Entoloma sinuatum
Encyclopedia
Entoloma sinuatum is a poisonous mushroom found across Europe and North America. Some guidebooks refer to it by its older scientific names of Entoloma lividum or Rhodophyllus sinuatus. The largest mushroom of the genus
of pink-spore
d fungi known as Entoloma
, it is also the type species
. Appearing in late summer and autumn, fruit bodies
are found in deciduous woodlands on clay or chalky soils, or nearby parklands, sometimes in the form of fairy ring
s. Solid in shape, they resemble members of the genus Tricholoma. The ivory to light grey-brown cap
is up to 20 cm (8 in) across with a margin that is rolled inward. The sinuate gill
s are pale and often yellowish, becoming pink as the spore
s develop. The thick whitish stem
has no ring
.
When young, it may be mistaken for the edible
St George's mushroom (Calocybe gambosa) or the miller (Clitopilus prunulus
). It has been responsible for many cases of mushroom poisoning
in Europe. E. sinuatum causes primarily gastrointestinal problems that, though not generally life-threatening, have been described as highly unpleasant. Delirium and depression are uncommon sequela
e. It is generally not considered to be lethal, although one source has reported deaths from the consumption of this mushroom.
's Herbier de la France. In it was plate 382, representing a mushroom which he called Agaricus
lividus. In 1872, Lucien Quélet
took up a species which he called "Entoloma
lividus Bull."; although all subsequent agree that this is a fairly clear reference to Bulliard's name, Quélet gave a description that is generally considered to be that of a different species from Bulliard's. In the meantime, 1801 had seen the description of Agaricus sinuatus by Christian Persoon
in his Synopsis Methodica Fungorum. He based that name on another plate (number 579) published in the last part of Bulliard's work, and which the latter had labelled "agaric sinué".Which means that under the modern principles of nomenclature, Persoon, not Bulliard, is the first to have used the name, since only names in Latin can be considered. German mycologist Paul Kummer
reclassified it as Entoloma sinuatum in 1871.
For many years Quélet's name and description were treated as valid because Bulliard's name antedated Persoon's. However in 1950, a change in the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (termed the Stockholm Code, after the city where the International Botanical Congress was being held) caused only names on fungi published after 1801 or 1821 (depending on their type) to be valid. This meant that suddenly Bulliard's name was no longer a valid name, and now it was Persoon's name that had priority. Nonetheless it was a well-known name, and the already chaotic situation caused by a change to a famous Latin name was further complicated by another of Quélet's suggestions. He had in 1886 proposed a new, broader genus that included all pink-gilled fungi with adnate or sinuate gills and angular spores: Rhodophyllus. These two approach to genus placement, using either Rhodophyllus or Entoloma, coexisted for many decades, with mycologists and guidebooks following either; Henri Romagnesi
, who studied the genus for over forty years, favoured Rhodophyllus, as initially did Rolf Singer
. However, most other authorities have tended to favour Entoloma, and Singer conceded the name was far more widely used and adopted it for his Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy text in 1986.
In the meantime, it had been widely accepted that the 1950 change to the Stockholm Code caused more problems than they solved, and in 1981, the Sydney Code reinstated the validity of pre-1801 names, but created the status of sanctioned name
for those used in the foundational works of Persoon and Elias Magnus Fries
. Thus Entoloma sinuatum, which Fries had sanctioned, still had to be used for the species described by Quélet even though Bulliard's name was the older one. At about the same time, Machiel Noordeloos re-examined Bulliard's name in more details, and discovered that not only was it illegitimate
(and thus not available for use) because William Hudson
had already used it ten years earlier for a different species, but Bulliard's illustration was clearly not an Entoloma, but a species of Pluteus
,It is now generally accepted the species in question is Pluteus cervinus
. a genus that is only distantly related to Entoloma. As this made Quélet's name definitely unusable for the Entoloma, and because at the time he and Romagnesi believed there were ground to treat Quélet's "E. lividum" and Persoon's E. sinuatum as separate species, he had to coin a third name for Quélet's species: Entoloma eulividum. He however later changed his mind on this issue, combining again his own Entoloma eulividum and E. sinuatum, so that Persoon's name is now universally recognised. Because it was previously widely used and Quélet had provided a good description and illustration (which, the proposer argued, was better considered as a new species rather than a mere placement of Bulliard's name in another genus), a proposal was made in 1999 to conserve
Entoloma lividum and thus restore its use. However, it failed because E. sinuatum had already been in use (if not universally) for many years and was thus a well-known name for the species.
The specific epithet sinuatum is the Latin
for "wavy", referring to the shape of the cap, while the generic name is derived from the Ancient Greek
words entos/ἐντός "inner" and lóma/λῶμα "fringe" or "hem" from the inrolled margin. The specific epithet lividum was derived from the Latin word lǐvīdus "lead-coloured". The various common name
s include livid entoloma, livid agaric, livid pinkgill, leaden entoloma, lead poisoner, and grey pinkgill. In the Dijon
region of France it was known as le grand empoisonneur de la Côte-d'Or
("the great poisoner of Côte d'Or"). Quélet himself, who was poisoned by the fungus, called it the miller's purge, akin to another common name of false miller.
Within the large genus Entoloma, which contains around 1500 species, E. sinuatum has been classically placed in the section
Entoloma within the subgenus
Entoloma, as it is the type species
of the genus. A 2009 study analysing DNA sequence
s and spore morphology
found it to lie in a rhodopolioid clade
with (among other species) E. sordidulum
, E. politum
and E. rhodopolium
, and most closely related to E. sp. 1. This rhodopolioid clade lay within a crown Entoloma clade.
6–15 cm (2½–6 in) wide, though diameters of 25 cm (10 in) have been recorded. It is convex to flat, often with a blunt umbo
in its centre and wavy margins, ivory white to light grey-brown in colour, and darkening with age. The distant gills are sinuate (notched at their point of attachment to the stipe
) to almost free, generally (but not always) yellowish white before darkening to pink and then red. Interspersed between the gills are lamellulae (short gills that do not extend completely from the cap margin to the stipe). When viewed from beneath, a characteristic groove colloquially known as a "moat" can be seen in the gill pattern circumnavigating the stalk. The form
lacking yellow colour on the gills is rare but widespread, and has been recorded from Austria, France and Holland.
The stout white stipe lacks a ring
and is anywhere from 4 to 15 cm (1.6–6 in) high, and 0.5–3.5 cm (0.2–1.6 in) in diameter. It may be bulbous at the base. The taste is mild, although it may be unpleasant. The mushroom's strong and unusual odour can be hard to describe; it may smell of flour, though is often unpleasant and rancid. The spore print
is reddish-brown, with angular spores 8–11 × 7–9.5 μm
, roughly six-sided and globular in shape. The basidia are four-spored and clamped. The gill edge is fertile, and cystidia are absent.
) is a common cause of poisoning in France; the latter fungus has a greyish-white downy cap and whitish decurrent gills which turn pink with maturity. Young fruit bodies of Entoloma sinuatum can also be confused with St George's mushroom (Calocybe gambosa), although the gills of the latter are crowded and cream in colour, and the clouded agaric (Clitocybe nebularis
), which has whitish decurrent gills and an unusual odour. To complicate matters, it often grows near these edible species. Its overall size and shape resemble members of the genus Tricholoma, although the spore colour (white in Tricholoma, pinkish in Entoloma) and shape (angular in Entoloma) help distinguish it. The rare and edible all-white dovelike tricholoma (T. columbetta
) has a satiny cap and stem and a faint, not mealy, odour. E. sinuatum may be confused with Clitocybe multiceps in the Pacific Northwest
of North America, although the latter has white spores and generally grows in clumps. A casual observer may mistake it for an edible field mushroom (Agaricus campestris
), but this species has a ring on the stipe, pink gills that become chocolate-brown in maturity, and a dark brown spore print. The poorly known North American species E. albidum
resembles E. sinuatum but is likewise poisonous.
. It also occurs throughout Europe and the British Isles including Ireland, though it is more common in southern and central parts of Europe than the northwest. In Asia, it has been recorded in the Black Sea region, and Adıyaman Province
in Turkey, Iran, and northern Yunnan
in China.
The fruit bodies of E. sinuatum grow solitarily or in groups, and have been found forming fairy ring
s. Fruit bodies appear mainly in autumn, and also in summer in North America, while in Europe the season is reported as late summer and autumn. They are found in deciduous woodlands
under oak
, beech
, and less commonly birch
, often on clay or calcareous
(chalky) soils, but they may spread to in parks, fields and grassy areas nearby. Most members of the genus are saprotrophic
, although this species has been recorded as forming an ectomycorrhizal relationship with willow (Salix).
s in Europe. For example, 70 people required hospital treatment in Geneva
alone in 1983, and the fungus accounted for 33 of 145 cases of mushroom poisoning in a five-year period at a single hospital in Parma
. Poisoning is said to be mainly gastrointestinal in nature; symptoms of diarrhoea, vomiting and headache occur 30 minutes to 2 hours after consumption and last for up to 48 hours. Acute liver toxicity and psychiatric symptoms like mood disturbance or delirium
may occur. Rarely, symptoms of depression may last for months. At least one source reports there have been fatalities in adults and children. Hospital treatment of poisoning by this mushroom is usually supportive
; antispasmodic
medicines may lessen colicky abdominal cramps and activated charcoal may be administered early on to bind residual toxin. Intravenous
fluids may be required if dehydration has been extensive, especially with children and the elderly. Metoclopramide
may be used in cases of recurrent vomiting once gastric contents are emptied. The identity of the toxin(s) is unknown, but chemical analysis has established that there are alkaloid
s present in the mushroom.
A study of trace element
s in mushrooms in the eastern Black Sea Region
of Turkey found E. sinuatum to have the highest levels of copper
(64.8 ± 5.9 μg/g dried material
—insufficient to be toxic) and zinc
(198 μg/g) recorded. Caps and stalks tested in an area with high levels of mercury
in southeastern Poland showed it to bioaccumulate
much higher levels of mercury than other fungi. The element was also found in high levels in the humus-rich substrate. Entoloma sinuatum also accumulates arsenic
-containing compounds. Of the roughly 40 μg of arsenic present per gram of fresh mushroom tissue, about 8% was arsenite
and the other 92% was arsenate
.
Genus
In biology, a genus is a low-level taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia...
of pink-spore
Spore
In biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many bacteria, plants, algae, fungi and some protozoa. According to scientist Dr...
d fungi known as Entoloma
Entoloma
Entoloma is a large genus of terrestrial pink-gilled mushrooms, with about 1000 species. They have a drab appearance, pink gills which are attached to the stem, a smooth thick cap, and angular spores. Most entolomas are saprobic...
, it is also the type species
Type species
In biological nomenclature, a type species is both a concept and a practical system which is used in the classification and nomenclature of animals and plants. The value of a "type species" lies in the fact that it makes clear what is meant by a particular genus name. A type species is the species...
. Appearing in late summer and autumn, fruit bodies
Basidiocarp
In fungi, a basidiocarp, basidiome or basidioma , is the sporocarp of a basidiomycete, the multicellular structure on which the spore-producing hymenium is borne. Basidiocarps are characteristic of the hymenomycetes; rusts and smuts do not produce such structures...
are found in deciduous woodlands on clay or chalky soils, or nearby parklands, sometimes in the form of fairy ring
Fairy ring
A fairy ring, also known as fairy circle, elf circle, elf ring or pixie ring, is a naturally occurring ring or arc of mushrooms. The rings may grow to over in diameter, and they become stable over time as the fungus grows and seeks food underground. They are found mainly in forested areas, but...
s. Solid in shape, they resemble members of the genus Tricholoma. The ivory to light grey-brown cap
Pileus (mycology)
The pileus is the technical name for the cap, or cap-like part, of a basidiocarp or ascocarp that supports a spore-bearing surface, the hymenium. The hymenium may consist of lamellae, tubes, or teeth, on the underside of the pileus...
is up to 20 cm (8 in) across with a margin that is rolled inward. The sinuate gill
Gill (mushroom)
A lamella, or gill, is a papery hymenophore rib under the cap of some mushroom species, most often but not always agarics. The gills are used by the mushrooms as a means of spore dispersal, and are important for species identification...
s are pale and often yellowish, becoming pink as the spore
Spore
In biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many bacteria, plants, algae, fungi and some protozoa. According to scientist Dr...
s develop. The thick whitish stem
Stipe (mycology)
thumb|150px|right|Diagram of a [[basidiomycete]] stipe with an [[annulus |annulus]] and [[volva |volva]]In mycology a stipe refers to the stem or stalk-like feature supporting the cap of a mushroom. Like all tissues of the mushroom other than the hymenium, the stipe is composed of sterile hyphal...
has no ring
Annulus (mycology)
An annulus is the ring like structure sometimes found on the stipe of some species of mushrooms. The annulus represents the remaining part of the partial veil, after it has ruptured to expose the gills or other spore-producing surface. An annulus may be thick and membranous, or it may be cobweb-like...
.
When young, it may be mistaken for the edible
Edible mushroom
Edible mushrooms are the fleshy and edible fruiting bodies of several species of fungi. Mushrooms belong to the macrofungi, because their fruiting structures are large enough to be seen with the naked eye. They can appear either below ground or above ground where they may be picked by hand...
St George's mushroom (Calocybe gambosa) or the miller (Clitopilus prunulus
Clitopilus prunulus
Clitopilus prunulus, commonly known as the miller or the sweetbread mushroom, is an edible pink-spored basidiomycete mushroom found in grasslands in Europe. It has a grey to white cap and decurrent gills.-Description:...
). It has been responsible for many cases of mushroom poisoning
Mushroom poisoning
Mushroom poisoning refers to harmful effects from ingestion of toxic substances present in a mushroom. These symptoms can vary from slight gastrointestinal discomfort to death. The toxins present are secondary metabolites produced in specific biochemical pathways in the fungal cells...
in Europe. E. sinuatum causes primarily gastrointestinal problems that, though not generally life-threatening, have been described as highly unpleasant. Delirium and depression are uncommon sequela
Sequela
A sequela) is a pathological condition resulting from a disease, injury, or other trauma.Chronic kidney disease, for example, is sometimes a sequela of diabetes, and neck pain is a common sequela of whiplash or other trauma to the cervical vertebrae. Post-traumatic stress disorder may be a...
e. It is generally not considered to be lethal, although one source has reported deaths from the consumption of this mushroom.
Name and relationships
The saga of this species' name begins in 1788 with the publication of part 8 of Jean Baptiste BulliardJean Baptiste François Pierre Bulliard
Jean Baptiste François Pierre Bulliard was a French physician and botanist....
's Herbier de la France. In it was plate 382, representing a mushroom which he called Agaricus
Agaricus
Agaricus is a large and important genus of mushrooms containing both edible and poisonous species, with possibly over 300 members worldwide...
lividus. In 1872, Lucien Quélet
Lucien Quélet
thumb|Lucien QuéletLucien Quélet was a French mycologist and naturalist who discovered several species and was the founder of the Société mycologique de France, a society devoted to mycological studies....
took up a species which he called "Entoloma
Entoloma
Entoloma is a large genus of terrestrial pink-gilled mushrooms, with about 1000 species. They have a drab appearance, pink gills which are attached to the stem, a smooth thick cap, and angular spores. Most entolomas are saprobic...
lividus Bull."; although all subsequent agree that this is a fairly clear reference to Bulliard's name, Quélet gave a description that is generally considered to be that of a different species from Bulliard's. In the meantime, 1801 had seen the description of Agaricus sinuatus by Christian Persoon
Christian Hendrik Persoon
Christiaan Hendrik Persoon was a mycologist who made additions to Linnaeus' mushroom taxonomy.-Early life:...
in his Synopsis Methodica Fungorum. He based that name on another plate (number 579) published in the last part of Bulliard's work, and which the latter had labelled "agaric sinué".Which means that under the modern principles of nomenclature, Persoon, not Bulliard, is the first to have used the name, since only names in Latin can be considered. German mycologist Paul Kummer
Paul Kummer
Paul Kummer was a priest, teacher, and scientist in Zerbst, Germany, known chiefly for his contribution to mycological nomenclature. Earlier classification of agarics by pioneering fungal taxonomist Elias Magnus Fries designated only a very small number of genera, with most species falling into...
reclassified it as Entoloma sinuatum in 1871.
For many years Quélet's name and description were treated as valid because Bulliard's name antedated Persoon's. However in 1950, a change in the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (termed the Stockholm Code, after the city where the International Botanical Congress was being held) caused only names on fungi published after 1801 or 1821 (depending on their type) to be valid. This meant that suddenly Bulliard's name was no longer a valid name, and now it was Persoon's name that had priority. Nonetheless it was a well-known name, and the already chaotic situation caused by a change to a famous Latin name was further complicated by another of Quélet's suggestions. He had in 1886 proposed a new, broader genus that included all pink-gilled fungi with adnate or sinuate gills and angular spores: Rhodophyllus. These two approach to genus placement, using either Rhodophyllus or Entoloma, coexisted for many decades, with mycologists and guidebooks following either; Henri Romagnesi
Henri Romagnesi
Henri Charles Louis Romagnesi was a French mycologist who was notable for a thorough review and monograph of the agaric genus Entoloma , as well as extensive work on the large genus Russula, of which he described several new species.-References:...
, who studied the genus for over forty years, favoured Rhodophyllus, as initially did Rolf Singer
Rolf Singer
Rolf Singer was a German-born mycologist and one of the most important taxonomists of gilled mushrooms in the 20th century....
. However, most other authorities have tended to favour Entoloma, and Singer conceded the name was far more widely used and adopted it for his Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy text in 1986.
In the meantime, it had been widely accepted that the 1950 change to the Stockholm Code caused more problems than they solved, and in 1981, the Sydney Code reinstated the validity of pre-1801 names, but created the status of sanctioned name
Sanctioned name
In mycology, a sanctioned name is a name that was adopted in certain works of Christiaan Hendrik Persoon or Elias Magnus Fries, which are considered major points in fungal taxonomy.-Definition and effects:...
for those used in the foundational works of Persoon and Elias Magnus Fries
Elias Magnus Fries
-External links:*, Authors of fungal names, Mushroom, the Journal of Wild Mushrooming.*...
. Thus Entoloma sinuatum, which Fries had sanctioned, still had to be used for the species described by Quélet even though Bulliard's name was the older one. At about the same time, Machiel Noordeloos re-examined Bulliard's name in more details, and discovered that not only was it illegitimate
Nomen illegitimum
A nomen illegitimum is a technical term, used mainly in botany. It is usually abbreviated as nom. illeg..-Definition:...
(and thus not available for use) because William Hudson
William Hudson (botanist)
William Hudson FRS was a British botanist and apothecary based in London. His main work was Flora Anglica, published in 1762. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1761.- Life and work :...
had already used it ten years earlier for a different species, but Bulliard's illustration was clearly not an Entoloma, but a species of Pluteus
Pluteus
Pluteus is a large genus of fungi with over 100 species. They are wood rotting saprobes with pink spore prints and gills that are free from the stem.Pluteus means shed or penthouse.-Characteristics of the genus :...
,It is now generally accepted the species in question is Pluteus cervinus
Pluteus cervinus
Pluteus cervinus, also known as Pluteus atricapillus and commonly known as the deer shield or the deer or fawn mushroom, is a mushroom that belongs to the large genus Pluteus. It is found on rotten logs, roots and tree stumps and is widely distributed. It can also grow on sawdust and other wood...
. a genus that is only distantly related to Entoloma. As this made Quélet's name definitely unusable for the Entoloma, and because at the time he and Romagnesi believed there were ground to treat Quélet's "E. lividum" and Persoon's E. sinuatum as separate species, he had to coin a third name for Quélet's species: Entoloma eulividum. He however later changed his mind on this issue, combining again his own Entoloma eulividum and E. sinuatum, so that Persoon's name is now universally recognised. Because it was previously widely used and Quélet had provided a good description and illustration (which, the proposer argued, was better considered as a new species rather than a mere placement of Bulliard's name in another genus), a proposal was made in 1999 to conserve
Conserved name
A conserved name or nomen conservandum is a scientific name that has specific nomenclatural protection. Nomen conservandum is a Latin term, meaning a "name which should be conserved"...
Entoloma lividum and thus restore its use. However, it failed because E. sinuatum had already been in use (if not universally) for many years and was thus a well-known name for the species.
The specific epithet sinuatum is the Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
for "wavy", referring to the shape of the cap, while the generic name is derived from the Ancient Greek
Ancient Greek
Ancient Greek is the stage of the Greek language in the periods spanning the times c. 9th–6th centuries BC, , c. 5th–4th centuries BC , and the c. 3rd century BC – 6th century AD of ancient Greece and the ancient world; being predated in the 2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek...
words entos/ἐντός "inner" and lóma/λῶμα "fringe" or "hem" from the inrolled margin. The specific epithet lividum was derived from the Latin word lǐvīdus "lead-coloured". The various common name
Common name
A common name of a taxon or organism is a name in general use within a community; it is often contrasted with the scientific name for the same organism...
s include livid entoloma, livid agaric, livid pinkgill, leaden entoloma, lead poisoner, and grey pinkgill. In the Dijon
Dijon
Dijon is a city in eastern France, the capital of the Côte-d'Or département and of the Burgundy region.Dijon is the historical capital of the region of Burgundy. Population : 151,576 within the city limits; 250,516 for the greater Dijon area....
region of France it was known as le grand empoisonneur de la Côte-d'Or
Côte-d'Or
Côte-d'Or is a department in the eastern part of France.- History :Côte-d'Or is one of the original 83 departments created during the French Revolution on 4 March 1790. It was formed from part of the former province of Burgundy.- Geography :...
("the great poisoner of Côte d'Or"). Quélet himself, who was poisoned by the fungus, called it the miller's purge, akin to another common name of false miller.
Within the large genus Entoloma, which contains around 1500 species, E. sinuatum has been classically placed in the section
Section (botany)
In botany, a section is a taxonomic rank below the genus, but above the species. The subgenus, if present, is higher than the section, and the rank of series, if present, is below the section. Sections are typically used to help organise very large genera, which may have hundreds of species...
Entoloma within the subgenus
Subgenus
In biology, a subgenus is a taxonomic rank directly below genus.In zoology, a subgeneric name can be used independently or included in a species name, in parentheses, placed between the generic name and the specific epithet: e.g. the Tiger Cowry of the Indo-Pacific, Cypraea tigris Linnaeus, which...
Entoloma, as it is the type species
Type species
In biological nomenclature, a type species is both a concept and a practical system which is used in the classification and nomenclature of animals and plants. The value of a "type species" lies in the fact that it makes clear what is meant by a particular genus name. A type species is the species...
of the genus. A 2009 study analysing DNA sequence
DNA sequence
The sequence or primary structure of a nucleic acid is the composition of atoms that make up the nucleic acid and the chemical bonds that bond those atoms. Because nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA, are unbranched polymers, this specification is equivalent to specifying the sequence of...
s and spore morphology
Morphology (biology)
In biology, morphology is a branch of bioscience dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features....
found it to lie in a rhodopolioid clade
Clade
A clade is a group consisting of a species and all its descendants. In the terms of biological systematics, a clade is a single "branch" on the "tree of life". The idea that such a "natural group" of organisms should be grouped together and given a taxonomic name is central to biological...
with (among other species) E. sordidulum
Entoloma sordidulum
Entoloma sordidulum is a mushroom found in North America. Rhodophyllus sordidulus is a synonym....
, E. politum
Entoloma politum
Entoloma politum is a species of fungus in the Entolomataceae family. It is found in Europe and North America....
and E. rhodopolium
Entoloma rhodopolium
Entoloma rhodopolium, commonly known as the wood pinkgill, is a poisonous mushroom found in Europe and Asia. In fact, it is one of the three most commonly implicated fungi in cases of mushroom poisoning in Japan . E. rhodopolium is often mistaken for edible mushroom, E. sarcopum...
, and most closely related to E. sp. 1. This rhodopolioid clade lay within a crown Entoloma clade.
Description
The largest member of its genus, Entoloma sinuatum has an imposing epigeous (aboveground) fruiting body (basidiocarp), bearing a capPileus (mycology)
The pileus is the technical name for the cap, or cap-like part, of a basidiocarp or ascocarp that supports a spore-bearing surface, the hymenium. The hymenium may consist of lamellae, tubes, or teeth, on the underside of the pileus...
6–15 cm (2½–6 in) wide, though diameters of 25 cm (10 in) have been recorded. It is convex to flat, often with a blunt umbo
Umbo (mycology)
thumb|right|[[Cantharellula umbonata]] has an umbo.thumb|right|The cap of [[Psilocybe makarorae]] is acutely papillate.An umbo is a raised area in the center of a mushroom cap. Caps that possess this feature are called umbonate. Umbos that are sharply pointed are called acute, while those that are...
in its centre and wavy margins, ivory white to light grey-brown in colour, and darkening with age. The distant gills are sinuate (notched at their point of attachment to the stipe
Stipe (mycology)
thumb|150px|right|Diagram of a [[basidiomycete]] stipe with an [[annulus |annulus]] and [[volva |volva]]In mycology a stipe refers to the stem or stalk-like feature supporting the cap of a mushroom. Like all tissues of the mushroom other than the hymenium, the stipe is composed of sterile hyphal...
) to almost free, generally (but not always) yellowish white before darkening to pink and then red. Interspersed between the gills are lamellulae (short gills that do not extend completely from the cap margin to the stipe). When viewed from beneath, a characteristic groove colloquially known as a "moat" can be seen in the gill pattern circumnavigating the stalk. The form
Form (botany)
In botanical nomenclature, a form is one of the "secondary" taxonomic ranks, below that of variety, which in turn is below that of species; it is an infraspecific taxon...
lacking yellow colour on the gills is rare but widespread, and has been recorded from Austria, France and Holland.
The stout white stipe lacks a ring
Annulus (mycology)
An annulus is the ring like structure sometimes found on the stipe of some species of mushrooms. The annulus represents the remaining part of the partial veil, after it has ruptured to expose the gills or other spore-producing surface. An annulus may be thick and membranous, or it may be cobweb-like...
and is anywhere from 4 to 15 cm (1.6–6 in) high, and 0.5–3.5 cm (0.2–1.6 in) in diameter. It may be bulbous at the base. The taste is mild, although it may be unpleasant. The mushroom's strong and unusual odour can be hard to describe; it may smell of flour, though is often unpleasant and rancid. The spore print
Spore print
thumb|300px|right|Making a spore print of the mushroom Volvariella volvacea shown in composite: mushroom cap laid on white and dark paper; cap removed after 24 hours showing pinkish-tan spore print...
is reddish-brown, with angular spores 8–11 × 7–9.5 μm
Micrometre
A micrometer , is by definition 1×10-6 of a meter .In plain English, it means one-millionth of a meter . Its unit symbol in the International System of Units is μm...
, roughly six-sided and globular in shape. The basidia are four-spored and clamped. The gill edge is fertile, and cystidia are absent.
Similar species
Confusion with the highly regarded miller or sweetbread mushroom (Clitopilus prunulusClitopilus prunulus
Clitopilus prunulus, commonly known as the miller or the sweetbread mushroom, is an edible pink-spored basidiomycete mushroom found in grasslands in Europe. It has a grey to white cap and decurrent gills.-Description:...
) is a common cause of poisoning in France; the latter fungus has a greyish-white downy cap and whitish decurrent gills which turn pink with maturity. Young fruit bodies of Entoloma sinuatum can also be confused with St George's mushroom (Calocybe gambosa), although the gills of the latter are crowded and cream in colour, and the clouded agaric (Clitocybe nebularis
Clitocybe nebularis
Clitocybe nebularis or Lepista nebularis, commonly known as the clouded agaric or cloud funnel, is an abundant gilled fungus which appears both in conifer-dominated forests and broad-leaved woodland in Europe and North America...
), which has whitish decurrent gills and an unusual odour. To complicate matters, it often grows near these edible species. Its overall size and shape resemble members of the genus Tricholoma, although the spore colour (white in Tricholoma, pinkish in Entoloma) and shape (angular in Entoloma) help distinguish it. The rare and edible all-white dovelike tricholoma (T. columbetta
Tricholoma columbetta
Tricholoma columbetta, commonly known as dove-coloured Tricholoma, is an edible mushroom of the large genus Tricholoma. It is found in Europe, where it is eaten in France....
) has a satiny cap and stem and a faint, not mealy, odour. E. sinuatum may be confused with Clitocybe multiceps in the Pacific Northwest
Pacific Northwest
The Pacific Northwest is a region in northwestern North America, bounded by the Pacific Ocean to the west and, loosely, by the Rocky Mountains on the east. Definitions of the region vary and there is no commonly agreed upon boundary, even among Pacific Northwesterners. A common concept of the...
of North America, although the latter has white spores and generally grows in clumps. A casual observer may mistake it for an edible field mushroom (Agaricus campestris
Agaricus campestris
Agaricus campestris is commonly known as the field mushroom or, in North America, meadow mushroom. It is a widely eaten gilled mushroom closely related to the cultivated button mushroom Agaricus bisporus.-Taxonomy:...
), but this species has a ring on the stipe, pink gills that become chocolate-brown in maturity, and a dark brown spore print. The poorly known North American species E. albidum
Entoloma albidum
Entoloma albidum is a poisonous mushroom found in North America....
resembles E. sinuatum but is likewise poisonous.
Distribution and habitat
Entoloma sinuatum is fairly common and widespread across North America as far south as ArizonaArizona
Arizona ; is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States. It is also part of the western United States and the mountain west. The capital and largest city is Phoenix...
. It also occurs throughout Europe and the British Isles including Ireland, though it is more common in southern and central parts of Europe than the northwest. In Asia, it has been recorded in the Black Sea region, and Adıyaman Province
Adiyaman Province
Adıyaman Province is a province in south-central Turkey. The province was created in 1954 out of part of Malatya Province. Area 7,614 km². Population 590,935 , up from 513,131 in 1990. The capital is Adıyaman....
in Turkey, Iran, and northern Yunnan
Yunnan
Yunnan is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the far southwest of the country spanning approximately and with a population of 45.7 million . The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders Burma, Laos, and Vietnam.Yunnan is situated in a mountainous area, with...
in China.
The fruit bodies of E. sinuatum grow solitarily or in groups, and have been found forming fairy ring
Fairy ring
A fairy ring, also known as fairy circle, elf circle, elf ring or pixie ring, is a naturally occurring ring or arc of mushrooms. The rings may grow to over in diameter, and they become stable over time as the fungus grows and seeks food underground. They are found mainly in forested areas, but...
s. Fruit bodies appear mainly in autumn, and also in summer in North America, while in Europe the season is reported as late summer and autumn. They are found in deciduous woodlands
Temperate deciduous forest
A temperate deciduous forest, more precisely termed temperate broadleaf forest or temperate broadleaved forest, is a biome found in North America, southern South America, Europe, and Asia. A temperate deciduous forest consists of trees that lose their leaves every year...
under oak
Oak
An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus , of which about 600 species exist. "Oak" may also appear in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus...
, beech
Beech
Beech is a genus of ten species of deciduous trees in the family Fagaceae, native to temperate Europe, Asia and North America.-Habit:...
, and less commonly birch
Birch
Birch is a tree or shrub of the genus Betula , in the family Betulaceae, closely related to the beech/oak family, Fagaceae. The Betula genus contains 30–60 known taxa...
, often on clay or calcareous
Calcareous
Calcareous is an adjective meaning mostly or partly composed of calcium carbonate, in other words, containing lime or being chalky. The term is used in a wide variety of scientific disciplines.-In zoology:...
(chalky) soils, but they may spread to in parks, fields and grassy areas nearby. Most members of the genus are saprotrophic
Saprotrophic nutrition
Saprotrophic nutrition is a process of chemoheterotrophic extra-cellular digestion involved in the processing of dead or decayed organic matter that occurs in saprotrophs or heterotrophs, and is most often associated with fungi, for example Mucor and Rhizopus...
, although this species has been recorded as forming an ectomycorrhizal relationship with willow (Salix).
Toxicity
This fungus has been cited as being responsible for 10% of all mushroom poisoningMushroom poisoning
Mushroom poisoning refers to harmful effects from ingestion of toxic substances present in a mushroom. These symptoms can vary from slight gastrointestinal discomfort to death. The toxins present are secondary metabolites produced in specific biochemical pathways in the fungal cells...
s in Europe. For example, 70 people required hospital treatment in Geneva
Geneva
Geneva In the national languages of Switzerland the city is known as Genf , Ginevra and Genevra is the second-most-populous city in Switzerland and is the most populous city of Romandie, the French-speaking part of Switzerland...
alone in 1983, and the fungus accounted for 33 of 145 cases of mushroom poisoning in a five-year period at a single hospital in Parma
Parma
Parma is a city in the Italian region of Emilia-Romagna famous for its ham, its cheese, its architecture and the fine countryside around it. This is the home of the University of Parma, one of the oldest universities in the world....
. Poisoning is said to be mainly gastrointestinal in nature; symptoms of diarrhoea, vomiting and headache occur 30 minutes to 2 hours after consumption and last for up to 48 hours. Acute liver toxicity and psychiatric symptoms like mood disturbance or delirium
Delirium
Delirium or acute confusional state is a common and severe neuropsychiatric syndrome with core features of acute onset and fluctuating course, attentional deficits and generalized severe disorganization of behavior...
may occur. Rarely, symptoms of depression may last for months. At least one source reports there have been fatalities in adults and children. Hospital treatment of poisoning by this mushroom is usually supportive
Palliative care
Palliative care is a specialized area of healthcare that focuses on relieving and preventing the suffering of patients...
; antispasmodic
Antispasmodic
An antispasmodic is a drug or a herb that suppresses muscle spasms.-Smooth muscle spasm:One type of antispasmodics is used for smooth muscle contraction, especially in tubular organs of the gastrointestinal tract...
medicines may lessen colicky abdominal cramps and activated charcoal may be administered early on to bind residual toxin. Intravenous
Intravenous therapy
Intravenous therapy or IV therapy is the infusion of liquid substances directly into a vein. The word intravenous simply means "within a vein". Therapies administered intravenously are often called specialty pharmaceuticals...
fluids may be required if dehydration has been extensive, especially with children and the elderly. Metoclopramide
Metoclopramide
Metoclopramide is an antiemetic and gastroprokinetic agent. It is commonly used to treat nausea and vomiting, to facilitate gastric emptying in people with gastroparesis, and as a treatment for the gastric stasis often associated with migraine headaches.-Medical uses:Metoclopramide is commonly...
may be used in cases of recurrent vomiting once gastric contents are emptied. The identity of the toxin(s) is unknown, but chemical analysis has established that there are alkaloid
Alkaloid
Alkaloids are a group of naturally occurring chemical compounds that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Also some synthetic compounds of similar structure are attributed to alkaloids...
s present in the mushroom.
A study of trace element
Trace element
In analytical chemistry, a trace element is an element in a sample that has an average concentration of less than 100 parts per million measured in atomic count, or less than 100 micrograms per gram....
s in mushrooms in the eastern Black Sea Region
Black Sea Region
The Black Sea Region is one of Turkey's seven census-defined geographical regions . It is bordered by the Marmara Region to the west, the Central Anatolia Region to the south, the Eastern Anatolia Region to the southeast, the Republic of Georgia to the northeast, and the Black Sea to the north.-...
of Turkey found E. sinuatum to have the highest levels of copper
Copper
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; an exposed surface has a reddish-orange tarnish...
(64.8 ± 5.9 μg/g dried material
Dry matter
The dry matter is a measurement of the mass of something when completely dried.The dry matter of plant and animal material would be its solids, i.e. all its constituents excluding water. The dry matter of food would include carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants...
—insufficient to be toxic) and zinc
Zinc
Zinc , or spelter , is a metallic chemical element; it has the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. It is the first element in group 12 of the periodic table. Zinc is, in some respects, chemically similar to magnesium, because its ion is of similar size and its only common oxidation state is +2...
(198 μg/g) recorded. Caps and stalks tested in an area with high levels of mercury
Mercury (element)
Mercury is a chemical element with the symbol Hg and atomic number 80. It is also known as quicksilver or hydrargyrum...
in southeastern Poland showed it to bioaccumulate
Bioaccumulation
Bioaccumulation refers to the accumulation of substances, such as pesticides, or other organic chemicals in an organism. Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a toxic substance at a rate greater than that at which the substance is lost...
much higher levels of mercury than other fungi. The element was also found in high levels in the humus-rich substrate. Entoloma sinuatum also accumulates arsenic
Arsenic
Arsenic is a chemical element with the symbol As, atomic number 33 and relative atomic mass 74.92. Arsenic occurs in many minerals, usually in conjunction with sulfur and metals, and also as a pure elemental crystal. It was first documented by Albertus Magnus in 1250.Arsenic is a metalloid...
-containing compounds. Of the roughly 40 μg of arsenic present per gram of fresh mushroom tissue, about 8% was arsenite
Arsenite
In chemistry an arsenite is a chemical compound containing an arsenic oxoanion where arsenic has oxidation state +3.The different forms of the anion are the next ones:* ortho-arsenite: AsO33-* meta-arsenite: AsO2-...
and the other 92% was arsenate
Arsenate
The arsenate ion is AsO43−.An arsenate is any compound that contains this ion. Arsenates are salts or esters of arsenic acid.The arsenic atom in arsenate has a valency of 5 and is also known as pentavalent arsenic or As[V]....
.