. It can be difficult to get feedback conditions, because it depends on the sound volume and on the position of the guitar relative to the loudspeaker
The EBow, a handheld pickup
Pickup (music technology)
A pickup device is a transducer that captures mechanical vibrations, usually from suitably equipped stringed instruments such as the electric guitar, electric bass guitar, Chapman Stick, or electric violin, and converts them to an electrical signal that is amplified, recorded, or broadcast.-...
/string driver, uses two small coils. One coil has a permanent magnet. It picks up the string vibration similar to a guitar pickup. The electrical signal is amplified for driving the second coil which
acts as a magnetic string driver to vibrate the string. By this feedback loop a bow
Bow (music)
In music, a bow is moved across some part of a musical instrument, causing vibration which the instrument emits as sound. The vast majority of bows are used with string instruments, although some bows are used with musical saws and other bowed idiophones....
-like infinitely sustained sound is generated. The Ebow can drive one string at the same time. Latest Ebow models contain a mode switch which allows the player to change from basic note to overtones feedback sustain .
Other magnetic string drivers use the guitar pickup signal as input.
Guitar built-in devices such as the Sustainiac Sustainer and the Fernandes Sustainer create feedback sustain with a string driver mounted in the guitar.
Many compressor pedals are often also marketed as "sustainer pedals". As a note is sustained, it loses energy and volume due to diminishing vibration in the string. The compressor pedal boosts its electrical signal to the specified dynamic range
Dynamic range
Dynamic range, abbreviated DR or DNR, is the ratio between the largest and smallest possible values of a changeable quantity, such as in sound and light. It is measured as a ratio, or as a base-10 or base-2 logarithmic value.-Dynamic range and human perception:The human senses of sight and...
, slightly prolonging the duration of the note.
Other effects
Envelope follower: An envelope follower activates an effect once a designated volume is reached. One effect that uses an envelope follower is the "auto-wahAuto-wah
Auto-wah is a type of wah-wah effects pedal typically used with electric guitar, bass guitar, clavinet, and electric piano etc...
", which produces a "wah" effect depending on how loud or soft the notes are being played.
Guitar amplifier
Guitar amplifier
A guitar amplifier is an electronic amplifier designed to make the signal of an electric or acoustic guitar louder so that it will produce sound through a loudspeaker...
modeling: Amplifier modeling is a digital
Digital
A digital system is a data technology that uses discrete values. By contrast, non-digital systems use a continuous range of values to represent information...
effect that replicates the sound of various amplifiers, most often analog
Analog signal
An analog or analogue signal is any continuous signal for which the time varying feature of the signal is a representation of some other time varying quantity, i.e., analogous to another time varying signal. It differs from a digital signal in terms of small fluctuations in the signal which are...
“tube” amps. Sophisticated modeling effects can simulate speaker cabinets and miking techniques. A rotary speaker simulator mimics the doppler
Doppler effect
The Doppler effect , named after Austrian physicist Christian Doppler who proposed it in 1842 in Prague, is the change in frequency of a wave for an observer moving relative to the source of the wave. It is commonly heard when a vehicle sounding a siren or horn approaches, passes, and recedes from...
sound of a vintage Leslie speaker
Leslie speaker
The Leslie speaker is a specially constructed amplifier/loudspeaker used to create special audio effects using the Doppler effect. Named after its inventor, Donald Leslie, it is particularly associated with the Hammond organ but is used with a variety of instruments as well as vocals. The...
system by replicating its volume and pitch modulations, overdrive capacity and phase shifts.
Pitch correction
Pitch correction
Pitch correction is the process of correcting the intonation of an audio signal without affecting other aspects of its sound. Pitch correction first detects the pitch of an audio signal , then calculates the desired change and modifies the audio signal accordingly...
/vocal effects: Pitch correction effects use signal-processing algorithms to re-tune faulty intonation in a vocalist's performance.
Simulators: Simulators enable electric guitars to mimic the sound of other instruments such as acoustic guitar, electric bass
Electric Bass
Electric bass can mean:*Electric upright bass, the electric version of a double bass*Electric bass guitar*Bass synthesizer*Big Mouth Billy Bass, a battery-powered singing fish...
and sitar
Sitar
The 'Tablaman' is a plucked stringed instrument predominantly used in Hindustani classical music, where it has been ubiquitous since the Middle Ages...
. Pick up simulators used on guitars with single-coil pick ups replicate the sound of guitars with humbucker
Humbucker
A humbucker is a type of electric guitar pickup, first patented by Seth Lover and the Gibson company, that uses two coils, both generating string signal. Humbuckers have higher output than a single coil pickup since both coils are connected in series...
pick ups, or vice-versa. A de-fret
Fret
A fret is a raised portion on the neck of a stringed instrument, that extends generally across the full width of the neck. On most modern western instruments, frets are metal strips inserted into the fingerboard...
ter is a bass guitar
Bass guitar
The bass guitar is a stringed instrument played primarily with the fingers or thumb , or by using a pick....
effect that simulates the sound of a fretless bass. The effect uses an envelope-controlled filter
Voltage-controlled filter
A voltage-controlled filter is a filter whose operating characteristics can be controlled by means of a control voltage applied to one or more inputs...
and voltage-controlled amplifier to “soften” a note's attack both in volume and timbre
Timbre
In music, timbre is the quality of a musical note or sound or tone that distinguishes different types of sound production, such as voices and musical instruments, such as string instruments, wind instruments, and percussion instruments. The physical characteristics of sound that determine the...
.
Boutique pedals
Boutique pedals are designed by smaller, independent companies and are typically produced in limited quantities. Some may even be hand-made. These pedals are mainly distributed online or through mail-order, or sold in a few music stores. They are often more expensive than mass-produced pedals and offer non-standard features such as true-bypass switching, higher-quality components, innovative designs, and hand-painted artwork. Some boutique companies focus on re-creating classic or vintage effects.Some boutique pedal manufacturers include: Analog Man, BJFE, Pete Cornish
Pete Cornish
Pete Cornish is a British designer of electric guitar effects and other electronic musical instruments. He is mainly noted for his elaborate fully custom guitar pedalboard systems...
, Emlyn Crowther
Emlyn Crowther
Paul Emlyn Crowther was the drummer of Split Enz from July 1974 to November 1976.Before joining the Enz, Crowther played trumpet in an air training corp band but swapped to drums later on. Moved to Auckland in 1969 and played drums in a couple of covers bands and Alastair Riddell's band, Orb...
, Death By Audio
Death By Audio
Death By Audio is a warehouse space on the first floor of an industrial building in the Williamsburg neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York. It is also the name of an effects pedal company based in the space....
, Devi Ever
Devi Ever
Devi Ever Effects, previously known as Effector 13, is a boutique effects pedal company based in Portland, Oregon that was founded in 2003. The company is named after the company's founder, Devi Ever. All of the effects pedals are hand built in the USA, in small batches...
, Robert Keeley
Robert Keeley (instrument maker)
Robert Keeley is a British creator of effects pedals. He modifies pre-existing pedals made by companies such as Boss Corporation and as well as creating his own stomp boxes.-Pedals:...
, Roger Linn
Roger Linn
Roger Linn is an industrial designer, mainly of electronic drum machines, and has recently branched out into guitar effects pedals. His products have become underground hits, being used on many famous recordings...
, Lovetone
Lovetone
Lovetone is the name of a manufacturer of analog effect pedals in England in the 1990s.The effects were created by Vlad Naslas and Daniel Coggins, and their pedals were noted for their tongue-in-cheek names like the "Big Cheese" and the "Ring Stinger"....
, Roger Mayer, Strymon
Strymon (company)
Strymon is a manufacturer of boutique guitar effects pedals. The company was founded in 2008 and is based in Westlake Village, California. They are best known for their line of high end pedals that integrate DSP algorithms...
, T-Rex Engineering
T-Rex Engineering
T-Rex ApS is a manufacturer of hand-made electric guitar effects pedals.-Company history:Based in the town of Vejle, Denmark, T-Rex Engineering was founded in 1996 by friends Lars Dahl-Jorgensen and Sebastian Jensen....
, ToadWorks
Toadworks
ToadWorks is a guitar effect brand owned by Ryan Dunn and Doug Harrison based in Spokane, Washington. ToadWorks is primarily known manufacturing the Mr. Ed distortion pedal, which has been incorrectly identified with Eddie Van Halen.-History:...
and Z.Vex Effects
Z.Vex Effects
Z.Vex Effects is a boutique effects pedal company based in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Their name derives from the name of founder Zachary Vex. The company's most famous product is the Fuzz Factory. All of their pedals are hand painted at their factory in Minnesota...
.
Effects unit modification
There is also a niche marketNiche market
A niche market is the subset of the market on which a specific product is focusing; therefore the market niche defines the specific product features aimed at satisfying specific market needs, as well as the price range, production quality and the demographics that is intended to impact...
for modifying or "modding" effects. Typically, vendors provide either custom modification services or sell new effects pedals which have been modified. The Ibanez Tube Screamer
Ibanez Tube Screamer
The Ibanez Tube Screamer is a guitar overdrive pedal, made by Ibanez. The pedal has a characteristic mid-boosted tone popular with blues players...
, Boss DS-1
Boss DS-1
The Boss DS-1 is a distortion pedal for guitar, manufactured by the Roland Corporation under the brand name Boss since 1978. The first distortion unit made by Boss, it has become a classic effect, used by many notable guitar players. Boss produced a successor, the DS-2.-Circuit design:The DS-1 has...
, Pro Co RAT
Pro Co Rat
The Pro Co "The RAT" is a guitar effects pedal produced by Pro Co Sound. The original RAT was developed in the basement of Pro Co's Kalamazoo, Michigan facility in 1978...
and DigiTech Whammy
Digitech Whammy
-Overview:The WH-1 Whammy pedal, the original whammy, first engineered and manufactured in 1989 by IVL Technologies and discontinued in 1993, remains the most sought-after.-Controls:...
are some of the most often-modified effects. Common modifications include value changes in capacitors or resistors, adding true-bypass so that the effect's circuitry is no longer in the signal path, substituting higher-quality components, replacing the unit's original operational amplifiers (op-amps), or adding functions to the device such as allowing additional control of some factor or adding an additional output jack.
Tributes by musicians
Effects and effects units—stompboxes in particular—have been celebrated by pop and rock musicians in album titles, songs and band names. The Big MuffBig Muff
The Big Muff is a fuzzbox produced in New York City by the Electro-Harmonix company, along with their Russian sister company Sovtek, primarily for use with the electric guitar...
, a classic fuzzbox manufactured by Electro-Harmonix
Electro-Harmonix
Electro-Harmonix is a New York-based company that makes high-end electronic audio processors. The company was founded by Mike Matthews in 1968. They are most famous for a series of popular guitar effects pedals introduced in the 1970s and 1990s....
, is commemorated by the Depeche Mode
Depeche Mode
Depeche Mode are an English electronic music band formed in 1980 in Basildon, Essex. The group's original line-up consisted of Dave Gahan , Martin Gore , Andy Fletcher and Vince Clarke...
song "Big Muff
Speak & Spell (album)
Speak & Spell is the first album from the British electronic group Depeche Mode, recorded and released in 1981. The album peaked at #10 in the UK Albums Chart.-Overview:This was the only Depeche Mode album with Vince Clarke as a member of the band...
" and the Mudhoney EP
Extended play
An EP is a musical recording which contains more music than a single, but is too short to qualify as a full album or LP. The term EP originally referred only to specific types of vinyl records other than 78 rpm standard play records and LP records, but it is now applied to mid-length Compact...
Superfuzz Bigmuff
Superfuzz Bigmuff
Superfuzz Bigmuff is the debut EP by the Seattle grunge band Mudhoney. It was released in October 1988 through record label Sub Pop. The songs later appeared on their 1990 compilation album Superfuzz Bigmuff Plus Early Singles...
. Lyrics to Super Furry Animals
Super Furry Animals
Super Furry Animals are a Welsh rock band that lean towards psychedelic rock and electronic experimentation. Since their formation in Cardiff, Wales in 1993, the band has consisted of Gruff Rhys , Huw Bunford , Guto Pryce , Cian Ciaran and Dafydd Ieuan Super Furry Animals are a Welsh rock band...
' "Play It Cool
Play It Cool (Super Furry Animals song)
"Play It Cool" is the eighth single by Super Furry Animals. It reached number 27 on the UK Singles Chart on its release in September 1997.-Release and critical reception:...
" mention another Electro-Harmonix pedal, the Electric Mistress flanger. The Nine Inch Nails
Nine Inch Nails
Nine Inch Nails is an American industrial rock project, founded in 1988 by Trent Reznor in Cleveland, Ohio. As its main producer, singer, songwriter, and instrumentalist, Reznor is the only official member of Nine Inch Nails and remains solely responsible for its direction...
song "Echoplex
The Slip (album)
The Slip is the seventh studio album by American industrial rock act Nine Inch Nails, released on July 22, 2008. It was the fourth consecutive Nine Inch Nails release to be produced by frontman Trent Reznor with collaborators Atticus Ross and Alan Moulder...
" is titled after Maestro's vintage echo unit
Echoplex
The Echoplex is a tape delay effect, first made in 1959. Designed by Mike Battle, the Echoplex set a standard for the effect in the 1960s and was used by some of the most notable guitar players of the era; original Echoplexes are highly sought after....
. Other songs that reference effects include "Interstellar Overdrive
Interstellar Overdrive
"Interstellar Overdrive" is a psychedelic composition written by Pink Floyd in 1966, which appears on their 1967 debut album The Piper at the Gates of Dawn at almost ten minutes in length. An earlier, longer recording, 16:52, can be heard on the soundtrack to the film Tonite Let's All Make Love in...
" by Pink Floyd
Pink Floyd
Pink Floyd were an English rock band that achieved worldwide success with their progressive and psychedelic rock music. Their work is marked by the use of philosophical lyrics, sonic experimentation, innovative album art, and elaborate live shows. Pink Floyd are one of the most commercially...
, "Wah-Wah
All Things Must Pass
All Things Must Pass is a triple album by George Harrison, recorded and released in 1970. The original vinyl release featured two LPs of rock songs as well as Apple Jam, a third LP of informal jams...
" by George Harrison
George Harrison
George Harrison, MBE was an English musician, guitarist, singer-songwriter, actor and film producer who achieved international fame as lead guitarist of The Beatles. Often referred to as "the quiet Beatle", Harrison became over time an admirer of Indian mysticism, and introduced it to the other...
, and "Stomp Box
John Henry (album)
John Henry is the name of They Might Be Giants' fifth original album, although it is the sixth disc in their discography. It was released in 1994. It is the first album in which John Linnell and John Flansburgh utilized a full band, as opposed to playing most or all of the instruments themselves....
" by They Might Be Giants
They Might Be Giants
They Might Be Giants is an American alternative rock band formed in 1982 by John Flansburgh and John Linnell. During TMBG's early years Flansburgh and Linnell were frequently accompanied by a drum machine. In the early 1990s, TMBG became a full band. Currently, the members of TMBG are...
. Joy Division
Joy Division
Joy Division were an English rock band formed in 1976 in Salford, Greater Manchester. Originally named Warsaw, the band primarily consisted of Ian Curtis , Bernard Sumner , Peter Hook and Stephen Morris .Joy Division rapidly evolved from their initial punk rock influences...
's "Digital
Digital (Joy Division song)
"Digital" is a song by the band Joy Division that is featured on the compilation albums Substance, Heart and Soul, and Still.The track was recorded in the band's first session with Martin Hannett as producer...
" was inspired by engineer/producer Martin Hannett
Martin Hannett
Martin Hannett , sometimes credited as Martin Zero, was a record producer and an original partner in Factory Records with Tony Wilson...
's AMS
AMS (Advanced Music Systems)
AMS were a manufacturer of professional studio equipment. The company later merged with Neve Electronics to form the award winning AMS Neve Ltd company, who received an Emmy in 1992 and a Grammy in 2000.-Background:...
digital delay unit. We've Got a Fuzzbox and We're Gonna Use It
We've Got a Fuzzbox and We're Gonna Use It
We've Got A Fuzzbox and We're Gonna Use It were an English alternative rock group. Formed in Birmingham in 1985, the all-female quartet originally consisted of Vix, Maggie Dunne, Jo Dunne and Tina O'Neill. The band's name was shortened to Fuzzbox for the U.S. release of their first album...
were an all-female British band from the 1980s, and The Fuzztones
The Fuzztones
The Fuzztones are a garage rock revival band formed in 1980. Founded by singer-guitarist Rudi Protrudi The Fuzztones are a garage rock revival band formed in 1980. Founded by singer-guitarist Rudi Protrudi The Fuzztones are a garage rock revival band formed in 1980. Founded by singer-guitarist Rudi...
were a 1980s garage rock
Garage rock
Garage rock is a raw form of rock and roll that was first popular in the United States and Canada from about 1963 to 1967. During the 1960s, it was not recognized as a separate music genre and had no specific name...
revival band.
Other pedals and rackmount units
Not all stompboxes and rackmounts are effects. Strobe tuner pedals indicate whether a guitar string is too sharpSharp (music)
In music, sharp, dièse , or diesis means higher in pitch and the sharp symbol raises a note by a half tone. Intonation may be flat, sharp, or both, successively or simultaneously...
or flat. A footswitch pedal such as the "A/B" pedal route a guitar signal to an amplifier or enable a performer to switch between two guitars. Guitar amplifiers and electronic keyboards may have switch pedals for turning built-in effects on and off. Some musicians who use rackmounted effects or laptop
Laptop
A laptop, also called a notebook, is a personal computer for mobile use. A laptop integrates most of the typical components of a desktop computer, including a display, a keyboard, a pointing device and speakers into a single unit...
s employ a MIDI controller pedalboard or armband remote controls to trigger sound samples
Sampling (music)
In music, sampling is the act of taking a portion, or sample, of one sound recording and reusing it as an instrument or a different sound recording of a song or piece. Sampling was originally developed by experimental musicians working with musique concrète and electroacoustic music, who physically...
, switch between different effects or control effect settings.
See also
Audio effects- Outboard gearOutboard gearMusical "outboard equipment" or "gear" alter how an musical instrument sounds. Outboard, can be used either during a live performance or in the recording studio. These are separate from the effects that may be applied by using a mixing console or a digital audio workstation...
— for more generic article - Sound effectSound effectFor the album by The Jam, see Sound Affects.Sound effects or audio effects are artificially created or enhanced sounds, or sound processes used to emphasize artistic or other content of films, television shows, live performance, animation, video games, music, or other media...
- Audio signal processingAudio signal processingAudio signal processing, sometimes referred to as audio processing, is the intentional alteration of auditory signals, or sound. As audio signals may be electronically represented in either digital or analog format, signal processing may occur in either domain...
- Acoustic wave — for natural audio effects
Technologies
- Digital signal processorDigital signal processorA digital signal processor is a specialized microprocessor with an architecture optimized for the fast operational needs of digital signal processing.-Typical characteristics:...
- Linear filterLinear filterLinear filters in the time domain process time-varying input signals to produce output signals, subject to the constraint of linearity.This results from systems composed solely of components classified as having a linear response....
- Non-linear filterNon-linear filterA nonlinear filter is a signal-processing device whose output is not a linear function of its input. Terminology concerning the filtering problem may refer to the time domain showing of the signal or to the frequency domain representation of the signal. When referring to filters with adjectives...
- Frequency divider
- Frequency mixerFrequency mixerIn electronics a mixer or frequency mixer is a nonlinear electrical circuit that creates new frequencies from two signals applied to it. In its most common application, two signals at frequencies f1 and f2 are applied to a mixer, and it produces new signals at the sum f1 + f2 and difference f1 -...
- Frequency multiplierFrequency multiplierIn electronics, a frequency multiplier is an electronic circuit that generates an output signal whose output frequency is a harmonic of its input frequency. Frequency multipliers consist of a nonlinear circuit that distorts the input signal and consequently generates harmonics of the input signal...