Maghreb people
Encyclopedia
Maghrebis or Maghrebian people or Maghrebians are the inhabitants of the Maghreb
countries (Morocco
, Algeria
, Tunisia
, Libya
, Mauritania
). During Al-Andalus
, Maghrebis were known as Moors
.
ns, Greeks
, Romans
, Vandals
, and Byzantines
colonized the Maghreb and contributed to the development of its culture. Later, morisco
s and muladi
es, that is, indigenous Spaniards who had earlier converted to the Muslim faith and were fleeing, together with ethnic Arab and Berber Muslims, from the Catholic Reconquista
settled to the Maghreb. Among West Asians are Turks who came over with the expansion of the Ottoman Empire
. A small Turkish descended
population exists, particularly in Tunisia and Algeria. Other European contributions included French, Italians, and others captured by the corsairs
and then turned into slaves
.
Nowadays, a majority of the current population in the Maghreb consider themselves generally Arab
in identity, regardless of mixed ethnic or linguistic heritage. There are significant non-Arab or non-Arab identifying populations in the region and most important of the non-Arab populations found throughout the Maghreb, particularly in Morocco and Algeria, are the Berbers
. They represented the majority of the pre-Islamic population. After the arrival of Islamic Arabs, Berbers assimilated in large numbers to Arab or mixed Arab-Berber ethnic identities.
Historically the Maghreb was also home to significant Jewish communities, including the Maghrebim Jews
, who predated the 7th century introduction and conversion of the majority of Berbers to Islam. Under the Almohad dynasty rule in the 12th century, the Jews were forced to convert en masse to Islam. Later largely augmented by Spanish Sephardi Jews
, fleeing the Spanish Catholic Reconquista, established a presence in North Africa, chiefly in the urban trading centers. They have contributed to the wider population through conversion and assimilation. Many Sephardic Jews emigrated to North America in the early 20th century or to France and Israel later in the 20th century.
On the Saharan southern edge of the Maghreb are large communities of black populations, sometimes called Haratin
, who are orally identify themselves as the original inhabitants of southern oasis.
(c. 155 – c. 202); and Christian Church martyrs or leading figures such as St Cyprian of Carthage
(+ 258); Saint Monica
; her son the philosopher St. Augustine
, Bishop of Hippo I (+ 430) (1); and St Julia of Carthage
(5th century).
The domination of Christianity ended when Arab invasions brought Islam in 647. Carthage fell in 698 and the remainder of the region followed in subsequent decades. Gradual Islamization proceeded, although surviving letters showed correspondence from regional Christians to Rome up until the 9th century. Christianity was still a living faith. Christian bishoprics and dioceses continued to be active, with relations continuing with Rome. As late as Pope Benedict VII
(974-983) reign, a new Archbishop of Carthage was consecrated. Evidence of Christianity in the region then faded through the 10th century.
During the 7th century, the region's peoples began their nearly total conversion to Islam. There is a small but thriving Jewish community, as well as a small Christian community. Most Muslims follow the Sunni Maliki
school. Small Ibadi
communities remain in some areas. A strong tradition of venerating marabout
s and saints' tombs is found throughout regions inhabited by Berbers. Any map of the region demonstrates the tradition by the proliferation of "Sidi
"s, showing places named after the marabouts. Like some other religious traditions, this has substantially decreased over the 20th century. A network of zaouia
s traditionally helped proliferate basic literacy and knowledge of Islam in rural regions.
, there were 3.5 million people of Maghrebi origin (with at least one grandparent from Algeria, Morocco or Tunisia) living in France
in 2005 corresponding to 5.8% of the total French metropolitan population (60.7 millions in 2005). Maghrebis have settled mainly in the industrial regions in France, especially in the Paris region
. Many famous French people like Edith Piaf
, Isabelle Adjani
, Arnaud Montebourg
, Alain Bashung
, Dany Boon
and many others have Maghrebi ancestry.
Below is a table of population of Maghrebi origin in France, numbers are in thousands:
In 2005, the percentage of young people under 18 of maghrebi origin (at least one immigrant parent) were about 7% in Metropolitan France
, 12% in Greater Paris
, 13% in Lyon
, 21% in Perpignan
, 22% in French département of Seine-Saint-Denis
, 37% in 18th arrondissement of Paris and 40% in several arrondissements of Marseilles.
According to other sources between 5 and 8 million people of Maghrebin origin live in France.
ans is due to the fact that both these groups shared a common ancestor either in the Upper Paleolithic
, in the Neolithic
or alternatively during history with the invasion and the occupation during nearly seven centuries of the Iberian Peninsula by Moorish troops.
, which are so common among the population of North African and the Middle East, Haplogroups E3b and J
, are the most widespread among North African groups especially E1b1b1b (E-M81, formerly E3b1b) which is typical of the indigenous Berbers of North-West Africa. In some parts of Morocco E1b1b1b can peak at 80% of the population. Followed by Haplogroup J
especially J1
http://www.cell.com/AJHG/retrieve/pii/S0002929707643663 , which is typically Middle Eastern which can reach frequencies of 35% in the region, and has its highest density founded in the Southwestern Arabian Peninsula
, Followed by Haplogroup R1 which has been observed in North African though with lower frequency. The Y-DNA Haplogroups shown above are observed in both Arab and Berber-speakers.
The Northwest-African Y chromosome
pool (including both Berber and Arab populations) may be summarized as follows where only two haplogroups E1b1b and J
comprise generally more than 80% of the total chromosomes:
E1b1b1b (E-M81)
is the most common Y haplogroup among North African Arab
s and Berbers
dominated by its sub-clade E-M183. It is thought to have originated in North Africa 5,600 years ago. Colloquially referred to as the "Berber marker" for its prevalence among Mozabite, Middle Atlas
, Kabyle
and other Berber groups, E-M81 is also quite common among North African Arab
groups (45% in Oran
). It can reach frequencies of up to 80% in the Maghreb.
Regarding J1-M267
, according to a recent study in 2011 about Tunisia, it is significantly more abundant in the urban (31.3%) than in the rural total population (2.5%). According to the authors, these results could be explained supposing that Arabization in Tunisia was a military enterprise, therefore, mainly driven by men that displaced native Berbers to geographically marginal areas but that frequently married Berber women.
The Northwest-African mtDna pool is characterized by an "overall high frequency of Western Eurasian haplogroups, a somehow lower frequency of sub-Saharan L lineages, and a significant (but differential) presence of North African haplogroups U6 and M1." According to Cherni et al. 2009 "the post-Last glacial maximum expansion originating in Iberia not only led to the resettlement of Europe but also of North Africa".
According to a Ottoni et al. 2010, besides the "autochthonous" South-Saharan component, the maternal pool of Northern Africa appears to be characterized by at least two other major components: (i) a Levantine contribution (i.e. haplogroups U6 and M1), associated with the return to Africa around 45 kya, and (ii) a more recent West European input associated with the postglacial expansion.
Until recently, some papers suggested that the distribution of the main L haplogroups in North Africa was mainly due to trans-Saharan slave trade. However in September 2010, a thorough study about Berber mtDNA by Frigi et al. concluded that most of L haplogroups were much older and introduced by an ancient African gene flow around 20,000 years ago.
." (on average 55% Middle East, 25% European and 20% Sub-saharan).
, North African male haplogroups, especially E1b1b1b (E-M81), E1b1b1a-b (M78 derived chromosomes showing the rare DYS439 allele 10 or E-V65) and a subset of J1 (M267 derived), are found in significant amounts with an average frequency of about 7-8% in the peninsula with frequencies surpassing 10% in some regions, like 18.6% in Cantabria
.
Historically introduced NW African types in Italy and Iberia (Capelli et al. (2009))
As an exceptional case in Europe, E-M81 has also been observed at 40% the Pasiegos
from Cantabria
.
Concerning the level of male genetic admixture
in Iberia, an important study by Adams et al. 2008 that analysed 1140 individuals in Iberia
found a mean North African admixture of 10.6%, with wide geographical variation, ranging from 2.5% in Catalonia
, 11.8% in North Portugal
, 16.1% in South Portugal, 20.8% in Galicia to 21.7% in Northwest Castile
.
MtDna (female lineages) genetic studies on Iberian populations also show that North African mitochondrial DNA sequences (haplogroup U6
) are found at much higher levels than those generally observed elsewhere in Europe. Although the overall absolute frequency of U6 is low (2.4%), this signals a possible current North African ancestry proportion of 8%–9%, because U6 is not a common lineage in North Africa itself. U6 reaches its highest frequency in North Portugal at about 4-6% where Gonzalez et al. 2003 estimated a possible North African ancestry proportion of 27%.
Iberia is also the region in Europe with the highest frequency of the female mediated mtDNA haplogroup L of Sub-Saharan origin, likely a result of Berber
and Arab colonization or African slave trade. Pereira et al. 2005, who analysed 1045 Iberian individuals, found sub-Saharan mtDNA L haplogroups at rates of 11.38% in south Portugal, 5.02% in Center Portugal, 3.21% in North Portugal and 3.26% in Galicia. According to Alvarez et al. 2010 who found L haplogroups at a rate of 4.70% in the Spanish province of Zamora, "as the Hts found in the area are also shared with North African populations, we cannot discard the possibility that these lineages derived from the North African Muslim permanence in the Iberian Peninsula". In another study, Casas et al. 2006 extracted DNA from human remains that were exhumed from historic burial sites in Al-Andalus
, Spain (between 12th-13th century). The frequency of Sub-Saharan lineages detected in the medieval samples was 14.6% and 8.3% in the present population of Priego de Cordoba
. The authors suggest both the Muslim occupation
, and prehistoric migrations before the Muslim occupation would have been the source of these lineages. Brehm at al. 2003 also found a significant Sub-Saharan imprint in the Autonomous regions of Portugal
, with L haplogroups constituting about 13% of the lineages in Madeira
and 3.4 % in the Azores
.
, a study by Nicole Maca-Meyer in 2003 found mtDna haplogroup U6 at rate of 14% in the present-day Canary Islands populations reflecting the Berber origin of the Guanches
, the aboriginal population of the Canary Islands. In this study they compared aboriginal Guanche mtDNA (collected from Canarian archaeological sites) to that of today's Canarians and concluded that, "despite the continuous changes suffered by the population (Spanish colonization, slave trade), aboriginal mtDNA lineages constitute a considerable proportion [42–73%] of the Canarian gene pool". MtDNA haplogroup L were also found at rate of 6.6% and E-M81 at a rate of 8.28% with frequencies over 10% in the three largest islands of Tenerife
(10.68%), Gran Canaria
(11.54%) and Fuerteventura
(13.33%). According to Fregel et al. 2009 the presence of autochthonous North African E-M81 lineages, and also other relatively abundant markers (E-M78 and J-M267) from the same region in the indigenous Guanche population, "strongly points to that area [North Africa] as the most probable origin of the Guanche ancestors". In this study, they estimated that, based on Y-chromosome and mtDNA haplogroup frequencies, the relative female and male indigenous Guanche contributions to the present-day Canary Islands populations were respectively of 41.8% and 16.1%.
An autosomal
study in 2011 found an average Northwest African influence of about 17% in Canary Islanders with a wide interindividual variation ranging from 0% to 96%. According to the authors, the substantial Northwest African ancestry found for Canary Islanders supports that, despite the aggressive conquest by the Spanish in the 15th century and the subsequent immigration, genetic footprints of the first settlers of the Canary Islands persist in the current inhabitants. Paralleling mtDNA findings, the largest average Northwest African contribution was found for the samples from La Gomera
.
, the contribution of North African populations is estimated to be about 6%-8% which shows a "genetic affinity between Sicily and North Africa". In Italy
, North African haplogroups were found especially in a region of Southern Italy (East Campania
, Northwest Apulia
, Lucera
) at frequency of 4.7% due to Frederick II
’s relocation of Sicilian Muslims in the city of Lucera
in the 13th century. Haplogroup U6 have also been detected in Sicily
and Southern Italy at very low levels.
(exluding recent immigration as only men with French surname were analysed). 2.70 % (15/555) overall with frequencies surpassing 5% in Auvergne
(5/89) and Île-de-France
(5/91).
According to a genetic study in 2000 based on HLA
, French from Marseille
"are more or less isolated from the other western European populations. They are in an intermediate position between the North Africans (Algerians from Algiers and Oran; Tunisians) and the western Europeans
populations (France, Spain, and Portugal)". According to the authors "these results cannot be attributed to recent events because of the knowledge of the grandparents’ origin" in the sample. This study reveals "that the southern French population from Marseilles is related genetically to the southwestern Europeans and North Africans, who are geographically close" and that "a substantial gene flow has thus probably been present among the populations of these neighboring areas".
especially in Brazil
and Cuba
where frequencies surpass generally 5%. and among Hispanic men in USA.
According to Fregel et al. (2009), the fact that male North African E-M81 and female U6 lineages from the Canaries have been detected in Cuba and Iberoamerica, demonstrates that Canary Islanders with indigenous Guanche ancestors actively participated in the American colonization.
, Sudan
, Somalia
, Jordan
(4%), Lebanon
and amongst Sephardi Jews
.
Maghreb
The Maghreb is the region of Northwest Africa, west of Egypt. It includes five countries: Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Mauritania and the disputed territory of Western Sahara...
countries (Morocco
Morocco
Morocco , officially the Kingdom of Morocco , is a country located in North Africa. It has a population of more than 32 million and an area of 710,850 km², and also primarily administers the disputed region of the Western Sahara...
, Algeria
Algeria
Algeria , officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria , also formally referred to as the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria, is a country in the Maghreb region of Northwest Africa with Algiers as its capital.In terms of land area, it is the largest country in Africa and the Arab...
, Tunisia
Tunisia
Tunisia , officially the Tunisian RepublicThe long name of Tunisia in other languages used in the country is: , is the northernmost country in Africa. It is a Maghreb country and is bordered by Algeria to the west, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Its area...
, Libya
Libya
Libya is an African country in the Maghreb region of North Africa bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad and Niger to the south, and Algeria and Tunisia to the west....
, Mauritania
Mauritania
Mauritania is a country in the Maghreb and West Africa. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean in the west, by Western Sahara in the north, by Algeria in the northeast, by Mali in the east and southeast, and by Senegal in the southwest...
). During Al-Andalus
Al-Andalus
Al-Andalus was the Arabic name given to a nation and territorial region also commonly referred to as Moorish Iberia. The name describes parts of the Iberian Peninsula and Septimania governed by Muslims , at various times in the period between 711 and 1492, although the territorial boundaries...
, Maghrebis were known as Moors
Moors
The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of the Maghreb region who are predominately of Berber and Arab descent. They came to conquer and rule the Iberian Peninsula for nearly 800 years. At that time they were Muslim, although earlier the people had followed...
.
Origins
The inhabitants of the region are predominantly "Arab-Berbers" but this term implies a complete fusion of the two groups which is not the case. Whereas Arabs and Berbers, united through Islam are the main ethnic and cultural elements, it is important to bear in mind that over the centuries the Maghreb has been a melting-pot of many other ethnic groups and cultures. Before the Arab conquest PhoeniciaPhoenicia
Phoenicia , was an ancient civilization in Canaan which covered most of the western, coastal part of the Fertile Crescent. Several major Phoenician cities were built on the coastline of the Mediterranean. It was an enterprising maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean from 1550...
ns, Greeks
Greeks
The Greeks, also known as the Hellenes , are a nation and ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighboring regions. They also form a significant diaspora, with Greek communities established around the world....
, Romans
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
, Vandals
Vandals
The Vandals were an East Germanic tribe that entered the late Roman Empire during the 5th century. The Vandals under king Genseric entered Africa in 429 and by 439 established a kingdom which included the Roman Africa province, besides the islands of Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia and the Balearics....
, and Byzantines
Byzantine Greeks
Byzantine Greeks or Byzantines is a conventional term used by modern historians to refer to the medieval Greek or Hellenised citizens of the Byzantine Empire, centered mainly in Constantinople, the southern Balkans, the Greek islands, Asia Minor , Cyprus and the large urban centres of the Near East...
colonized the Maghreb and contributed to the development of its culture. Later, morisco
Morisco
Moriscos or Mouriscos , meaning "Moorish", were the converted Christian inhabitants of Spain and Portugal of Muslim heritage. Over time the term was used in a pejorative sense applied to those nominal Catholics who were suspected of secretly practicing Islam.-Demographics:By the beginning of the...
s and muladi
Muladi
The Muladi were Muslims of ethnic Iberian descent or of mixed Arab, Berber and European origin, who lived in Al-Andalus during the Middle Ages. They were also called "Musalima" .-Etymology:...
es, that is, indigenous Spaniards who had earlier converted to the Muslim faith and were fleeing, together with ethnic Arab and Berber Muslims, from the Catholic Reconquista
Reconquista
The Reconquista was a period of almost 800 years in the Middle Ages during which several Christian kingdoms succeeded in retaking the Muslim-controlled areas of the Iberian Peninsula broadly known as Al-Andalus...
settled to the Maghreb. Among West Asians are Turks who came over with the expansion of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
. A small Turkish descended
Kouloughli
Kouloughli means "children of subjects". It is equivalent to kuloğlu, the contraction of kul , and oğul in modern Turkish...
population exists, particularly in Tunisia and Algeria. Other European contributions included French, Italians, and others captured by the corsairs
Privateer
A privateer is a private person or ship authorized by a government by letters of marque to attack foreign shipping during wartime. Privateering was a way of mobilizing armed ships and sailors without having to spend public money or commit naval officers...
and then turned into slaves
Barbary Slave Trade
The Barbary Slave Trade refers to the slave markets which flourished on the Barbary Coast, or modern day Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and western Libya between the 16th and 19th centuries. These markets prospered while the states were nominally under Ottoman rule, but in reality were mostly autonomous...
.
Nowadays, a majority of the current population in the Maghreb consider themselves generally Arab
Arab
Arab people, also known as Arabs , are a panethnicity primarily living in the Arab world, which is located in Western Asia and North Africa. They are identified as such on one or more of genealogical, linguistic, or cultural grounds, with tribal affiliations, and intra-tribal relationships playing...
in identity, regardless of mixed ethnic or linguistic heritage. There are significant non-Arab or non-Arab identifying populations in the region and most important of the non-Arab populations found throughout the Maghreb, particularly in Morocco and Algeria, are the Berbers
Berber people
Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. They are continuously distributed from the Atlantic to the Siwa oasis, in Egypt, and from the Mediterranean to the Niger River. Historically they spoke the Berber language or varieties of it, which together form a branch...
. They represented the majority of the pre-Islamic population. After the arrival of Islamic Arabs, Berbers assimilated in large numbers to Arab or mixed Arab-Berber ethnic identities.
Historically the Maghreb was also home to significant Jewish communities, including the Maghrebim Jews
Maghrebim
Maghrebi Jews are Jews who traditionally lived in the Maghreb region of North Africa , established Jewish communities long before the arrival of Jews expelled from Spain; see Alhambra decree...
, who predated the 7th century introduction and conversion of the majority of Berbers to Islam. Under the Almohad dynasty rule in the 12th century, the Jews were forced to convert en masse to Islam. Later largely augmented by Spanish Sephardi Jews
Sephardi Jews
Sephardi Jews is a general term referring to the descendants of the Jews who lived in the Iberian Peninsula before their expulsion in the Spanish Inquisition. It can also refer to those who use a Sephardic style of liturgy or would otherwise define themselves in terms of the Jewish customs and...
, fleeing the Spanish Catholic Reconquista, established a presence in North Africa, chiefly in the urban trading centers. They have contributed to the wider population through conversion and assimilation. Many Sephardic Jews emigrated to North America in the early 20th century or to France and Israel later in the 20th century.
On the Saharan southern edge of the Maghreb are large communities of black populations, sometimes called Haratin
Haratin
Haratin are oasis-dwellers in the Sahara, especially in southern Morocco and Mauritania, who make up a socially and ethnically distinct group of largely sedentary dark colored workers speaking either Berber or Arabic...
, who are orally identify themselves as the original inhabitants of southern oasis.
Religion
Historic records of religion in the Maghreb region show its gradual inclusion in the Classical World, with coastal colonies established first by Phoenicians, some Greeks, and later extensive conquest and colonization by the Romans. By the 2nd century common era, the area had become a center of Latin-speaking Christianity. Both Roman settlers and Romanized populations converted to Christianity. The region produced figures such as Christian Church writer TertullianTertullian
Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, anglicised as Tertullian , was a prolific early Christian author from Carthage in the Roman province of Africa. He is the first Christian author to produce an extensive corpus of Latin Christian literature. He also was a notable early Christian apologist and...
(c. 155 – c. 202); and Christian Church martyrs or leading figures such as St Cyprian of Carthage
Cyprian
Cyprian was bishop of Carthage and an important Early Christian writer, many of whose Latin works are extant. He was born around the beginning of the 3rd century in North Africa, perhaps at Carthage, where he received a classical education...
(+ 258); Saint Monica
Saint Monica
Saint Monica may refer to:*Saint Monica, a Christian saint and mother of Saint Augustine*Saint Monica , a 2002 Canadian film...
; her son the philosopher St. Augustine
St. Augustine
-People:* Augustine of Hippo or Augustine of Hippo , father of the Latin church* Augustine of Canterbury , first Archbishop of Canterbury* Augustine Webster, an English Catholic martyr.-Places:*St. Augustine, Florida, United States...
, Bishop of Hippo I (+ 430) (1); and St Julia of Carthage
Julia of Corsica
Saint Julia of Corsica , also known as Saint Julia of Carthage, and more rarely Saint Julia of Nonza, was a virgin martyr who is venerated as a Christian saint. The date of her death is most probably on or after AD 439. She, along with Saint Devota, are the patron saints of Corsica in the Roman...
(5th century).
The domination of Christianity ended when Arab invasions brought Islam in 647. Carthage fell in 698 and the remainder of the region followed in subsequent decades. Gradual Islamization proceeded, although surviving letters showed correspondence from regional Christians to Rome up until the 9th century. Christianity was still a living faith. Christian bishoprics and dioceses continued to be active, with relations continuing with Rome. As late as Pope Benedict VII
Pope Benedict VII
Pope Benedict VII, born in Rome, the son of David or Deodatus , and previously Bishop of Sutri, died July 10, 983; belonged to the noble family of the Counts of Tusculum. He was elected by the Roman clergy and people under the influence of Sicco, imperial envoy of Emperor Otto II...
(974-983) reign, a new Archbishop of Carthage was consecrated. Evidence of Christianity in the region then faded through the 10th century.
During the 7th century, the region's peoples began their nearly total conversion to Islam. There is a small but thriving Jewish community, as well as a small Christian community. Most Muslims follow the Sunni Maliki
Maliki
The ' madhhab is one of the schools of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam. It is the second-largest of the four schools, followed by approximately 25% of Muslims, mostly in North Africa, West Africa, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, and in some parts of Saudi Arabia...
school. Small Ibadi
Ibadi
The Ibāḍī movement, Ibadism or Ibāḍiyya is a form of Islam distinct from the Sunni and Shia denominations. It is the dominant form of Islam in Oman and Zanzibar...
communities remain in some areas. A strong tradition of venerating marabout
Marabout
A marabout is a Muslim religious leader and teacher in West Africa, and in the Maghreb. The marabout is often a scholar of the Qur'an, or religious teacher. Others may be wandering holy men who survive on alms, Sufi Murshids , or leaders of religious communities...
s and saints' tombs is found throughout regions inhabited by Berbers. Any map of the region demonstrates the tradition by the proliferation of "Sidi
Sidi
Sidi is a masculine title of respect, meaning "my master" in Western Arabic language and Egyptian Arabic equivalent to modern popular usage of the English Mr....
"s, showing places named after the marabouts. Like some other religious traditions, this has substantially decreased over the 20th century. A network of zaouia
Zaouia
A zaouia or zawiya is an Islamic religious school or monastery. The term is Maghrebi and West African, roughly corresponding to the Eastern term madrassa...
s traditionally helped proliferate basic literacy and knowledge of Islam in rural regions.
France
According to Michel Tribalat, a researcher at INEDInstitut national d'études démographiques
The Institut national d'études démographiques is a French research institute specialized in demography and population studies in general.-A research institute founded in 1945:...
, there were 3.5 million people of Maghrebi origin (with at least one grandparent from Algeria, Morocco or Tunisia) living in France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
in 2005 corresponding to 5.8% of the total French metropolitan population (60.7 millions in 2005). Maghrebis have settled mainly in the industrial regions in France, especially in the Paris region
Île-de-France (région)
Île-de-France is the wealthiest and most populated of the twenty-two administrative regions of France, composed mostly of the Paris metropolitan area....
. Many famous French people like Edith Piaf
Édith Piaf
Édith Piaf , born Édith Giovanna Gassion, was a French singer and cultural icon who became widely regarded as France's greatest popular singer. Her singing reflected her life, with her specialty being ballads...
, Isabelle Adjani
Isabelle Adjani
Isabelle Yasmine Adjani is a French film actress and singer. Adjani has appeared in 30 films since 1970. She holds the record for most César Awards for Best Actress with five, for Possession , One Deadly Summer , Camille Claudel , Queen Margot and Skirt Day...
, Arnaud Montebourg
Arnaud Montebourg
Arnaud Montebourg is a French politician, and a deputy of the fifth district of Saône-et-Loire to the French National Assembly for the Socialist Party. He has also been elected president of the local assembly of Saône et Loire after local elections in 2008...
, Alain Bashung
Alain Bashung
Alain Bashung was a French singer, songwriter and actor.- Youth :Alain Bashung was the son of a Breton factory worker and French Kabyle father, whom he never knew. His mother remarried, and at the age of one, Bashung was sent to Strasbourg to live with his new stepfather's parents...
, Dany Boon
Dany Boon
Dany Boon is a French comedian who has acted both on the stage and the screen. He takes his stage name from the television show Daniel Boone.-Life and career:...
and many others have Maghrebi ancestry.
Below is a table of population of Maghrebi origin in France, numbers are in thousands:
| Country | 1999 | 2005 | % 1999/2005 | % French population (60.7 millions in 2005) |
| Algeria | 1,577 | 1,865 | +18.3% | 3.1% |
| Immigrants | 574 | 679 | ||
| Born in France | 1,003 | 1,186 | ||
| Morocco | 1,005 | 1,201 | +19.5% | 2.0% |
| Immigrants | 523 | 625 | ||
| Born in France | 482 | 576 | ||
| Tunisia | 417 | 458 | +9.8% | 0.8% |
| Immigrants | 202 | 222 | ||
| Born in France | 215 | 236 | ||
| Total Maghreb | 2,999 | 3,524 | +17.5% | 5.8% |
| Immigrants | 1 299 | 1 526 | 2.5% | |
| Born in France | 1 700 | 1 998 | 3.3% | |
In 2005, the percentage of young people under 18 of maghrebi origin (at least one immigrant parent) were about 7% in Metropolitan France
Metropolitan France
Metropolitan France is the part of France located in Europe. It can also be described as mainland France or as the French mainland and the island of Corsica...
, 12% in Greater Paris
Île-de-France (région)
Île-de-France is the wealthiest and most populated of the twenty-two administrative regions of France, composed mostly of the Paris metropolitan area....
, 13% in Lyon
Lyon
Lyon , is a city in east-central France in the Rhône-Alpes region, situated between Paris and Marseille. Lyon is located at from Paris, from Marseille, from Geneva, from Turin, and from Barcelona. The residents of the city are called Lyonnais....
, 21% in Perpignan
Perpignan
-Sport:Perpignan is a rugby stronghold: their rugby union side, USA Perpignan, is a regular competitor in the Heineken Cup and seven times champion of the Top 14 , while their rugby league side plays in the engage Super League under the name Catalans Dragons.-Culture:Since 2004, every year in the...
, 22% in French département of Seine-Saint-Denis
Seine-Saint-Denis
- Culture :A number of hip hop artists come from the Seine-Saint-Denis, including one of the first major hip-hop groups in France, NTM, as well as Lord Kossity, or more recent acts such as Tandem or Sefyu.- Miscellaneous topics :...
, 37% in 18th arrondissement of Paris and 40% in several arrondissements of Marseilles.
| 2005 % | Seine-Saint-Denis Seine-Saint-Denis - Culture :A number of hip hop artists come from the Seine-Saint-Denis, including one of the first major hip-hop groups in France, NTM, as well as Lord Kossity, or more recent acts such as Tandem or Sefyu.- Miscellaneous topics :... |
Val-de-Marne Val-de-Marne Val-de-Marne is a French department, named after the Marne River, located in the Île-de-France region. The department is situated to the southeast of the city of Paris.- Geography :... |
Val-d'Oise Val-d'Oise Val-d'Oise is a French department, created in 1968 after the split of the Seine-et-Oise department and located in the Île-de-France region. In local slang, it is known as "quatre-vingt quinze" or "neuf cinq"... |
Lyon Lyon Lyon , is a city in east-central France in the Rhône-Alpes region, situated between Paris and Marseille. Lyon is located at from Paris, from Marseille, from Geneva, from Turin, and from Barcelona. The residents of the city are called Lyonnais.... |
Paris Paris Paris is the capital and largest city in France, situated on the river Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the Île-de-France region... |
France France The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France... |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total Maghreb | 22.0% | 13.2% | 13.0% | 13.0% | 12.1% | 6.9% |
According to other sources between 5 and 8 million people of Maghrebin origin live in France.
Anthropology, Genetics and Linguistics
Various disciplines shed light on the origin of the Northwest-Africans (Berbers and Arabs).Physical anthropology
Northwest-Africans are defined as Mediterraneans with moderate Alpinid and Nordic elements. A significant proportion of the Rif Berbers, Kabyles and Chouias have blue or green eyes, a percentage sometimes higher than that found in Sicilians or Spaniards.Genetic evidence
The genetic proximity observed between the Northwest-Africans and Southern EuropeSouthern Europe
The term Southern Europe, at its most general definition, is used to mean "all countries in the south of Europe". However, the concept, at different times, has had different meanings, providing additional political, linguistic and cultural context to the definition in addition to the typical...
ans is due to the fact that both these groups shared a common ancestor either in the Upper Paleolithic
Upper Paleolithic
The Upper Paleolithic is the third and last subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe, Africa and Asia. Very broadly it dates to between 40,000 and 10,000 years ago, roughly coinciding with the appearance of behavioral modernity and before the advent of...
, in the Neolithic
Neolithic
The Neolithic Age, Era, or Period, or New Stone Age, was a period in the development of human technology, beginning about 9500 BC in some parts of the Middle East, and later in other parts of the world. It is traditionally considered as the last part of the Stone Age...
or alternatively during history with the invasion and the occupation during nearly seven centuries of the Iberian Peninsula by Moorish troops.
Y-chromosome DNA
The Y-chromosome genetic structure of the Maghreb population seems to be mainly Modulated by geography, The Y-DNA Haplogroups E3b and JHaplogroup J (Y-DNA)
In human genetics, Haplogroup J is a Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup. It is one of the major male lines of all living men...
, which are so common among the population of North African and the Middle East, Haplogroups E3b and J
Haplogroup J (Y-DNA)
In human genetics, Haplogroup J is a Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup. It is one of the major male lines of all living men...
, are the most widespread among North African groups especially E1b1b1b (E-M81, formerly E3b1b) which is typical of the indigenous Berbers of North-West Africa. In some parts of Morocco E1b1b1b can peak at 80% of the population. Followed by Haplogroup J
Haplogroup J (Y-DNA)
In human genetics, Haplogroup J is a Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup. It is one of the major male lines of all living men...
especially J1
Haplogroup J1 (Y-DNA)
In human genetics, Y DNA haplogroup J1, also known as J-M267, is a sub-haplogroup of Y DNA haplogroup J, along with its sibling clade Y DNA haplogroup J2. Men with this type of Y DNA share a common paternal ancestry, which is demonstrated and defined by the presence of the SNP mutation referred to...
http://www.cell.com/AJHG/retrieve/pii/S0002929707643663 , which is typically Middle Eastern which can reach frequencies of 35% in the region, and has its highest density founded in the Southwestern Arabian Peninsula
Arabian Peninsula
The Arabian Peninsula is a land mass situated north-east of Africa. Also known as Arabia or the Arabian subcontinent, it is the world's largest peninsula and covers 3,237,500 km2...
, Followed by Haplogroup R1 which has been observed in North African though with lower frequency. The Y-DNA Haplogroups shown above are observed in both Arab and Berber-speakers.
The Northwest-African Y chromosome
Y chromosome
The Y chromosome is one of the two sex-determining chromosomes in most mammals, including humans. In mammals, it contains the gene SRY, which triggers testis development if present. The human Y chromosome is composed of about 60 million base pairs...
pool (including both Berber and Arab populations) may be summarized as follows where only two haplogroups E1b1b and J
Haplogroup J
Haplogroup J may refer to:* Haplogroup J , a human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup* Haplogroup J , a human Y-chromosome haplogroup...
comprise generally more than 80% of the total chromosomes:
- E1b1b (mainly E-M81) (50-100 %)
- JHaplogroup JHaplogroup J may refer to:* Haplogroup J , a human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup* Haplogroup J , a human Y-chromosome haplogroup...
(mainly J1-M267) (0-45%) - R1bHaplogroup R1b (Y-DNA)The point of origin of R1b is thought to lie in Eurasia, most likely in Western Asia. T. Karafet et al. estimated the age of R1, the parent of R1b, as 18,500 years before present....
(0-15%) - Sub-Saharan and other haplogroups (0-8%)
E1b1b1b (E-M81)
Haplogroup E1b1b1b (Y-DNA)
In human genetics, E1b1b1b , is the name of a major Y chromosome haplogroup mainly found in North Africa and to a lesser extent in Western Asia and Europe. E1b1b1b is dominated by its dominant sub-clade E1b1b1b1 , formerly known as E1b1b1b, E3b1b, and E3b2, which was discovered first, and has...
is the most common Y haplogroup among North African Arab
Arab
Arab people, also known as Arabs , are a panethnicity primarily living in the Arab world, which is located in Western Asia and North Africa. They are identified as such on one or more of genealogical, linguistic, or cultural grounds, with tribal affiliations, and intra-tribal relationships playing...
s and Berbers
Berber people
Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. They are continuously distributed from the Atlantic to the Siwa oasis, in Egypt, and from the Mediterranean to the Niger River. Historically they spoke the Berber language or varieties of it, which together form a branch...
dominated by its sub-clade E-M183. It is thought to have originated in North Africa 5,600 years ago. Colloquially referred to as the "Berber marker" for its prevalence among Mozabite, Middle Atlas
Middle Atlas
The Middle Atlas is part of the Atlas mountain range lying in Morocco, a mountainous country with more than 100,000 km² or 15% of its landmass rising above 2,000 metres. The Middle Atlas is the northernmost of three Atlas Mountains chains that define a large plateaued basin extending eastward...
, Kabyle
Kabyle people
The Kabyle people are the largest homogeneous Algerian ethno-cultural and linguistical community and the largest nation in North Africa to be considered exclusively Berber. Their traditional homeland is Kabylie in the north of Algeria, one hundred miles east of Algiers...
and other Berber groups, E-M81 is also quite common among North African Arab
Arab
Arab people, also known as Arabs , are a panethnicity primarily living in the Arab world, which is located in Western Asia and North Africa. They are identified as such on one or more of genealogical, linguistic, or cultural grounds, with tribal affiliations, and intra-tribal relationships playing...
groups (45% in Oran
Oran
Oran is a major city on the northwestern Mediterranean coast of Algeria, and the second largest city of the country.It is the capital of the Oran Province . The city has a population of 759,645 , while the metropolitan area has a population of approximately 1,500,000, making it the second largest...
). It can reach frequencies of up to 80% in the Maghreb.
Regarding J1-M267
Haplogroup J1 (Y-DNA)
In human genetics, Y DNA haplogroup J1, also known as J-M267, is a sub-haplogroup of Y DNA haplogroup J, along with its sibling clade Y DNA haplogroup J2. Men with this type of Y DNA share a common paternal ancestry, which is demonstrated and defined by the presence of the SNP mutation referred to...
, according to a recent study in 2011 about Tunisia, it is significantly more abundant in the urban (31.3%) than in the rural total population (2.5%). According to the authors, these results could be explained supposing that Arabization in Tunisia was a military enterprise, therefore, mainly driven by men that displaced native Berbers to geographically marginal areas but that frequently married Berber women.
| Population | Nb | A/B | E(xE1b1b1) | E1b1b1 | E1b1b1a | E1b1b1b | E1b1b1c | F | K | G | I | J1 | J2 | R1a | R1b-M269 | Other | Study |
| 1 Algeria/Oran Oran Oran is a major city on the northwestern Mediterranean coast of Algeria, and the second largest city of the country.It is the capital of the Oran Province . The city has a population of 759,645 , while the metropolitan area has a population of approximately 1,500,000, making it the second largest... |
102 | 0 | 7.9% | 0 | 5.9% | 45.1% | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 22.5% | 4.9% | 1% | 11.8% | 1% | Robino et al. (2008) |
| 2 Algeria/Algiers Algiers ' is the capital and largest city of Algeria. According to the 1998 census, the population of the city proper was 1,519,570 and that of the urban agglomeration was 2,135,630. In 2009, the population was about 3,500,000... |
35 | 0 | 2.9% | 0 | 11.4% | 42.9% | 0 | 11.8% | 2.9% | 0 | 0 | 22.9% | 5.7% | 0 | 0 | 0 | Arredi et al. (2004) |
| 3 Algeria/Tizi Ouzou Tizi Ouzou Tizi Ouzou is a city in Kabylia, Algeria, where it ranks second in population after Béjaïa. It is the capital and largest city of Tizi Ouzou Province and of Great Kabylia .-Etymology:The name comes from the Kabylian Berber Tizi n Uzezzu and is pronounced Tizuzzu, commonly... |
19 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 47.4% | 10.5% | 10.5% | 0 | 0 | 0 | 15.8% | 0 | 0 | 15.8% | 0 | Arredi et al. (2004) |
| 4 Tunisia/Tunis Tunis Tunis is the capital of both the Tunisian Republic and the Tunis Governorate. It is Tunisia's largest city, with a population of 728,453 as of 2004; the greater metropolitan area holds some 2,412,500 inhabitants.... |
148 | 0 | 2% | 3.4% | 5.4% | 37.8% | 2.7% | 4.7% | 0.7% | 0 | 0 | 32.4% | 3.4% | 0.7% | 6.1% | 0.7% | Arredi et al. (2004) |
| 5 Tunisia | 52 | 0 | 0 | 9.6% | 15.4% | 32.7% | 0 | 1.9% | 1.9% | 0 | 0 | 34.6% | 3.8% | 0 | 0 | 0 | Onofri et al. (2008) |
| 6 Tunisia/Bou Omrane | 40 | 0 | 5% | 0 | 5% | 87.5% | 0 | 2.5% | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Ennafaa et al. (2011) |
| 7 Tunisia/Bou Saad | 40 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 92.5% | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 5% | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2.5% | Ennafaa et al. (2011) |
| 8 Tunisia/Jerbian Arabs | 46 | 2.2% | 0 | 0 | 15.2% | 60.9% | 4.3% | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 8.7% | 2.2% | 4.3% | 2.2% | 0 | Ennafaa et al. (2011) |
| 9 Tunisia/Jerbian Berbers | 47 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 17% | 76.6% | 0 | 4.25% | 2.1% | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Ennafaa et al. (2011) |
| 10 Tunisia/Chenini–Douiret Berbers | 27 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 100% | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Karima Fadhlaoui-Zid et al. (2011) |
| 11 Tunisia/Sened Berbers | 35 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 65.7% | 0 | 2.9% | 0 | 0 | 0 | 31.4% | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Karima Fadhlaoui-Zid et al. (2011) |
| 12 Tunisia/Jradou Berbers | 32 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 100% | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Karima Fadhlaoui-Zid et al. (2011) |
| 13 Tunisia/Andalusian Zaghouan | 32 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3.1% | 40.6%% | 0 | 9.4% | 0 | 0 | 0 | 43.8% | 3.1% | 0 | 0 | 0 | Karima Fadhlaoui-Zid et al. (2011) |
| 14 Tunisia/Cosmopolitan Tunis | 33 | 0 | 0 | 3.0% | 6.0% | 54.5%% | 3.0% | 6.0% | 0 | 3.0% | 0 | 24.2% | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Karima Fadhlaoui-Zid et al. (2011) |
| 15 Morocco Morocco Morocco , officially the Kingdom of Morocco , is a country located in North Africa. It has a population of more than 32 million and an area of 710,850 km², and also primarily administers the disputed region of the Western Sahara... |
221 | 0 | 6.4% | 4.1% | 6.8% | 65% | 0 | 0.9% | 1.8% | 0.9% | 0.5% | 5% | 4.1% | 0 | 4.1% | 0 | Fregel et al. (2009) |
| 16 Morocco | 51 | 3.9% | 5.9% | 5.9% | 5.9% | 54.9% | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 19.60% | 0 | 0 | 3.9% | 0 | Onofri et al. (2008) |
| 17 Morocco/Amizmiz Valley | 33 | 3% | 6.1% | 0 | 3% | 84.8% | 3% | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Alvarez et al. (2009) |
| 18 Sahrawi | 89 | 0 | 20.2% | 0 | 0 | 59.6% | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 20.2% | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Fregel et al. (2009) |
Mitochondrial DNA
Many studies have attempted to describe the genetic diversity of Northwest-African populations, evaluating mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence variation and the results may be summarized as follows (data for 536 individuals from 9 populations : Morocco (Asni, Bouhria, Figuig, Souss), Algeria (Mozabites), Tunisia (Chenini-Douiret, Sened, Matmata, Jerba)):- Total Eurasian lineages (HHaplogroup H (mtDNA)In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup H is a human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup that likely originated in Southwest Asia 25,000-30,000 YBP.-Origin:...
, HV0Haplogroup R0 (mtDNA)In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup R0 is a mitochondrial DNA haplogroup.-Origin:Haplogroup R0 derives from the macro-haplogroup R...
, HVHaplogroup HV (mtDNA)In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup HV is a human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup.-Origin:Haplogroup HV derives from the Haplogroup R0...
, R0Haplogroup R (mtDNA)In human mitochondrial genetics, haplogroup R is a very extended mitochondrial DNA haplogroup and is the most common macro-haplogroup in West Eurasia.Haplogroup R is a descendant of macro-haplogroup N...
, JHaplogroup J (mtDNA)In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup J is a human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup.Haplogroup J derives from the haplogroup JT, which also gave rise to Haplogroup T. In his popular book The Seven Daughters of Eve, Bryan Sykes named the originator of this mtDNA haplogroup Jasmine...
, THaplogroup T (mtDNA)In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup T is a human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup.-Known Origins:Mitochondrial Haplogroup T derives from the haplogroup JT, which also gave rise to haplogroup J...
, UHaplogroup U (mtDNA)In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup U is a human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup.-Origins:Haplogroup U descends from a woman in the Haplogroup R branch of the phylogenetic tree, who lived around 55,000 years ago...
(without U6), KHaplogroup K (mtDNA)In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup K is a human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup, defined by HVR1 mutations 16224C and 16311C.-Origin:It is the most common subclade of haplogroup U8, and it has an estimated age of c. 12,000 years BP....
, N1Haplogroup N (mtDNA)In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup N is a human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup. An enormous haplogroup spanning many continents, the macro-haplogroup N, like its sibling M, is a descendant of haplogroup L3....
, N2Haplogroup N (mtDNA)In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup N is a human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup. An enormous haplogroup spanning many continents, the macro-haplogroup N, like its sibling M, is a descendant of haplogroup L3....
, XHaplogroup X (mtDNA)In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup X is a human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup. It has a widespread global distribution but no major regions of distinct localization.-Origin:...
) : 50-90% with an average of about 5/8 - Total sub-Saharan lineages (L0Haplogroup L0 (mtDNA)-Distribution:It is found most commonly in the Sub-Saharan Africa. It reaches its highest frequency in the Khoisan people at 73%. Some of the higher frequencies are: Namibia 79%, South Africa 83% and Botswana 100%....
, L1Haplogroup L1 (mtDNA)In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup L1 is a human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup common in Central and West Africa.-Origin:Haplogroup L1 is believed to have appeared approximately 110,000 to 170,000 years ago...
, L2Haplogroup L2 (mtDNA)In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup L2 is a human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup typical of Africa. Its subclade L2a is a somewhat frequent and widespread mtDNA cluster in Africa, as well as in the African diaspora Americans . et al.-Origin:L2 is a common African lineage. It is believed to...
, L3Haplogroup L3 (mtDNA)In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup L3 is a human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup. Haplogroup L3 has played a pivotal role in the history of the human species...
, L4-L5Haplogroup L4 (mtDNA)In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup L4 is a human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup.It is a small African haplogroup.-Distribution:L4 is important in East Africa and Horn of Africa...
) : 3-50% with an average of about 2/8 - Total North African lineages (U6Haplogroup U (mtDNA)In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup U is a human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup.-Origins:Haplogroup U descends from a woman in the Haplogroup R branch of the phylogenetic tree, who lived around 55,000 years ago...
, M1Haplogroup M (mtDNA)In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup M is a human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup. An enormous haplogroup spanning all the continents, the macro-haplogroup M, like its sibling N, is a descendant of haplogroup L3....
) : 0-35% with an average of about 1/8
The Northwest-African mtDna pool is characterized by an "overall high frequency of Western Eurasian haplogroups, a somehow lower frequency of sub-Saharan L lineages, and a significant (but differential) presence of North African haplogroups U6 and M1." According to Cherni et al. 2009 "the post-Last glacial maximum expansion originating in Iberia not only led to the resettlement of Europe but also of North Africa".
According to a Ottoni et al. 2010, besides the "autochthonous" South-Saharan component, the maternal pool of Northern Africa appears to be characterized by at least two other major components: (i) a Levantine contribution (i.e. haplogroups U6 and M1), associated with the return to Africa around 45 kya, and (ii) a more recent West European input associated with the postglacial expansion.
Until recently, some papers suggested that the distribution of the main L haplogroups in North Africa was mainly due to trans-Saharan slave trade. However in September 2010, a thorough study about Berber mtDNA by Frigi et al. concluded that most of L haplogroups were much older and introduced by an ancient African gene flow around 20,000 years ago.
Autosomal DNA
In a recent study by Jun Z. Li et al. 2008 that studied 938 unrelated individuals from 51 populations of the Human Genome Diversity Panel at 650,000 SNPs they found that "the Mozabite people from the northern Sahara bear contributions from sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, and Europe; this group in fact originates from the Middle EastMiddle East
The Middle East is a region that encompasses Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is often used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East...
." (on average 55% Middle East, 25% European and 20% Sub-saharan).
Influences on Europe and Latin America
According to a study in 2011, almost all Southern Europeans have inherited 1%–3% Sub-Saharan ancestry (3.2% in Portugal, 2.9% in Sardinia, 2.7% in Southern Italy, 2.4% in Spain and 1.1% in Northern Italy) with an average mixture date of around 55 generations ago, "consistent with North African gene flow at the end of the Roman Empire and subsequent Arab migrations".Iberia
In the Iberian PeninsulaIberian Peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula , sometimes called Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe and includes the modern-day sovereign states of Spain, Portugal and Andorra, as well as the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar...
, North African male haplogroups, especially E1b1b1b (E-M81), E1b1b1a-b (M78 derived chromosomes showing the rare DYS439 allele 10 or E-V65) and a subset of J1 (M267 derived), are found in significant amounts with an average frequency of about 7-8% in the peninsula with frequencies surpassing 10% in some regions, like 18.6% in Cantabria
Cantabria
Cantabria is a Spanish historical region and autonomous community with Santander as its capital city. It is bordered on the east by the Basque Autonomous Community , on the south by Castile and León , on the west by the Principality of Asturias, and on the north by the Cantabrian Sea.Cantabria...
.
Historically introduced NW African types in Italy and Iberia (Capelli et al. (2009))
| Sample | N | E1b1b1b | E1b1b1a-b (DYS439 allele 10) | J1 (subset) | Total % |
| Peninsular Italy | 915 | 0.8 | 0.3 | 0.7 | 1.7 |
| Sicily | 93 | 2.2 | 2.2 | 3.2 | 7.5 |
| Spain | 717 | 5.2 | 1 | 1.5 | 7.7 |
| Portugal | 659 | 5 | 0.3 | 1.8 | 7.1 |
| Iberia | 1376 | 5.1 | 0.7 | 1.7 | 7.4 |
As an exceptional case in Europe, E-M81 has also been observed at 40% the Pasiegos
Pas and Miera valleys
The Valleys of the Pas and Miera Rivers comprise an administrative comarca in Cantabria, Spain. It is formed by the valleys of said rivers, each one being a natural comarca of its own.-Pas valley:...
from Cantabria
Cantabria
Cantabria is a Spanish historical region and autonomous community with Santander as its capital city. It is bordered on the east by the Basque Autonomous Community , on the south by Castile and León , on the west by the Principality of Asturias, and on the north by the Cantabrian Sea.Cantabria...
.
Concerning the level of male genetic admixture
Miscegenation
Miscegenation is the mixing of different racial groups through marriage, cohabitation, sexual relations, and procreation....
in Iberia, an important study by Adams et al. 2008 that analysed 1140 individuals in Iberia
Iberian Peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula , sometimes called Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe and includes the modern-day sovereign states of Spain, Portugal and Andorra, as well as the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar...
found a mean North African admixture of 10.6%, with wide geographical variation, ranging from 2.5% in Catalonia
Catalonia
Catalonia is an autonomous community in northeastern Spain, with the official status of a "nationality" of Spain. Catalonia comprises four provinces: Barcelona, Girona, Lleida, and Tarragona. Its capital and largest city is Barcelona. Catalonia covers an area of 32,114 km² and has an...
, 11.8% in North Portugal
Portugal
Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the...
, 16.1% in South Portugal, 20.8% in Galicia to 21.7% in Northwest Castile
Castile and León
Castile and León is an autonomous community in north-western Spain. It was so constituted in 1983 and it comprises the historical regions of León and Old Castile...
.
| Iberian region | %NW African male admixture |
| Castile, NorthWest | 21.7% |
| Minorca | 21.5% |
| Galicia | 20.8% |
| Extremadura | 19% |
| Andalucia, West | 16.7% |
| Portugal, South | 16.1% |
| Valencia | 12.8% |
| Portugal, North | 11.8% |
| Asturias | 10.5% |
| Castile, NorthEast | 9.3% |
| Majorca | 6.6% |
| Aragon | 4.8% |
| Ibiza | 3.8% |
| Andalucia, East | 2.4% |
| Catalonia | 2.3% |
| Castilla | 0.9% |
MtDna (female lineages) genetic studies on Iberian populations also show that North African mitochondrial DNA sequences (haplogroup U6
Haplogroup U (mtDNA)
In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup U is a human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup.-Origins:Haplogroup U descends from a woman in the Haplogroup R branch of the phylogenetic tree, who lived around 55,000 years ago...
) are found at much higher levels than those generally observed elsewhere in Europe. Although the overall absolute frequency of U6 is low (2.4%), this signals a possible current North African ancestry proportion of 8%–9%, because U6 is not a common lineage in North Africa itself. U6 reaches its highest frequency in North Portugal at about 4-6% where Gonzalez et al. 2003 estimated a possible North African ancestry proportion of 27%.
Iberia is also the region in Europe with the highest frequency of the female mediated mtDNA haplogroup L of Sub-Saharan origin, likely a result of Berber
Berber people
Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. They are continuously distributed from the Atlantic to the Siwa oasis, in Egypt, and from the Mediterranean to the Niger River. Historically they spoke the Berber language or varieties of it, which together form a branch...
and Arab colonization or African slave trade. Pereira et al. 2005, who analysed 1045 Iberian individuals, found sub-Saharan mtDNA L haplogroups at rates of 11.38% in south Portugal, 5.02% in Center Portugal, 3.21% in North Portugal and 3.26% in Galicia. According to Alvarez et al. 2010 who found L haplogroups at a rate of 4.70% in the Spanish province of Zamora, "as the Hts found in the area are also shared with North African populations, we cannot discard the possibility that these lineages derived from the North African Muslim permanence in the Iberian Peninsula". In another study, Casas et al. 2006 extracted DNA from human remains that were exhumed from historic burial sites in Al-Andalus
Al-Andalus
Al-Andalus was the Arabic name given to a nation and territorial region also commonly referred to as Moorish Iberia. The name describes parts of the Iberian Peninsula and Septimania governed by Muslims , at various times in the period between 711 and 1492, although the territorial boundaries...
, Spain (between 12th-13th century). The frequency of Sub-Saharan lineages detected in the medieval samples was 14.6% and 8.3% in the present population of Priego de Cordoba
Priego de Córdoba
Priego de Córdoba is a town and municipality of southern Spain in the extreme southeastern portion of the province of Córdoba, near the headwater of the Guadajoz River, and on the northern slope of the Sierra de Priego. The population in 2008 was 22,558....
. The authors suggest both the Muslim occupation
Umayyad conquest of Hispania
The Umayyad conquest of Hispania is the initial Islamic Ummayad Caliphate's conquest, between 711 and 718, of the Christian Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania, centered in the Iberian Peninsula, which was known to them under the Arabic name al-Andalus....
, and prehistoric migrations before the Muslim occupation would have been the source of these lineages. Brehm at al. 2003 also found a significant Sub-Saharan imprint in the Autonomous regions of Portugal
Autonomous regions of Portugal
The two Autonomous Regions of Portugal are the Azores and Madeira...
, with L haplogroups constituting about 13% of the lineages in Madeira
Madeira
Madeira is a Portuguese archipelago that lies between and , just under 400 km north of Tenerife, Canary Islands, in the north Atlantic Ocean and an outermost region of the European Union...
and 3.4 % in the Azores
Azores
The Archipelago of the Azores is composed of nine volcanic islands situated in the middle of the North Atlantic Ocean, and is located about west from Lisbon and about east from the east coast of North America. The islands, and their economic exclusion zone, form the Autonomous Region of the...
.
| Iberian region/NW African mtDna > 2% | N | %U6 | %L | Total | Study |
| Portugal, Alcacer do Sal | 50 | 6.00% | 22.00% | 28.00% | Pereira 2010 |
| Spain, Canary islands (Avg) | 300 | 14.00% | 6.60% | 20.60% | Brehm 2003 |
| Portugal, Madeira | 155 | 3.90% | 12.90% | 16.80% | Brehm 2003 |
| Portugal, South | 123 | 1.63% | 11.38% | 13.01% | Pereira 2005 |
| Portugal, South | 203 | 0.49% | 10.84% | 11.33% | Achilli 2007 |
| Portugal, Coruche | 160 | 0.62% | 8.7% | 9.32% | Pereira 2010 |
| Spain, Priego de Cordoba | 108 | 0.93% | 8.33% | 9.26% | Casas 2006 |
| Portugal, Center | 203 | 2.46% | 6.40% | 8.87% | Achilli 2007 |
| Portugal, North | 187 | 5.35% | 3.21% | 8.56% | Pereira 2005 |
| South Iberian Peninsula | 310 | 0.65% | 7.42% | 8.07% | Casas 2006 |
| Portugal, Center | 239 | 2.51% | 5.02% | 7.53% | Pereira 2005 |
| Portugal, North | 188 | 4.26% | 3.19% | 7.45% | Achilli 2007 |
| Spain, Galicia | 92 | 2.17% | 3.26% | 5.43% | Pereira 2005 |
| Spain, Zamora | 214 | 0.47% | 4.67% | 5.14% | Alvarez 2010 |
| Portugal, Açores | 179 | 1.70% | 3.40% | 5.10% | Brehm 2003 |
| Spain, NorthWest | 216 | 1.39% | 3.70% | 5.09% | Achilli 2007 |
| Spain, Center | 148 | 4.05% | 0.68% | 4.73% | Achilli 2007 |
| Spain, NorthEast | 118 | 1.69% | 2.54% | 4.24% | Pereira 2005 |
| Spain, multiple regions | 312 | 1.28% | 2.88% | 4.16% | CarlosAlvarez 2007 |
| Portugal, Pias | 75 | 0.00% | 3.9% | 3.9% | Pereira 2010 |
| Spain, Andalusia | 114 | 1.75% | 1.75% | 3.51% | Achilli 2007 |
| Spain, Leon | 61 | 1.64% | 1.64% | 3.28% | Pereira 2005 |
| Spain, Andalusia | 65 | 1.54% | 1.54% | 3.08% | Pereira 2005 |
| Spain, NorthEast | 179 | 1.12% | 1.68% | 2.79% | Achilli 2007 |
| Spain, Castile | 38 | 2.63% | 0.00% | 2.63% | Pereira 2005 |
| Spain, Balearic islands | 231 | 0.00% | 2.16% | 2.16% | Picornell 2005 |
Canary Islands
In Canary IslandsCanary Islands
The Canary Islands , also known as the Canaries , is a Spanish archipelago located just off the northwest coast of mainland Africa, 100 km west of the border between Morocco and the Western Sahara. The Canaries are a Spanish autonomous community and an outermost region of the European Union...
, a study by Nicole Maca-Meyer in 2003 found mtDna haplogroup U6 at rate of 14% in the present-day Canary Islands populations reflecting the Berber origin of the Guanches
Guanches
Guanches is the name given to the aboriginal Berber inhabitants of the Canary Islands. It is believed that they migrated to the archipelago sometime between 1000 BCE and 100 BCE or perhaps earlier...
, the aboriginal population of the Canary Islands. In this study they compared aboriginal Guanche mtDNA (collected from Canarian archaeological sites) to that of today's Canarians and concluded that, "despite the continuous changes suffered by the population (Spanish colonization, slave trade), aboriginal mtDNA lineages constitute a considerable proportion [42–73%] of the Canarian gene pool". MtDNA haplogroup L were also found at rate of 6.6% and E-M81 at a rate of 8.28% with frequencies over 10% in the three largest islands of Tenerife
Tenerife
Tenerife is the largest and most populous island of the seven Canary Islands, it is also the most populated island of Spain, with a land area of 2,034.38 km² and 906,854 inhabitants, 43% of the total population of the Canary Islands. About five million tourists visit Tenerife each year, the...
(10.68%), Gran Canaria
Gran Canaria
Gran Canaria is the second most populous island of the Canary Islands, with a population of 838,397 which constitutes approximately 40% of the population of the archipelago...
(11.54%) and Fuerteventura
Fuerteventura
Fuerteventura , a Spanish island, is one of the Canary Islands, in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Africa. It is situated at 28°20' north, 14°00' west. At 1,660 km² it is the second largest of the Canary Islands, after Tenerife...
(13.33%). According to Fregel et al. 2009 the presence of autochthonous North African E-M81 lineages, and also other relatively abundant markers (E-M78 and J-M267) from the same region in the indigenous Guanche population, "strongly points to that area [North Africa] as the most probable origin of the Guanche ancestors". In this study, they estimated that, based on Y-chromosome and mtDNA haplogroup frequencies, the relative female and male indigenous Guanche contributions to the present-day Canary Islands populations were respectively of 41.8% and 16.1%.
| Canary Islands/NW African mtDna | N | %U6 | %L | Total | Study |
| La Gomera | 46 | 50.01% | 10.86% | 60.87% | Fregel 2009 |
| El Hierro | 32 | 21.88% | 12.49% | 34.37% | Fregel 2009 |
| Lanzarote | 49 | 20.40% | 8.16% | 28.56% | Fregel 2009 |
| Gran Canaria | 80 | 11.25% | 10% | 21.25% | Fregel 2009 |
| Tenerife | 174 | 12.09% | 7.45% | 19.54% | Fregel 2009 |
| La Palma | 68 | 17.65% | 1.47% | 19.12% | Fregel 2009 |
| Fuerteventura | 42 | 16.66% | 2.38% | 19.04% | Fregel 2009 |
An autosomal
Autosome
An autosome is a chromosome that is not a sex chromosome, or allosome; that is to say, there is an equal number of copies of the chromosome in males and females. For example, in humans, there are 22 pairs of autosomes. In addition to autosomes, there are sex chromosomes, to be specific: X and Y...
study in 2011 found an average Northwest African influence of about 17% in Canary Islanders with a wide interindividual variation ranging from 0% to 96%. According to the authors, the substantial Northwest African ancestry found for Canary Islanders supports that, despite the aggressive conquest by the Spanish in the 15th century and the subsequent immigration, genetic footprints of the first settlers of the Canary Islands persist in the current inhabitants. Paralleling mtDNA findings, the largest average Northwest African contribution was found for the samples from La Gomera
La Gomera
La Gomera is one of Spain's Canary Islands, located in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Africa. In area, it is the second-smallest of the seven main islands of this group.- Political organization :...
.
| Canary Islands | N | Average NW African ancestry |
| La Gomera | 7 | 42.50% |
| Fuerteventura | 10 | 21.60% |
| La Palma | 7 | 21.00% |
| El Hierro | 7 | 19.80% |
| Lanzarote | 13 | 16.40% |
| Tenerife | 30 | 14.30% |
| Gran Canaria | 30 | 12.40% |
| Total Canary Islanders | 104 | 17.40% |
Italy
In SicilySicily
Sicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
, the contribution of North African populations is estimated to be about 6%-8% which shows a "genetic affinity between Sicily and North Africa". In Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
, North African haplogroups were found especially in a region of Southern Italy (East Campania
Campania
Campania is a region in southern Italy. The region has a population of around 5.8 million people, making it the second-most-populous region of Italy; its total area of 13,590 km² makes it the most densely populated region in the country...
, Northwest Apulia
Apulia
Apulia is a region in Southern Italy bordering the Adriatic Sea in the east, the Ionian Sea to the southeast, and the Strait of Òtranto and Gulf of Taranto in the south. Its most southern portion, known as Salento peninsula, forms a high heel on the "boot" of Italy. The region comprises , and...
, Lucera
Lucera
Lucera is a town and comune in the Province of Foggia, in the Apulia region of southern Italy.-Ancient era and early Middle Ages :Lucera is an ancient city founded in Daunia, the centre of Dauni territory . Archeological excavations show the presence of a bronze age village inside the city boundaries...
) at frequency of 4.7% due to Frederick II
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor
Frederick II , was one of the most powerful Holy Roman Emperors of the Middle Ages and head of the House of Hohenstaufen. His political and cultural ambitions, based in Sicily and stretching through Italy to Germany, and even to Jerusalem, were enormous...
’s relocation of Sicilian Muslims in the city of Lucera
Lucera
Lucera is a town and comune in the Province of Foggia, in the Apulia region of southern Italy.-Ancient era and early Middle Ages :Lucera is an ancient city founded in Daunia, the centre of Dauni territory . Archeological excavations show the presence of a bronze age village inside the city boundaries...
in the 13th century. Haplogroup U6 have also been detected in Sicily
Sicily
Sicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
and Southern Italy at very low levels.
France
Haplogroup E-M81 is also found in some regions of FranceFrance
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
(exluding recent immigration as only men with French surname were analysed). 2.70 % (15/555) overall with frequencies surpassing 5% in Auvergne
Auvergne (région)
Auvergne is one of the 27 administrative regions of France. It comprises the 4 departments of Allier, Puy de Dome, Cantal and Haute Loire.The current administrative region of Auvergne is larger than the historical province of Auvergne, and includes provinces and areas that historically were not...
(5/89) and Île-de-France
Île-de-France (région)
Île-de-France is the wealthiest and most populated of the twenty-two administrative regions of France, composed mostly of the Paris metropolitan area....
(5/91).
According to a genetic study in 2000 based on HLA
Human leukocyte antigen
The human leukocyte antigen system is the name of the major histocompatibility complex in humans. The super locus contains a large number of genes related to immune system function in humans. This group of genes resides on chromosome 6, and encodes cell-surface antigen-presenting proteins and...
, French from Marseille
Marseille
Marseille , known in antiquity as Massalia , is the second largest city in France, after Paris, with a population of 852,395 within its administrative limits on a land area of . The urban area of Marseille extends beyond the city limits with a population of over 1,420,000 on an area of...
"are more or less isolated from the other western European populations. They are in an intermediate position between the North Africans (Algerians from Algiers and Oran; Tunisians) and the western Europeans
Western Europe
Western Europe is a loose term for the collection of countries in the western most region of the European continents, though this definition is context-dependent and carries cultural and political connotations. One definition describes Western Europe as a geographic entity—the region lying in the...
populations (France, Spain, and Portugal)". According to the authors "these results cannot be attributed to recent events because of the knowledge of the grandparents’ origin" in the sample. This study reveals "that the southern French population from Marseilles is related genetically to the southwestern Europeans and North Africans, who are geographically close" and that "a substantial gene flow has thus probably been present among the populations of these neighboring areas".
Latin America
As a consequence of Spanish and Portuguese colonization of Latin America, North African haplogroups are also found throughout Latin AmericaLatin America
Latin America is a region of the Americas where Romance languages – particularly Spanish and Portuguese, and variably French – are primarily spoken. Latin America has an area of approximately 21,069,500 km² , almost 3.9% of the Earth's surface or 14.1% of its land surface area...
especially in Brazil
Brazil
Brazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people...
and Cuba
Cuba
The Republic of Cuba is an island nation in the Caribbean. The nation of Cuba consists of the main island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud, and several archipelagos. Havana is the largest city in Cuba and the country's capital. Santiago de Cuba is the second largest city...
where frequencies surpass generally 5%. and among Hispanic men in USA.
According to Fregel et al. (2009), the fact that male North African E-M81 and female U6 lineages from the Canaries have been detected in Cuba and Iberoamerica, demonstrates that Canary Islanders with indigenous Guanche ancestors actively participated in the American colonization.
Other regions
In other countries, North African haplogroups can be found in FranceFrance
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, Sudan
Sudan
Sudan , officially the Republic of the Sudan , is a country in North Africa, sometimes considered part of the Middle East politically. It is bordered by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the northeast, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east, South Sudan to the south, the Central African Republic to the...
, Somalia
Somalia
Somalia , officially the Somali Republic and formerly known as the Somali Democratic Republic under Socialist rule, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. Since the outbreak of the Somali Civil War in 1991 there has been no central government control over most of the country's territory...
, Jordan
Jordan
Jordan , officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan , Al-Mamlaka al-Urduniyya al-Hashemiyya) is a kingdom on the East Bank of the River Jordan. The country borders Saudi Arabia to the east and south-east, Iraq to the north-east, Syria to the north and the West Bank and Israel to the west, sharing...
(4%), Lebanon
Lebanon
Lebanon , officially the Republic of LebanonRepublic of Lebanon is the most common term used by Lebanese government agencies. The term Lebanese Republic, a literal translation of the official Arabic and French names that is not used in today's world. Arabic is the most common language spoken among...
and amongst Sephardi Jews
Sephardi Jews
Sephardi Jews is a general term referring to the descendants of the Jews who lived in the Iberian Peninsula before their expulsion in the Spanish Inquisition. It can also refer to those who use a Sephardic style of liturgy or would otherwise define themselves in terms of the Jewish customs and...
.
Linguistics
The Maghreb have always been a multilingual region. Two thousand years ago, Punic, Latin and Berber alternated in communication among the populations of the Western parts of North Africa. The Arabic language arrived in the Maghreb region with the Arab conquest and Islam. This language ousted the Romances languages, although the process was a long time one : Romance language islets still existed in the Maghreb in the 12th century. The Maghreb once again became partly Romance with colonisation. From the 1830s, the French began by conquering Algeria, where French was declared the official language of the country. It also obtains the position of highly placed languages of local elites. In today's Maghreb, only Arabic possesses the status of official language. In spite of that, French is doing well in the region at the start of the 21st century.See also
- Arabs
- BerbersBerber peopleBerbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. They are continuously distributed from the Atlantic to the Siwa oasis, in Egypt, and from the Mediterranean to the Niger River. Historically they spoke the Berber language or varieties of it, which together form a branch...
- Maghreb Jews
- Northwest Africa
- Carthage empireCarthageCarthage , implying it was a 'new Tyre') is a major urban centre that has existed for nearly 3,000 years on the Gulf of Tunis, developing from a Phoenician colony of the 1st millennium BC...
- List of Maghrebis
- E1b1b1b (Y-DNA)
External links
- The African roots of Latin Christianity by Henri Teissier, Regional Bishop of North Africa