Mongoloid race - AbsoluteAstronomy.com

Mongoloid is a term sometimes used by forensic anthropologists

Forensic anthropology

Forensic anthropology is the application of the science of physical anthropology and human osteology in a legal setting, most often in criminal cases where the victim's remains are in the advanced stages of decomposition. A forensic anthropologist can assist in the identification of deceased...

and physical anthropologists

Physical anthropology

Biological anthropology is that branch of anthropology that studies the physical development of the human species. It plays an important part in paleoanthropology and in forensic anthropology...

to refer to populations that share certain phenotypic

Phenotype

A phenotype is an organism's observable characteristics or traits: such as its morphology, development, biochemical or physiological properties, behavior, and products of behavior...

traits such as epicanthic fold and shovel-shaped incisors

Shovel-shaped incisors

Shovel-Shaped incisors: Incisors that have a scooped out lingual surface because of lingual marginal ridges, crown curvature, or a basal tubercle, either alone or in combination....

and other physical traits common in East Asia

East Asia

East Asia or Eastern Asia is a subregion of Asia that can be defined in either geographical or cultural terms...

, the Americas

Americas

The Americas, or America , are lands in the Western hemisphere, also known as the New World. In English, the plural form the Americas is often used to refer to the landmasses of North America and South America with their associated islands and regions, while the singular form America is primarily...

and the Arctic

Arctic

The Arctic is a region located at the northern-most part of the Earth. The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean and parts of Canada, Russia, Greenland, the United States, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Iceland. The Arctic region consists of a vast, ice-covered ocean, surrounded by treeless permafrost...

. The word is formed by the base word "Mongol

Mongols

Mongols ) are a Central-East Asian ethnic group that lives mainly in the countries of Mongolia, China, and Russia. In China, ethnic Mongols can be found mainly in the central north region of China such as Inner Mongolia...

" and the suffix

Suffix

In linguistics, a suffix is an affix which is placed after the stem of a word. Common examples are case endings, which indicate the grammatical case of nouns or adjectives, and verb endings, which form the conjugation of verbs...

"-oid" which means "resembling". It was introduced by early Racial science used to refer to the "yellow race", one of the proposed three major races of human kind. Since the concept of race has been largely abandoned as a useful way to describe human biological variation

Human genetic variation

Human genetic variation refers to genetic differences both within and among populations. There may be multiple variants of any given gene in the human population , leading to polymorphism. Many genes are not polymorphic, meaning that only a single allele is present in the population: that allele is...

the terms have become mostly obsolete. Although especially Forensic anthropologists continue to use them in some contexts, outside of forensic anthropology the term mongoloid is now often considered derogatory, and racist.

Populations included

The term "Mongoloid" comes from the Mongol people of East Asia, who invaded

Mongol invasions

Mongol invasions progressed throughout the 13th century, resulting in the vast Mongol Empire which covered much of Asia and Eastern Europe by 1300....

much of Eurasia

Eurasia

Eurasia is a continent or supercontinent comprising the traditional continents of Europe and Asia ; covering about 52,990,000 km2 or about 10.6% of the Earth's surface located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres...

during the 13th century, establishing the Mongol Empire

Mongol Empire

The Mongol Empire , initially named as Greater Mongol State was a great empire during the 13th and 14th centuries...

. The first usage of the term Mongolian race was by Christoph Meiners

Christoph Meiners

Christoph Meiners was a German philosopher and historian, born in Hemmoor. He supported a polygenist theory of human origins....

in a "binary racial scheme" of "two races", with the Caucasian whose racial purity was exemplified by the "venerated... ancient Germans" and "Mongolians" who consisted of everyone else.

Johann Blumenbach said he borrowed the term Mongolian from Christoph Meiners to describe the race he designated "second, [which] includes that part of Asia beyond the Ganges and below the river Amoor [Amur], which looks toward the south, together with the islands and the greater part of these countries which is now called Australian".

In 1861, Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire

Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire

Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire was a French zoologist and an authority on deviation from normal structure. He coined the term ethology.He was born in Paris, the son of Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire...

added the "Australian" as a "secondary race" (subrace) of the "principal race" of "Mongolian". In the nineteenth century Georges Cuvier

Georges Cuvier

Georges Chrétien Léopold Dagobert Cuvier or Jean Léopold Nicolas Frédéric Cuvier , known as Georges Cuvier, was a French naturalist and zoologist...

used the term Mongolian again as a racial classification, but additionally included American Indians

Indigenous peoples of the Americas

The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian inhabitants of North and South America, their descendants and other ethnic groups who are identified with those peoples. Indigenous peoples are known in Canada as Aboriginal peoples, and in the United States as Native Americans...

under the term. Arthur de Gobineau

Arthur de Gobineau

Joseph Arthur Comte de Gobineau was a French aristocrat, novelist and man of letters who became famous for developing the theory of the Aryan master race in his book An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races...

defined the extent of the "Mongolian" race, "by the yellow the Altaic, Mongol, Finnish and Tartar branches." Later, Thomas Huxley

Thomas Huxley

Thomas Henry Huxley PC FRS was an English biologist, known as "Darwin's Bulldog" for his advocacy of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution....

used the term Mongoloid and included American Indians as well as Arctic Native Americans. Other nomenclatures were proposed, such as Mesochroi (middle color), but Mongoloid was widely adopted.

In 1882, Irish

Irish people

The Irish people are an ethnic group who originate in Ireland, an island in northwestern Europe. Ireland has been populated for around 9,000 years , with the Irish people's earliest ancestors recorded having legends of being descended from groups such as the Nemedians, Fomorians, Fir Bolg, Tuatha...

anthropologist Augustus Henry Keane who was professor at University College

University College London

University College London is a public research university located in London, United Kingdom and the oldest and largest constituent college of the federal University of London...

, London

London

London is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its...

, said the "Mongolic type" included the following "races": "Tibetans", "Burmese

Bamar

The Bamar are the dominant ethnic group of Burma , constituting approximately two-thirds of the population. The Bamar live primarily in the Irrawaddy basin, and speak the Burmese language, which is also the official language of Burma. Bamar customs and identity are closely intertwined with general...

", "Tai", "Koreans", "Japanese

Japanese people

The are an ethnic group originating in the Japanese archipelago and are the predominant ethnic group of Japan. Worldwide, approximately 130 million people are of Japanese descent; of these, approximately 127 million are residents of Japan. People of Japanese ancestry who live in other countries...

", "Lu-Chu", "Finno-Tatars

Tatars

Tatars are a Turkic speaking ethnic group , numbering roughly 7 million.The majority of Tatars live in the Russian Federation, with a population of around 5.5 million, about 2 million of which in the republic of Tatarstan.Significant minority populations are found in Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan,...

" and "Malays". Keane said the following peoples are "mixed Mongolo-Caucasic varieties": "Anatolian Turks

Turkish people

Turkish people, also known as the "Turks" , are an ethnic group primarily living in Turkey and in the former lands of the Ottoman Empire where Turkish minorities had been established in Bulgaria, Cyprus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Greece, Kosovo, Macedonia, and Romania...

", "Uzbegs", and "Tajiks

Tajiks

Tajik is a general designation for a wide range of Persian-speaking people of Iranic origin, with traditional homelands in present-day Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan...

of Turkestan

Turkestan

Turkestan, spelled also as Turkistan, literally means "Land of the Turks".The term Turkestan is of Persian origin and has never been in use to denote a single nation. It was first used by Persian geographers to describe the place of Turkish peoples...

". Keane said the "Kazaks

Kazakhs

The Kazakhs are a Turkic people of the northern parts of Central Asia ....

" are "intermediate" between the "Túrki" and "Mongolian" races. Keane said the "Mongolian race" is "best represented" by the "Buriats".

In 1940, anthropologist Franz Boas

Franz Boas

Franz Boas was a German-American anthropologist and a pioneer of modern anthropology who has been called the "Father of American Anthropology" and "the Father of Modern Anthropology." Like many such pioneers, he trained in other disciplines; he received his doctorate in physics, and did...

included the "American race" as part of the "Mongoloid race" of which he mentioned the "Aztec

Aztec

The Aztec people were certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who dominated large parts of Mesoamerica in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, a period referred to as the late post-classic period in Mesoamerican chronology.Aztec is the...

s of Mexico

Mexico

The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...

" and the "Maya

Maya civilization

The Maya is a Mesoamerican civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the pre-Columbian Americas, as well as for its art, architecture, and mathematical and astronomical systems. Initially established during the Pre-Classic period The Maya is a Mesoamerican...

of Yucatan

Yucatán

Yucatán officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Yucatán is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 106 municipalities and its capital city is Mérida....

". Boas also said that, out of the "races of the Old World

Old World

The Old World consists of those parts of the world known to classical antiquity and the European Middle Ages. It is used in the context of, and contrast with, the "New World" ....

", the "American native" had features most similar to the "east Asiatic".

In 1983, Douglas J. Futuyma

Douglas J. Futuyma

Douglas Joel Futuyma is an American biologist.-Academics:Futuyma graduated with a B.S. from Cornell University, and took his M.S. and Ph.D. at the University of Michigan. His research focuses on the interaction between plant-eating insects and the plants themselves. He was Lawrence B...

, professor of evolutionary processes at the University of Michigan

University of Michigan

The University of Michigan is a public research university located in Ann Arbor, Michigan in the United States. It is the state's oldest university and the flagship campus of the University of Michigan...

, said that the inclusion of Native Americans and Pacific Islanders under the Mongoloid race was not recognized by "many anthropologists" who consider them "distinct races".

In 1984, Roger J. Lederer Professor of Biological Sciences at the California State University at Chico

California State University, Chico

California State University, Chico is the second-oldest campus in the twenty-three-campus California State University system. It is located in Chico, California, about ninety miles north of Sacramento...

, separately listed the "Mongoloid" race from Pacific islanders and American Indians when he enumerated the "geographical variants of the same species known as races... we recognize several races Inuit, American Indians, Mongoloid... Polynesian".

In 1998, Jack D. Forbes, professor of Native American Studies and Anthropology at the University of California, Davis

University of California, Davis

The University of California, Davis is a public teaching and research university established in 1905 and located in Davis, California, USA. Spanning over , the campus is the largest within the University of California system and third largest by enrollment...

, said that the racial type of the indigenous people of the Americas "does not fall into" the "Mongoloid" racial category. Forbes said that due to the various physical traits indigenous Americans exhibit, some with "head shapes which seem hardly distinct from many Europeans", indigenous Americans must have either been formed from a mixture of "Mongoloid" and "Caucasoid" races or they descend from the ancestral, common type of both "Mongoloid" and "Caucasoid" races.

Markku Niskanen (2002) of the Department of Anthropology at the University of Oulu

University of Oulu

The University of Oulu is one of the largest universities in Finland, located in the city of Oulu. It was founded on July 8, 1958. The university has around 16,000 students and 3,000 staff...

, Finland

Finland

Finland , officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of Northern Europe. It is bordered by Sweden in the west, Norway in the north and Russia in the east, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland.Around 5.4 million people reside...

, disputes past claims that "Finno-Ugrians

Finno-Ugric peoples

The Finno-Ugric peoples are any of several peoples of Europe who speak languages of the proposed Finno-Ugric language family, such as the Finns, Estonians, Mordvins, and Hungarians...

" are "Mongoloid". Niskanen claims that the reality is that "Baltic-Finns

Baltic Finns

The Baltic Finns are a historical linguistic group of peoples of northern Europe whose modern descendants include the Finns proper, Karelians , Izhorians, Veps, Votes, Livonians and Estonians who speak Baltic-Finnic languages and have inhabited the Baltic Sea region for 3,000 years according to...

", "Saami

Sami people

The Sami people, also spelled Sámi, or Saami, are the arctic indigenous people inhabiting Sápmi, which today encompasses parts of far northern Sweden, Norway, Finland, the Kola Peninsula of Russia, and the border area between south and middle Sweden and Norway. The Sámi are Europe’s northernmost...

", "Volga-Finns

Volga Finns

The Volga Finns are a historical group of indigenous peoples of Russia whose descendants include the Mari people, the Erzya and the Moksha Mordvins, as well as extinct Merya, Muromian and Meshchera people...

", "Permian-Finns" and "Hungarians" are "phenotypically and genetically typical Europeans". Niskanen claims the "strong cheekbones" and "flaring zygomatic arches" considered to be evidence that "Finno-Ugrians

Finno-Ugric peoples

The Finno-Ugric peoples are any of several peoples of Europe who speak languages of the proposed Finno-Ugric language family, such as the Finns, Estonians, Mordvins, and Hungarians...

" are "Mongoloid" are, in actuality, inherited from "Cro-Magnon

Cro-Magnon

The Cro-Magnon were the first early modern humans of the European Upper Paleolithic. The earliest known remains of Cro-Magnon-like humans are radiometrically dated to 35,000 years before present....

s". Furthermore, Niskanen refutes the claim that Finno-Ugrians have "Mongoloid-looking" "facial flatness" by showing "Finns" and "Saami" facial flatness is "close to the European average" and claiming "Finns" and "Saami" both "possess North European craniofacial configuration". In terms of genetics, Niskanen claims Finns are genetically close to their "Germanic-speaking neighbors

Germanic peoples

The Germanic peoples are an Indo-European ethno-linguistic group of Northern European origin, identified by their use of the Indo-European Germanic languages which diversified out of Proto-Germanic during the Pre-Roman Iron Age.Originating about 1800 BCE from the Corded Ware Culture on the North...

(the Swedes

Swedes

Swedes are a Scandinavian nation and ethnic group native to Sweden, mostly inhabiting Sweden and the other Nordic countries, with descendants living in a number of countries.-Etymology:...

, Germans

Germans

The Germans are a Germanic ethnic group native to Central Europe. The English term Germans has referred to the German-speaking population of the Holy Roman Empire since the Late Middle Ages....

, and Norwegians

Norwegians

Norwegians constitute both a nation and an ethnic group native to Norway. They share a common culture and speak the Norwegian language. Norwegian people and their descendants are found in migrant communities worldwide, notably in United States, Canada and Brazil.-History:Towards the end of the 3rd...

)" although he admits Finns are "somewhat less [genetically] distant" to the "Japanese

Japanese people

" and "Mongols

Mongols

" than "Europeans are on average". Niskanen claims that the "Y-chromosomal DNA" supposedly showing "eastern
paternal genetic contribution" in the gene pools of Finno-Ugrians, since it is "found most commonly among
Asians", is, in actuality, a "genetic marker" of "late Ice Age population expansion". Niskanen disputes the claim that the commonality of a Uralic language means Finno-Ugrians are Mongoloid like the Samoyeds, arguing that the "Samoyeds" speak a "Uralic" language due to them having been "linguistically assimilated" and arguing that the genetic evidence shows "Finno-Ugrians" and "Samoyeds

Samoyedic peoples

The term Samoyedic peoples is used to describe peoples speaking Samoyedic languages, which are part of the Uralic family. They are a linguistic grouping, not an ethnic or cultural one. The name derives from the obsolete term Samoyed used in Russia for some indigenous peoples of Siberia...

" "diverged a very long time ago".

In contrast to Niskanen, geneticist Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza

Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza

Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza is an Italian population geneticist born in Genoa, who has been a professor at Stanford University since 1970 .-Books:...

of Stanford University

Stanford University

The Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly referred to as Stanford University or Stanford, is a private research university on an campus located near Palo Alto, California. It is situated in the northwestern Santa Clara Valley on the San Francisco Peninsula, approximately northwest of San...

(1994) said that the "Saame

Sami people

" were shown by "genetic analysis" to be "47.5%" "Mongoloid" and "52.5%" "Caucasoid" with a "standard error" of "± 4.9%". Cavalli-Sforza said the Saami's Caucasoid side of their DNA came "probably from Scandinavia

Scandinavia

Scandinavia is a cultural, historical and ethno-linguistic region in northern Europe that includes the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, characterized by their common ethno-cultural heritage and language. Modern Norway and Sweden proper are situated on the Scandinavian Peninsula,...

" while their "Mongoloid" side is of "Siberian

Indigenous peoples of Siberia

Including the Russian Far East, the population of Siberia numbers just above 40 million people.As a result of the 17th to 19th century Russian conquest of Siberia and the subsequent population movements during the Soviet era, the demographics of Siberia today is dominated by native speakers of...

origin".

In 1995, Dr. Marta Mirazon Lahr of the Department of Biological Anthropology at Cambridge University said "all" "Asian populations

Asian people

Asian people or Asiatic people is a term with multiple meanings that refers to people who descend from a portion of Asia's population.- Central Asia :...

" are "grouped under the name "Mongoloid".

In 2004, et al. of the Department of Laboratory Medicine, Hokkaido University

Hokkaido University

Hokkaido University is one of the most prestigious universities in Japan. It can be seen in the several rankings such as shown below.-General Rankings:...

Hospital, Sapporo, Japan

Japan

Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...

, performed "particle agglutination tests for serum HTLV-I antibody" on 400 ethnic "Saami

Sami people

" to determine if they had the "HTLV-I antibody" that would link them to "Asiatic Mongoloids" and they found that the Saami were lacking this antibody. Chiba et al. concluded that if Saami were related to the "Asiatic Mongoloid", the relationship would either have to involve "Neolithic

Neolithic

The Neolithic Age, Era, or Period, or New Stone Age, was a period in the development of human technology, beginning about 9500 BC in some parts of the Middle East, and later in other parts of the world. It is traditionally considered as the last part of the Stone Age...

rather than Upper Paleolithic

Upper Paleolithic

The Upper Paleolithic is the third and last subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe, Africa and Asia. Very broadly it dates to between 40,000 and 10,000 years ago, roughly coinciding with the appearance of behavioral modernity and before the advent of...

populations" or the Saami would have to have been mixed with a group that lacked the antibody.

Subraces

In 1900, Joseph Deniker

Joseph Deniker

Joseph Deniker was a French naturalist and anthropologist, known primarily for his attempts to develop highly-detailed maps of race in Europe.- Life :...

said, the "Mongol race admits two varieties or subraces: Tunguse

Tungusic peoples

Tungusic peoples are the peoples who speak Tungusic languages. The word originated in Tunguska, an ill-defined region of Siberia.-Peoples:Tungusic peoples are:*Evenks*Evens*Jurchens *Manchu*Negidals...

or Northern Mongolian... and Southern Mongolian".

Archaeologist Peter Bellwood

Peter Bellwood

Peter Bellwood is a Professor of Archaeology at the School of Archaeology and Anthropology of the Australian National University in Canberra...

claims that the "vast majority" of people in Southeast Asia, the region he calls the "clinal Mongoloid-Australoid zone", are "Southern Mongoloids" but have a "high degree" of Australoid admixture.

Professor of anthropology, Akazawa Takeru (Japanese

Japanese language

is a language spoken by over 130 million people in Japan and in Japanese emigrant communities. It is a member of the Japonic language family, which has a number of proposed relationships with other languages, none of which has gained wide acceptance among historical linguists .Japanese is an...

:赤沢威) at the International Research Center for Japanese Studies, Kyoto

Kyoto

is a city in the central part of the island of Honshū, Japan. It has a population close to 1.5 million. Formerly the imperial capital of Japan, it is now the capital of Kyoto Prefecture, as well as a major part of the Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto metropolitan area.-History:...

, said that there are "Neo-Mongoloids" and "Paleo-Mongoloids". Akazawa said Neo-Mongoloids have "extreme Mongoloid, cold-adapted features" and they include the Chinese

Chinese people

The term Chinese people may refer to any of the following:*People with Han Chinese ethnicity ....

, Buryats

Buryats

The Buryats or Buriyads , numbering approximately 436,000, are the largest ethnic minority group in Siberia and are mainly concentrated in their homeland, the Buryat Republic, a federal subject of Russia...

, Eskimo

Eskimo

Eskimos or Inuit–Yupik peoples are indigenous peoples who have traditionally inhabited the circumpolar region from eastern Siberia , across Alaska , Canada, and Greenland....

and Chukchi

Chukchi people

The Chukchi, or Chukchee , ) are an indigenous people inhabiting the Chukchi Peninsula and the shores of the Chukchi Sea and the Bering Sea region of the Arctic Ocean within the Russian Federation. They speak the Chukchi language...

. In contrast, Akazawa said Paleo-Mongoloids are "less Mongoloid" and less "cold-adapted". He said Burmese, Filipinos

Filipino people

The Filipino people or Filipinos are an Austronesian ethnic group native to the islands of the Philippines. There are about 92 million Filipinos in the Philippines, and about 11 million living outside the Philippines ....

, Polynesians

Polynesians

The Polynesian peoples is a grouping of various ethnic groups that speak Polynesian languages, a branch of the Oceanic languages within the Austronesian languages, and inhabit Polynesia. They number approximately 1,500,000 people...

, Jōmon

Jomon period

The is the time in Japanese prehistory from about 14,000 BC to 300 BC.The term jōmon means "cord-patterned" in Japanese. This refers to the pottery style characteristic of the Jōmon culture, and which has markings made using sticks with cords wrapped around them...

and the indigenous peoples of the Americas

Indigenous peoples of the Americas

were Paleo-Mongoloid.

History of the concept

The earliest systematic use of the term was by Blumenbach in De generis humani varietate nativa (On the Natural Variety of Mankind, University of Göttingen, first published in 1775, re-issued with alteration of the title-page in 1776). Blumenbach included East and South East Asians, but not Native Americans or Malays, who were each assigned separate categories.

In 1865, biologist Thomas Huxley

Thomas Huxley

Thomas Henry Huxley PC FRS was an English biologist, known as "Darwin's Bulldog" for his advocacy of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution....

presented the views of polygenesists

Polygenism

Polygenism is a theory of human origins positing that the human races are of different lineages . This is opposite to the idea of monogenism, which posits a single origin of humanity.- Origins :...

(Huxley was not one of them) as "some imagine their assumed species of mankind were created where we find them... the Mongolians from the Orangs."

In 1972, physical anthropologist Carleton Coon

Carleton S. Coon

Carleton Stevens Coon, was an American physical anthropologist, Professor of Anthropology at the University of Pennsylvania, lecturer and professor at Harvard, and president of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists.-Biography:Carleton Coon was born in Wakefield, Massachusetts to a...

said, "From a hyborean [sic] group there evolved, in northern Asia, the ancestral strain of the entire specialized Mongoloid family." In 1962, Coon believed that the Mongoloid "subspecies" existed "during most of the Pleistocene, from 500,000 to 10,000 years ago". According to Coon, the Mongoloid race had not completed its "invasions and expansions" into Southeast Asia, the Americas, and the Pacific Islands until "[t]oward the end of the Pleistocene". By this time Coon hypothesis that the Mongoloid race had become "sapien".

Paleo-anthropologist Milford Wolpoff and Rachel Caspari characterize "his [Carleton Coon's] contention [as being] that the Mongoloid race crossed the 'sapiens threshold' first and thereby evolved the furthest".

Mohinder Kumar Bhasin (Hindi

Hindi

Standard Hindi, or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi, also known as Manak Hindi , High Hindi, Nagari Hindi, and Literary Hindi, is a standardized and sanskritized register of the Hindustani language derived from the Khariboli dialect of Delhi...

: महेंद्र कुमार भसीन) of the Department of Anthropology at the University of Delhi

University of Delhi

The University of Delhi is a central university situated in Delhi, India and is funded by Government of India. Established in 1922, it offers courses at the undergraduate and post-graduate level. Vice-President of India Mohammad Hamid Ansari is the Chancellor of the university...

suggested in a review of an article referencing Mourant 1983 that "The Caucasoids and the Mongoloid almost certainly became differentiated from one another somewhere in Asia" and that "Another differentiation, which probably took place in Asia, is that of the Australoids, perhaps from a common type before the separation of the Mongoloids."

Douglas J. Futuyma

Douglas J. Futuyma

, professor of evolutionary processes at the University of Michigan

University of Michigan

, said the Mongoloid race "diverged 41,000 years ago" from a Mongoloid and Caucasoid group which diverged from Negroids "110,000 years ago".

In 1996, professor of anthropology, Akazawa Takeru (Japanese

Japanese language

:赤沢威) of the International Research Center for Japanese Studies, Kyoto

Kyoto

, said Mongoloids originated in Xinjiang

Xinjiang

Xinjiang is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China. It is the largest Chinese administrative division and spans over 1.6 million km2...

during the "Ice Age

Quaternary glaciation

Quaternary glaciation, also known as the Pleistocene glaciation, the current ice age or simply the ice age, refers to the period of the last few million years in which permanent ice sheets were established in Antarctica and perhaps Greenland, and fluctuating ice sheets have occurred elsewhere...

".

In 1999, Peter Brown of the Department of Anthropology and Paleoanthropology at the University of New England

University of New England (Australia)

The University of New England is an Australian public university with approximately 18,000 higher education students. Its original and main campus is located in the city of Armidale in northern New South Wales....

evaluated three sites with early East Asian modern human skeletal remains (Liujiang, Liuzhou

Liuzhou

-History:thumb|Liuchow in 1945.Liuzhou has a history of more than 2,100 years. The city was founded in 111 B.C. when it was known as Tanzhong....

, Guangxi

Guangxi

Guangxi, formerly romanized Kwangsi, is a province of southern China along its border with Vietnam. In 1958, it became the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China, a region with special privileges created specifically for the Zhuang people.Guangxi's location, in...

, China; Shandingdong Man of (but not Peking Man

Peking Man

Peking Man , Homo erectus pekinensis, is an example of Homo erectus. A group of fossil specimens was discovered in 1923-27 during excavations at Zhoukoudian near Beijing , China...

) Zhoukoudian

Zhoukoudian

Zhoukoudian or Choukoutien is a cave system in Beijing, China. It has yielded many archaeological discoveries, including one of the first specimens of Homo erectus, dubbed Peking Man, and a fine assemblage of bones of the gigantic hyena Pachycrocuta brevirostris...

's Upper Cave; and Minatogawa

Minatogawa Man

The Minatogawa Man is a prehistoric people of Okinawa, Japan, represented by four skeletons and some isolated bones dated between 16,000 and 14,000 years BCE...

in Okinawa) dated to between 10,175 to 33,200 years ago, and finds lack of support for the conventional designation of skeletons from this period as "Proto-Mongoloid"; this would make Neolithic

Neolithic

sites 5500 to 7000 years ago (e.g. Banpo

Banpo

Banpo is an archaeological remain discovered in 1953 and located in the Yellow River Valley just east of Xi'an, China. It contains the remains of several well organized Neolithic settlements dating from 5600 - 6700 BP according to radiocarbon dating. It is a large area of 5-6 hectares and...

) the oldest known Mongoloid remains in East Asia, younger than some in the Americas. He concludes that the origin of the Mongoloid phenotype

Phenotype

A phenotype is an organism's observable characteristics or traits: such as its morphology, development, biochemical or physiological properties, behavior, and products of behavior...

remains unknown, and could even lie in the New World.

In 2006, Yali Xue

Xue

Xue is the pinyin romanization of the Chinese surname 薛 , Hsueh in the Wade-Giles system, and Sit in the Cantonese system. In Korean, the hanja corresponds to Seol and in Japanese the kanji corresponds to Setsu. According to a study published in 2006, it is the 76th most common Chinese surname...

et al. of the genome research Sanger Institute

Sanger Institute

The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute is a non-profit, British genomics and genetics research institute, primarily funded by the Wellcome Trust....

conducted a study of linkage disequilibrium

Linkage disequilibrium

In population genetics, linkage disequilibrium is the non-random association of alleles at two or more loci, not necessarily on the same chromosome. It is also referred to as to as gametic phase disequilibrium , or simply gametic disequilibrium...

that found that northern populations in East Asia started to expand in number between 34 and 22 thousand years ago, before the last glacial maximum

Last Glacial Maximum

The Last Glacial Maximum refers to a period in the Earth's climate history when ice sheets were at their maximum extension, between 26,500 and 19,000–20,000 years ago, marking the peak of the last glacial period. During this time, vast ice sheets covered much of North America, northern Europe and...

at 21–18 KYA, while southern populations
started to expand between 18 and 12 KYA, but then grew faster, and suggests that the northern populations expanded earlier because they could exploit the abundant megafauna

Megafauna

In terrestrial zoology, megafauna are "giant", "very large" or "large" animals. The most common thresholds used are or...

of the "Mammoth Steppe

Steppe-tundra

Steppe-tundra is a very cold dry-climate vegetation type consisting of mostly treeless open herbaceous vegetation. it was widespread during Pleistocene times at mid-latitudes of North America and Eurasia. Steppe-tundra can be divided into two types...

", while the southern populations could increase in number only when a warmer and more stable climate led to more plentiful plant resources such as tuber

Tuber

Tubers are various types of modified plant structures that are enlarged to store nutrients. They are used by plants to survive the winter or dry months and provide energy and nutrients for regrowth during the next growing season and they are a means of asexual reproduction...

s.

In 2008, Juan Frijolé Reixach professor of cultural anthropology at the University of Barcelona

University of Barcelona

The University of Barcelona is a public university located in the city of Barcelona, Catalonia in Spain. It is a member of the Coimbra Group, LERU, European University Association, Mediterranean Universities Union, International Research Universities Network and Vives Network...

showcased the racial classification systems of Carleton S. Coon

Carleton S. Coon

and H.V. Vallois in his 2008 book series about human races. Reixach said Vallois said the "Yellow Race" included the following groups: Siberian

Indigenous peoples of Siberia

, North Mongoloid, Central Mongoloid, South Mongoloid, Indonesian, Polynesian

Polynesians

, Eskimo

Eskimo

Eskimos or Inuit–Yupik peoples are indigenous peoples who have traditionally inhabited the circumpolar region from eastern Siberia , across Alaska , Canada, and Greenland....

and Amerindian.

Features

See also: Asian features and Epicanthal fold
Epicanthal fold
An epicanthic fold, epicanthal fold, or epicanthus is a skin fold of the upper eyelid, covering the inner corner of the eye....

In 2004, forensic anthropologist Caroline Wilkenson said Mongoloids are characterized by "absent browridges". R.G. Ong of the Department of Oral Radiology, Perth Dental Hospital, Australia found that "Mongoloid" subjects had about "20% higher bone density at the angle of the mandible" when compared to "Caucasoid" subjects.

Louis R. Sullivan Curator of Physical Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History

American Museum of Natural History

The American Museum of Natural History , located on the Upper West Side of Manhattan in New York City, United States, is one of the largest and most celebrated museums in the world...

, said "Samoans" are of the "Mongoloid race" but their features represent a "slightly different evolution since the time of their separation and isolation from their parental stock" or a "retention" of features that have been lost in other "Mongoloid types". Sullivan said the "wavy" and "wooly" hair of the "Samoan" is one such retention compared to the "stiff, coarse" hair that typifies the "Mongoloid". Sullivan lists most of the characteristics of the "Samoan" as having "Mongoloid" "affinities" such as: "skin color", "hair color", "eye color", "conjuctiva", "amount of beard", "hair on chest", "nasal bridge", "nostrils", "lips", "face width", "biogonial width", "cephalo-facial index", "nasal height", "ear height" and "chin".

Dr. Rukang Wu

Wu (surname)

Wu is the Pinyin transliteration of the Chinese surname 吳 , 吴 , which is the tenth most common surname in Mainland China. Several other, less common Chinese surnames with different pronunciations are also transliterated into English as "Wu": 武, 伍, 仵, 烏, 鄔 and 巫...

of the Institute of Vertebrate Palaeontology and Palaeoanthropology, Academia Sinica

Academia Sinica

The Academia Sinica , headquartered in the Nangang District of Taipei, is the national academy of Taiwan. It supports research activities in a wide variety of disciplines, ranging from mathematical and physical sciences, to life sciences, and to humanities and social sciences.Academia Sinica has...

, China

China

Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...

, said "Mongoloid features" are a "mesocranic" skull, "fairly large and protruding" "cheekbones

Zygomatic bone

The zygomatic bone is a paired bone of the human skull. It articulates with the maxilla, the temporal bone, the sphenoid bone and the frontal bone. The zygomatic is homologous to the jugal bone of other tetrapods...

", "nasal bone

Nasal bone

The nasal bones are two small oblong bones, varying in size and form in different individuals; they are placed side by side at the middle and upper part of the face, and form, by their junction, "the bridge" of the nose.Each has two surfaces and four borders....

s are flat and broad", "nasal bridge

Nasal bridge

The nasal bridge is the name given to the upper, bony part of the nose, overlying the nasal bones.A lower or higher than average nasal bridge can be a sign of various genetic disorders, such as fetal alcohol syndrome. A flat nasal bridge can be a sign of Down syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, and Fetal...

is slightly concave" without "depression in the nasion

Nasion

The nasion is the intersection of the frontal and two nasal bones of the human skull. Its manifestation on the visible surface of the face is a distinctly depressed area directly between the eyes, just superior to the bridge of the nose....

", "the lower borders of the piriform aperature

Anterior nasal aperture

The anterior nasal aperture is a heart-shaped or pyriform opening, whose long axis is vertical, and narrow end upward; in the recent state it is much contracted by the lateral and alar cartilages of the nose....

are not sharp but guttered", "prenasal fossae are shallow", small "anterior nasal spine

Anterior nasal spine

Medially, the anterior surface of the maxilla is limited by a deep concavity, the nasal notch, the margin of which gives attachment to the Dilator naris posterior and ends below in a pointed process, which with its fellow of the opposite side forms the anterior nasal spine.-External links:* * -...

", trace amounts of "canine

Canine tooth

In mammalian oral anatomy, the canine teeth, also called cuspids, dogteeth, fangs, or eye teeth, are relatively long, pointed teeth...

fossae" and "moderate" "alveolar prognathism

Prognathism

Prognathism is a term used to describe the positional relationship of the mandible and/or maxilla to the skeletal base where either of the jaws protrudes beyond a predetermined imaginary line in the coronal plane of the skull. In general dentistry, oral and maxillofacial surgery and orthodontics...

".

Dr. Marta Mirazon Lahr of the Department of Biological Anthropology at Cambridge University said the "Paleoindian" has "proto-Mongoloid" "morphology" such as "pronounced development of supraorbital ridges low
frontals, marked post-orbital constriction, prominent and protruding occipitals, small mastoids, long crania and a relatively narrow bizygomatic breadth".

In 1882, Irish

Irish people

anthropologist Augustus Henry Keane who was professor at University College

University College London

University College London is a public research university located in London, United Kingdom and the oldest and largest constituent college of the federal University of London...

, London

London

, said that the features of the "Japanese

Japanese people

" that "attest their relationship with the great Mongolian family" are "slightly oblique eyes", "small nose", "black lank hair", "sparse beard", "salient cheek-bones" and "yellowish complexion".

Shunsuke Yuzuriha (Japanese

Japanese language

:杠俊介) et al. of Shinshu University

Shinshu University

is a national university in Nagano Prefecture, Japan. The University has five campuses in Matsumoto, Nishi-nagano , Wakasato , Ueda and Minami-Minowa, and 8 faculties with a total of around 10,000 students....

School of Medicine, Matsumoto

Matsumoto, Nagano

is a city located in Nagano Prefecture, Japan. Matsumoto is designated as a Special City.-Outline:The new city of Matsumoto is the city comprising the mergers of the old city of Matsumoto and four villages. Matsumoto officially absorbed those villages without creating a new municipal...

, Japan

Japan

, said the "Mongoloid eyelid" is characterized by "puffiness" of the upper eyelid, "superficial expansion of the levator aponeurosis" that are "turned up around this transverse ligament to become the orbital septum

Orbital septum

The orbital septum is a membranous sheet that acts as the anterior boundary of the orbit. It extends from the orbital rims to the eyelids...

", "low position of the preaponeurotic fat" and "narrowness of the palpebral fissure

Palpebral fissure

Palpebral fissure is the anatomic name for the separation between the upper and lower eyelids. In adults, this measures about 10mm vertically and 30mm horizontally.It can be reduced in horizontal size by fetal alcohol syndrome and in Williams Syndrome...

".

Theodore G. Schurr of the Department of Anthropology at University of Pennsylvania

University of Pennsylvania

The University of Pennsylvania is a private, Ivy League university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Penn is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States,Penn is the fourth-oldest using the founding dates claimed by each institution...

said the "Mongoloid racial type" is distinguished by "forward-projecting malar (cheek) bones", "comparatively flat faces", "large circular orbits", "moderate nasal aperture with a slightly pointed lower margin", "larger, more gracile braincase", "broader skull", "broader face" and "flatter roof of the nose".

Akazawa said Mongoloid skin has "thick skin cuticle" and an abundance of "carotene (yellow pigment)". Rodney P.R. Dawber of the Oxford Hair Foundation and Clinical Lecturer in Dermatology said "Mongoloid males" have "little or no facial or body hair". Mildred Trotter of the School of Medicine St. Louis Missouri said Mongoloid hair is coarse, straight, "blue-black "and weighs the most out of the races. Mildred Trotter of the School of Medicine St. Louis Missouri and Oliver H. Duggins of the Department of Anatomy Washington University said the "size of the average Mongoloid hair" is 0.0051 square millimetre (7.90501581003162E-06 sq in) based on samples from "Chinese

Chinese people

The term Chinese people may refer to any of the following:*People with Han Chinese ethnicity ....

", "North and South American Indians

Indigenous peoples of the Americas

", "Eskimos

Inuit

The Inuit are a group of culturally similar indigenous peoples inhabiting the Arctic regions of Canada , Denmark , Russia and the United States . Inuit means “the people” in the Inuktitut language...

" and "Thais

Thai people

The Thai people, or Siamese, are the main ethnic group of Thailand and are part of the larger Tai ethnolinguistic peoples found in Thailand and adjacent countries in Southeast Asia as well as southern China. Their language is the Thai language, which is classified as part of the Kradai family of...

". Daniel Hrdy of the Department of Anthropology at Harvard University said that "Mongoloid" hair whether it be "Sioux

Sioux

The Sioux are Native American and First Nations people in North America. The term can refer to any ethnic group within the Great Sioux Nation or any of the nation's many language dialects...

," "Ifugao

Ifugao

Ifugao is a landlocked province of the Philippines in the Cordillera Administrative Region in Luzon. Covering a total land area of 262,820 hectares, the province of Ifugao is located in a mountainous region characterized by rugged terrain, river valleys, and massive forests...

" or "Japanese

Japanese people

" has the thickest diameter out of all human hair. Professor of anthropology, Akazawa Takeru (Japanese

Japanese language

:赤沢威) of the International Research Center for Japanese Studies, Kyoto, said Mongoloids evolved hairlessness to keep clean while wearing heavy garments for months without bathing during the Ice Age.

In 1996, Rebecca Haydenblit of the Hominid Evolutionary Biology Research Group at Cambridge University did a study on the dentition of four pre-Columbian Mesoamerica

Mesoamerica

Mesoamerica is a region and culture area in the Americas, extending approximately from central Mexico to Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, within which a number of pre-Columbian societies flourished before the Spanish colonization of the Americas in the 15th and...

n populations and compared their data to "other Mongoloid populations". She found that "Tlatilco

Tlatilco

Tlatilco was a large pre-Columbian village in the Valley of Mexico situated near the modern-day town of the same name in the Mexican Federal District. It was one of the first chiefdom centers to arise in the Valley, flourishing on the western shore of Lake Texcoco during the Middle Pre-Classic...

", "Cuicuilco

Cuicuilco

Cuicuilco is an important archaeological Mesoamerican Middle and Late Formative period site located on the southern shore of the Lake Texcoco in the southeastern Valley of Mexico. Today, it is a significant archaeological site that was occupied during the Early Formative until its destruction in...

", "Monte Albán

Monte Albán

Monte Albán is a large pre-Columbian archaeological site in the Santa Cruz Xoxocotlán Municipality in the southern Mexican state of Oaxaca...

" and "Cholula

Cholula (Mesoamerican site)

Cholula , was an important city of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, dating back to at least the 2nd century BCE, with settlement as a village going back at least some thousand years earlier. The great site of Cholula stands just west of the modern city of Puebla. Its immense pyramid exceeds the Pyramid...

" populations followed an overall "Sundadont" dental pattern "characteristic of Southeast Asia" rather than a "Sinodont" dental pattern "characteristic of Northeast Asia".

Robert B. Pickering Professor of Anthropology at the University of Tulsa

University of Tulsa

The University of Tulsa is a private university awarding bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees located in Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA. It is currently ranked 75th among doctoral degree granting universities in the nation by US News and World Report and is listed as one of the "Best 366 Colleges" by...

said the traits of the "Mongoloid" skull are: "long" and "broad" skulls of intermediate "height", "arched" "sagittal contour", "very wide" "facial contour", "high" "face height", "rounded" "orbital opening", "narrow" "nasal opening", "wide, flat" "nasal bones", "sharp" "lower nasal margin", "straight" "facial profile", moderate and white "palate shape", "90%+" "shovel-shaped incisors" and "large, smooth" "general form".

Miquel Hernández of the Department of Animal Biology at the University of Barcelona

University of Barcelona

said "East Asians" ("Kyushu

Kyushu

is the third largest island of Japan and most southwesterly of its four main islands. Its alternate ancient names include , , and . The historical regional name is referred to Kyushu and its surrounding islands....

", "Atayal", "Philippines"

Filipino people

, "Chinese"

Chinese people

The term Chinese people may refer to any of the following:*People with Han Chinese ethnicity ....

, "Hokkaido

Hokkaido

, formerly known as Ezo, Yezo, Yeso, or Yesso, is Japan's second largest island; it is also the largest and northernmost of Japan's 47 prefectural-level subdivisions. The Tsugaru Strait separates Hokkaido from Honshu, although the two islands are connected by the underwater railway Seikan Tunnel...

" and "Anyang

Anyang

Anyang is a prefecture-level city in Henan province, People's Republic of China. The northernmost city in Henan, Anyang borders Puyang to the east, Hebi and Xinxiang to the south, and the provinces of Shanxi and Hebei to its west and north respectively....

") and "Amerinds" ("Yaujos"

Indigenous peoples in Peru

Indigenous people in Peru comprise a large number of distinct ethnic groups who inhabited the country's present territory prior to its discovery by Europeans around 1500...

, "Santa Cruz" and "Arikara") have the typical "Mongoloid cranial pattern", but other Mongoloids such as "Pacific groups" ("Easter Island", "Mokapu"

Oahu

Oahu or Oahu , known as "The Gathering Place", is the third largest of the Hawaiian Islands and most populous of the islands in the U.S. state of Hawaii. The state capital Honolulu is located on the southeast coast...

, "Guam" and "Moriori people"), "arctic groups" ("Eskimos" and "Buriats

Buryats

"), "Fuegians" ("Selk’nam", "Ya´mana", "Kawe´skar") and the "Ainu"

Ainu people

The , also called Aynu, Aino , and in historical texts Ezo , are indigenous people or groups in Japan and Russia. Historically they spoke the Ainu language and related varieties and lived in Hokkaidō, the Kuril Islands, and much of Sakhalin...

differ from this by having "larger cranial dimensions over many variables".

Proto-Mongoloids

Anthropologist Elsie Clews Parsons

Elsie Clews Parsons

Elsie Worthington Clews Parsons was an American anthropologist, sociologist, folklorist, and feminist who studied Native American tribes—such as the Tewa and Hopi—in Arizona, New Mexico, and Mexico. She helped found The New School...

physical features of the "Proto-Mongoloid" were characterized as, "a straight-haired type, medium in complexion, jaw protrusion, nose-breadth, and inclining probably to round-headedness".

Margaret Sleeboom-Faulkner of the Department of Anthropology at the University of Sussex said Kanzō Umehara considered the Ainu

Ainu people

and Ryukyuans to have "preserved their proto-Mongoloid traits".

Mark J. Hudson

Mark J. Hudson

Mark James Hudson is a British academic and an anthropologist interested in multicultural Japan. As an archaeologist in Japan, his area of specialization are the Jomon period and the Yayoi period.-Early life:...

Professor of Anthropology at Nishikyushu University

Nishikyushu University

is a private university in Kanzaki, Saga, Japan. The school was established in 1968.-External links:*...

, Kanzaki, Saga

Kanzaki, Saga

is a city located in Saga Prefecture, Japan. The city was created on March 20, 2006 by the merger of the towns of Kanzaki and Chiyoda, and the village of Sefuri, all from Kanzaki District...

, Japan

Japan

, said Japan was settled by a "Proto-Mongoloid" population in the "Pleistocene

Pleistocene

The Pleistocene is the epoch from 2,588,000 to 11,700 years BP that spans the world's recent period of repeated glaciations. The name pleistocene is derived from the Greek and ....

" who became the "Jōmon" and their features can be seen in the "Ainu

Ainu people

" and "Okinawan

Ryukyuans

The are the indigenous peoples of the Ryukyu Islands between the islands of Kyūshū and Taiwan. The generally recognized subgroups of Ryukyuans are Amamians, Okinawans, Miyakoans, Yaeyamans, and Yonagunians. Geographically, they live in either Okinawa Prefecture or Kagoshima Prefecture...

" people. Hudson said that, later, during the "Yayoi period

Yayoi period

The is an Iron Age era in the history of Japan traditionally dated 300 BC to 300 AD. It is named after the neighbourhood of Tokyo where archaeologists first uncovered artifacts and features from that era. Distinguishing characteristics of the Yayoi period include the appearance of new...

", the "Neo-Mongoloid" type entered Japan. Hudson said "genetically" Japanese people are "primarily" Neo-Mongoloid with Proto-Mongoloid "admixture".

Theodore G. Schurr of the Department of Anthropology at University of Pennsylvania

University of Pennsylvania

said Mongoloid traits emerged from "Transbaikal

Transbaikal

Transbaikal, Trans-Baikal, Transbaikalia , or Dauria is a mountainous region to the east of or "beyond" Lake Baikal in Russia. The alternative name, Dauria, is derived from the ethnonym of the Daur people. It stretches for almost 1000 km from north to south from the Patomskoye Plateau and North...

ia", "central and eastern regions of Mongolia", and "several regions of Northern China". Schurr said that studies of "cranio-facial variation in Mongolia" "suggest" that the "region" of "modern-day" "Mongolians" is the origin of the "Mongoloid racial type".

Dr. Rukang Wu

Wu (surname)

of the Institute of Vertebrate Palaeontology and Palaeoanthropology, Academia Sinica

Academia Sinica

, China

China

, said that the remains of "Liukiang

Liujiang County

Liujiang County is a county under the jurisdiction of Liuzhou, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of China. It covers a land area of 2504 sq. kilometers and had a population of 540,000.-Administrative divisions:Liucheng consists of 11 towns....

human fossils" were an "early type of evolving Mongoloid" that indicated "South China" was the "birthplace where the Mongoloid race originated".

Dr. Marta Mirazon Lahr of the Department of Biological Anthropology at Cambridge University said there are two hypotheses on the "origin of Mongoloids". Lahr said one hypothesis is that Mongoloids originated in "north Asia" due to the "regional continuity" in this region and this population conforming "best" to the standard "Mongoloid features". Lahr said the other hypothesis is that Mongoloids originate from "Southeast Asian populations" that "expanded from "Africa to Southeast Asia" during the "first half of the Upper Pleistocene" and then traveled to "Australia-Melanesia" and "East Asia". Lahr said the "morphology" of the "Paleoindian" is consistent with the "proto-Mongoloid definition".

Anthropologist Arnold Henry Savage Landor

Arnold Henry Savage Landor

Arnold Henry Savage Landor was an English painter, explorer, writer and anthropologist, born in Florence. His grandfather was the poet and writer Walter Savage Landor, who himself lived for long periods in Florence....

described the Ainu

Ainu people

as having deep-set eyes and an eye shape typical of Europeans, with a large and prominent browridge, large ears, hairy and prone to baldness

Baldness

Baldness implies partial or complete lack of hair and can be understood as part of the wider topic of "hair thinning". The degree and pattern of baldness can vary greatly, but its most common cause is male and female pattern baldness, also known as androgenic alopecia, alopecia androgenetica or...

, slightly-flattened hook nose with large and broad nostrils, prominent cheek bones, large mouth and thick lips and a long region from nose to mouth and small chin region.

Neoteny

According to Ashley Montagu

Ashley Montagu

Montague Francis Ashley Montagu was a British-American anthropologist and humanist, of Jewish ancestry, who popularized topics such as race and gender and their relation to politics and development...

who taught anthropology at Princeton University

Princeton University

Princeton University is a private research university located in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The school is one of the eight universities of the Ivy League, and is one of the nine Colonial Colleges founded before the American Revolution....

, "The Mongoloid skull has proceeded further than in any other people." "The Mongoloid skull, whether Chinese

Chinese people

The term Chinese people may refer to any of the following:*People with Han Chinese ethnicity ....

or Japanese

Japanese people

, has been rather more neotenized

Neoteny

Neoteny , also called juvenilization , is one of the two ways by which paedomorphism can arise. Paedomorphism is the retention by adults of traits previously seen only in juveniles, and is a subject studied in the field of developmental biology. In neoteny, the physiological development of an...

than the Caucasoid or European." "The female skull, it will be noted, is more pedomorphic in all human populations than the male skull." In Ashley Montagu

Ashley Montagu

's list of "[n]eotenous structural traits in which Mongoloids... differ from Caucasoids", Montagu lists "Larger brain, larger braincase, broader skull, broader face, flat roof of the nose, inner eye fold, more protuberant eyes, lack of brow ridges

Supraorbital ridge

The supraorbital ridge, or brow ridge, refer to a bony ridge located above the eye sockets of all primates. In Homo sapiens sapiens the eyebrows are located on their lower margin.Other terms in use are:* supraorbital arch...

, greater delicacy of bones, shallow mandibular fossa, small mastoid processes, stocky build, persistence of thymus gland

Thymus

The thymus is a specialized organ of the immune system. The thymus produces and "educates" T-lymphocytes , which are critical cells of the adaptive immune system....

into adult life

Adult

An adult is a human being or living organism that is of relatively mature age, typically associated with sexual maturity and the attainment of reproductive age....

, persistence of juvenile form of zygomatic muscle, persistence of juvenile form of superior lip muscle, later eruption of full dentition (except second and third molars), less hairy, fewer sweat glands, fewer hairs per square centimeter [and] long torso".

According to Clive Bromhall who has a Ph.D. in zoology from Oxford University, "Mongoloid races are explained in terms of being the most extreme pedomorphic humans."

Richard Grossinger

Richard Grossinger

Richard Grossinger is an American writer, anthropologist, and publisher of North Atlantic Books in Berkeley, California.-Biography:...

, professor of anthropology at University of Maine at Portland, said "The intuition that advanced human development was pedomorphic rather than recapitulationary and accelerated was disturbing to many Eurocentric

Eurocentrism

Eurocentrism is the practice of viewing the world from a European perspective and with an implied belief, either consciously or subconsciously, in the preeminence of European culture...

nineteenth century anthropologists." "If juvenilization was the characteristic for advanced status, then it was clear that the Mongoloid races were more deeply fetalized in most respects and thus capable of the greatest development."
Stephen Oppenheimer

Stephen Oppenheimer

Stephen Oppenheimer is a British paediatrician, geneticist, and writer. He is a member of Green Templeton College, Oxford and an honorary fellow of Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, and carries out and publishes research in the fields of genetics and human prehistory.-Career:Oppenheimer...

of the Institute of Cognitive & Evolutionary Anthropology at Oxford University said "An interesting hypothesis put forward by paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould

Stephen Jay Gould

Stephen Jay Gould was an American paleontologist, evolutionary biologist, and historian of science. He was also one of the most influential and widely read writers of popular science of his generation....

many years ago was that the package of the Mongoloid anatomical changes could be explained by the phenomenon of neoteny, whereby an infantile or childlike body form is preserved in adult life. Neoteny in hominids is still one of the simplest explanations of how we developed a disproportionately large brain so rapidly over the past few million years. The relatively large brain and the forward rotation of the skull on the spinal column, and body hair loss, both characteristic of humans, are found in foetal chimps

Chimpanzee

Chimpanzee, sometimes colloquially chimp, is the common name for the two extant species of ape in the genus Pan. The Congo River forms the boundary between the native habitat of the two species:...

. Gould suggested a mild intensification of neoteny in Mongoloids, in whom it has been given the name pedomorphy. Such a mechanism is likely to involve only a few controller genes and could therefore happen over a relatively short evolutionary period. It would also explain how the counterintuitive retrousse [turned up at the end] nose and relative loss of facial hair got into the package." "[D]ecrease unnecessary muscle bulk, less tooth mass, thinner bones and smaller physical size; ...this follows the selective adaptive model of Mongoloid evolution."

Cold adaption

Professor of anthropology, Akazawa Takeru (Japanese

Japanese language

:赤沢威) of the International Research Center for Japanese Studies in Kyoto Japan, said Mongoloid features are an adaption to the "cold" of the "Mammoth Steppe

Steppe mammoth

The steppe mammoth, Mammuthus armeniacus, is an extinct species of Elephantidae, that ranged over most of northern Eurasia during the Middle Pleistocene, 600,000-370,000 years ago....

". He mentions the "Lewis waves" of warm blood cyclical vasodilation and vasoconstriction of the peripheral capillaries

Capillary

Capillaries are the smallest of a body's blood vessels and are parts of the microcirculation. They are only 1 cell thick. These microvessels, measuring 5-10 μm in diameter, connect arterioles and venules, and enable the exchange of water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and many other nutrient and waste...

in Mongoloids as an adaption to the cold. He lists the short limbs, short noses, flat faces, epicanthic fold and lower surface to mass ratio as further Mongoloid adaptions to cold.

Takasaki Yuji (Japanese

Japanese language

:高崎裕治) of Akita University

Akita University

Akita University is a university in Akita City, Japan. It has three faculties: the Faculty of Education and Human Studies, the School of Medicine, and the Faculty of Engineering and Resource Science.-External links:*...

, Japan

Japan

, in the Journal of Physiological Anthropology and Applied Human Science said, "Mongoloid ancestors had evolved over time in cold environments" and the short limbs of the Mongoloid was due to "Allen's ecological rule".

Professor of anthropology at Trent University Ontario, Canada, Joseph K. So (198) cited a study by J. T. Steegman (1965) that the "so-called" "cold-adapted Mongoloid face" has been shown in an experiment, using Japanese and European subjects, to not offer greater protection to frostbite. In explaining Mongoloid cold-adaptiveness, So cites the work of W. L. Hylander (1977) where Hylander said that in the Eskimo, for example, the reduction of the brow ridge and flatness of the face is due to "internal structural configurations" that are "cold adapted" in the sense that they produce a large vertical bite force necessary to chew frozen seal meat.

Miquel Hernández of the Department of Animal Biology at the University of Barcelona

University of Barcelona

said the "high and narrow nose of Eskimos" and "Neanderthals" is an "adaption to a cold and dry environment", since it contributes to warming and moisturizing the air and the "recovery of heat and moisture from expired air".

A.T. Steegman of the Department of Anthropology at State University of New York

State University of New York

The State University of New York, abbreviated SUNY , is a system of public institutions of higher education in New York, United States. It is the largest comprehensive system of universities, colleges, and community colleges in the United States, with a total enrollment of 465,000 students, plus...

investigated the assumption that Allen's rule caused the structural configuration of the "Arctic

Arctic

Mongoloid" face. Steegman did an experiment that involved the survival of rat

Rat

Rats are various medium-sized, long-tailed rodents of the superfamily Muroidea. "True rats" are members of the genus Rattus, the most important of which to humans are the black rat, Rattus rattus, and the brown rat, Rattus norvegicus...

s in the cold. Steegman found the rats with narrow nasal passages, broader faces, shorter tails and shorter legs survived the best in the cold. Steegman paralleled his findings with the "Arctic Mongoloids", particularly the "Eskimo" and "Aleut," by claiming these "Arctic Mongoloids" have similar features in accordance with Allen's rule: a narrow nasal passage

Nasal cavity

The nasal cavity is a large air filled space above and behind the nose in the middle of the face.- Function :The nasal cavity conditions the air to be received by the other areas of the respiratory tract...

, relatively large heads, long to round heads, large jaws, relatively large bodies, and short limbs.

Kenneth L. Beals of the Department of Anthropology at Oregon State University

Oregon State University

Oregon State University is a coeducational, public research university located in Corvallis, Oregon, United States. The university offers undergraduate, graduate and doctoral degrees and a multitude of research opportunities. There are more than 200 academic degree programs offered through the...

noted that the indigenous people of the Americas have cephalic indexes that are an exception to Allen's rule, since the indigenous people of the hot climates of North and South America have cold-adapted, high cephalic indexes. Beals explanation is that these peoples have not yet evolved the appropriate cephalic index for their climate, being, comparatively, only recently descended from the cold-adapted "Arctic Mongoloid".

Genetic research

Genetic Distances and Effective Divergence Times Between The Three Major Races of Man (3) by Masatoshi Nei Masatoshi Nei is Evan Pugh Professor of Biology at Pennsylvania State University and Director of the since 1990. He was born in 1931 in Miyazaki Prefecture, on Kyūshū Island, Japan... (Japanese Japanese language is a language spoken by over 130 million people in Japan and in Japanese emigrant communities. It is a member of the Japonic language family, which has a number of proposed relationships with other languages, none of which has gained wide acceptance among historical linguists .Japanese is an... : 根井正利), Professor of Biology at Pennsylvania State University Pennsylvania State University The Pennsylvania State University, commonly referred to as Penn State or PSU, is a public research university with campuses and facilities throughout the state of Pennsylvania, United States. Founded in 1855, the university has a threefold mission of teaching, research, and public service...
Comparison	Proteins (62 loci)	Blood groups (23 loci)	Total (85 loci)	Effective divergence time (years)
Caucasoid/Mongoloid	0.011	0.043	0.019	41,000 ± Plus-minus sign The plus-minus sign is a mathematical symbol commonly used eitherto indicate the precision of an approximation, orto indicate a value that can be of either sign.... 15,000
Caucasoid/Negroid	0.030	0.038	0.032	113,000 ± Plus-minus sign The plus-minus sign is a mathematical symbol commonly used eitherto indicate the precision of an approximation, orto indicate a value that can be of either sign.... 34,000
Negroid/Mongoloid	0.031	0.096	0.047	116,000 ± Plus-minus sign The plus-minus sign is a mathematical symbol commonly used eitherto indicate the precision of an approximation, orto indicate a value that can be of either sign.... 34,000

In 1994, geneticist Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza

Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza

Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza is an Italian population geneticist born in Genoa, who has been a professor at Stanford University since 1970 .-Books:...

of Stanford University

Stanford University

divided a "principal coordinant" map of "42 Asian populations" into three groupings: "Asian Caucasoids", "Northeast

Northeast Asia

Northeast Asia and Northeastern Asia refers to the northeastern subregion of Asia. Though the precise definition of Northeast Asia changes according to context, it always includes Japan and the Korean Peninsula, and is sometimes used to refer to these two regions exclusively.-Definitions:The...

and East Asia

East Asia

East Asia or Eastern Asia is a subregion of Asia that can be defined in either geographical or cultural terms...

n" and "Southeast Asia

Southeast Asia

Southeast Asia, South-East Asia, South East Asia or Southeastern Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India, west of New Guinea and north of Australia. The region lies on the intersection of geological plates, with heavy seismic...

n". Along "Southeast Asia", Cavalli-Sforza said there is a "separation between northern and southern Mongoloids". To the West, Cavalli-Sforza said there is an "approximate boundary" between "Caucasoids" and "Mongoloids" from the "Urals

Ural Mountains

The Ural Mountains , or simply the Urals, are a mountain range that runs approximately from north to south through western Russia, from the coast of the Arctic Ocean to the Ural River and northwestern Kazakhstan. Their eastern side is usually considered the natural boundary between Europe and Asia...

" to "the eastern part of India

East India

East India is a region of India consisting of the states of West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, and Orissa. The states of Orissa and West Bengal share some cultural and linguistic characteristics with Bangladesh and with the state of Assam. Together with Bangladesh, West Bengal formed the...

". Along this boundary there has been "hybridization

Miscegenation

Miscegenation is the mixing of different racial groups through marriage, cohabitation, sexual relations, and procreation....

", causing a "Caucasoid-Mongoloid gradient". More specifically, the ethnic groups Cavalli-Sforza said were in the "Northeast and East Asian" cluster were the "Koryak

Koryaks

Koryaks are an indigenous people of Kamchatka Krai in the Russian Far East, who inhabit the coastlands of the Bering Sea to the south of the Anadyr basin and the country to the immediate north of the Kamchatka Peninsula, the southernmost limit of their range being Tigilsk. They are akin to the...

", "Chukchi

Chukchi people

", "Reindeer Chukchi

Chukchi people

", "Nganasan

Nganasan people

The Nganasans are one of the indigenous peoples of Siberia. They are the northernmost of the Samoyedic peoples, living on the Taymyr Peninsula by the Arctic Ocean. Their territory is part of Krasnoyarsk Krai. Their "capital" is the settlement of Ust-Avam...

" "Samoyed

Samoyedic peoples

", "N. Tungus

Tungusic peoples

", "Nentsy" "N. Chinese", "Tibetan

Tibetan people

The Tibetan people are an ethnic group that is native to Tibet, which is mostly in the People's Republic of China. They number 5.4 million and are the 10th largest ethnic group in the country. Significant Tibetan minorities also live in India, Nepal, and Bhutan...

", "Bhutanese

Demographics of Bhutan

This article is about the demographic features of the population of Bhutan, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population....

", "Ainu

Ainu people

", "Mongol

Mongols

", "Japanese

Japanese people

" and "Korean". Moving south, the ethnic groups Cavalli-Sforza said were in the "Southeast Asian" cluster were the "Indonesian", "Malaysian

Demographics of Malaysia

The demographics of Malaysia are represented by the multiple ethnic groups that exist in this country. Malaysia's population, , is estimated to be 28,250,500, which makes it the 44th most populated country in the world. Of these, 5.72 million Malaysians live in East Malaysia and...

", "Taiwan aborigines

Taiwanese aborigines

Taiwanese aborigines is the term commonly applied in reference to the indigenous peoples of Taiwan. Although Taiwanese indigenous groups hold a variety of creation myths, recent research suggests their ancestors may have been living on the islands for approximately 8,000 years before major Han...

", "Viet Muong

Muong people

The Mường is the third largest of Vietnam’s 53 minority groups, with an estimated population of 1.2 million. The Muong people inhabit the mountainous region of northern Vietnam, concentrated in Hoa Binh Province and the mountainous districts of Thanh Hoa Province. They are most closely related to...

", "Thai

Thai people

", "Philippine

Filipino people

", "S. Chinese", "Balinese

Balinese people

The Balinese population of 3.0 million live mostly on the island of Bali, making up 89% of the island's population. There are also significant populations on the island of Lombok, and in the eastern-most regions of Java The Balinese population of 3.0 million (1.5% of Indonesia's population) live...

" and "Gurkha

Gurkha

Gurkha are people from Nepal who take their name from the Gorkha District. Gurkhas are best known for their history in the Indian Army's Gorkha regiments, the British Army's Brigade of Gurkhas and the Nepalese Army. Gurkha units are closely associated with the kukri, a forward-curving Nepalese knife...

". Moving off the coast, Cavalli-Sforza said there are "Australoid

Australoid

The Australoid race is a broad racial classification. The concept originated with a typological method of racial classification. They were described as having dark skin with wavy hair, in the case of Veddoids from South Asia and Aboriginal Australians, or hair ranging from straight to kinky in the...

" and "Negrito

Negrito

The Negrito are a class of several ethnic groups who inhabit isolated parts of Southeast Asia.Their current populations include 12 Andamanese peoples of the Andaman Islands, six Semang peoples of Malaysia, the Mani of Thailand, and the Aeta, Agta, Ati, and 30 other peoples of the Philippines....

" peoples, but also that the "Polynesians

Polynesians

" are a "diluted Mongoloid type", the Negritos of the "Andaman Islands

Andaman Islands

The Andaman Islands are a group of Indian Ocean archipelagic islands in the Bay of Bengal between India to the west, and Burma , to the north and east...

" and "Semang

Semang

The Semang are a Negrito ethnic group of the Malay Peninsula. Lowland Semang tribes are also known as Sakai, although this term is considered to be derogatory by the Semang people. They are probably the indigenous peoples of this area. They have been recorded to have lived here since before the...

" Negritos have a "high frequency of the Mongoloid inner epicanthic eyefold" and that among Australoid "Micronesia

Micronesia

Micronesia is a subregion of Oceania, comprising thousands of small islands in the western Pacific Ocean. It is distinct from Melanesia to the south, and Polynesia to the east. The Philippines lie to the west, and Indonesia to the southwest....

ns" "some individuals look more Mongoloid". Moving to the Americas, Cavalli-Sforza said the "Eskimo

Eskimo

Eskimos or Inuit–Yupik peoples are indigenous peoples who have traditionally inhabited the circumpolar region from eastern Siberia , across Alaska , Canada, and Greenland....

s and Aleuts" derived from the "Siberian Mongoloids

Indigenous peoples of Siberia

" and came after the "American Indian

Indigenous peoples of the Americas

s" who are both "Mongoloid in general" and "uniform racially".

In 2008, biochemist Boris Abramovich Malyarchuk et al. of the Institute of Biological Problems of the North, Russian Academy of Sciences

Russian Academy of Sciences

The Russian Academy of Sciences consists of the national academy of Russia and a network of scientific research institutes from across the Russian Federation as well as auxiliary scientific and social units like libraries, publishers and hospitals....

, Magadan

Magadan

Magadan is a port town on the Sea of Okhotsk and gateway to the Kolyma region. It is the administrative center of Magadan Oblast , in the Russian Far East. Founded in 1929 on the site of an earlier settlement from the 1920s, it was granted the status of town in 1939...

, Russia

Russia

Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...

, used a sample (n=279) of Czech individuals to determine the frequency of "Mongoloid" "mtDNA lineages". Malyarchuk found Czech mtDNA lineages were typical of "Slavic populations

Slavic peoples

The Slavic people are an Indo-European panethnicity living in Eastern Europe, Southeast Europe, North Asia and Central Asia. The term Slavic represents a broad ethno-linguistic group of people, who speak languages belonging to the Slavic language family and share, to varying degrees, certain...

" with "1.8%" Mongoloid mtDNA lineage. Malyarchuk added that "Slavic populations" "almost always" contain Mongoloid mtDNA lineage. Malyarchuk said the Mongoloid component of Slavic people was partially added before the split of "Balto-Slavics

Balto-Slavic languages

The Balto-Slavic language group traditionally comprises Baltic and Slavic languages, belonging to the Indo-European family of languages. Baltic and Slavic languages share several linguistic traits not found in any other Indo-European branch, which points to the period of common development...

" in 2,000-3,000 BCE with additional Mongoloid mixture occurring among Slavics in the last 4,000 years. Malyarchuk said the "Russian population

Russians

The Russian people are an East Slavic ethnic group native to Russia, speaking the Russian language and primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries....

" was developed by the "assimilation of the indigenous pre-Slavic population of Eastern Europe by true Slavs" with additional "assimilation of Finno-Ugric populations

Finno-Ugric peoples

The Finno-Ugric peoples are any of several peoples of Europe who speak languages of the proposed Finno-Ugric language family, such as the Finns, Estonians, Mordvins, and Hungarians...

" and "long-lasting" interactions with the populations of "Siberia

Siberia

Siberia is an extensive region constituting almost all of Northern Asia. Comprising the central and eastern portion of the Russian Federation, it was part of the Soviet Union from its beginning, as its predecessor states, the Tsardom of Russia and the Russian Empire, conquered it during the 16th...

" and "Central Asia

Central Asia

Central Asia is a core region of the Asian continent from the Caspian Sea in the west, China in the east, Afghanistan in the south, and Russia in the north...

". Malyarchuk said that other Slavs "Mongoloid component" was increased during the waves of migration from "steppe populations

Eurasian nomads

Eurasian nomads are a large group of peoples of the Eurasian Steppe. This generic title encompasses the ethnic groups inhabiting the steppes of Central Asia, Mongolia, and Eastern Europe. They domesticated the horse, and their economy and culture emphasizes horse breeding, horse riding, and a...

(Huns

Huns

The Huns were a group of nomadic people who, appearing from east of the Volga River, migrated into Europe c. AD 370 and established the vast Hunnic Empire there. Since de Guignes linked them with the Xiongnu, who had been northern neighbours of China 300 years prior to the emergence of the Huns,...

, Avars

Eurasian Avars

The Eurasian Avars or Ancient Avars were a highly organized nomadic confederacy of mixed origins. They were ruled by a khagan, who was surrounded by a tight-knit entourage of nomad warriors, an organization characteristic of Turko-Mongol groups...

, Bulgars

Bulgars

The Bulgars were a semi-nomadic who flourished in the Pontic Steppe and the Volga basin in the 7th century.The Bulgars emerge after the collapse of the Hunnic Empire in the 5th century....

and Mongols

Mongols

)", especially the decay of the "Avar Khaganate

Eurasian Avars

".

In 1999, Vladimir

Vladimir (name)

Vladimir is a male Slavic given name of Church Slavonic and Old Slavic origin, now widespread throughout all Slavic nations...

Orekhov et al. of the Institute of General Genetics, Moscow

Moscow

Moscow is the capital, the most populous city, and the most populous federal subject of Russia. The city is a major political, economic, cultural, scientific, religious, financial, educational, and transportation centre of Russia and the continent...

, Russia

Russia

Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...

, found that there is evidence for "influence of Mongoloid populations on the ethnogenesis

Ethnogenesis

Ethnogenesis is the process by which a group of human beings comes to be understood or to understand themselves as ethnically distinct from the wider social landscape from which their grouping emerges...

of Russians

Russians

The Russian people are an East Slavic ethnic group native to Russia, speaking the Russian language and primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries....

" due to the presence of "mytotypes" 26, 33, and 47 of "Mongoloid haplogroup C

Haplogroup C (mtDNA)

In human mitochondrial genetics, Haplogroup C is a human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup.-Origin:Haplogroup C is believed to have arisen somewhere between the Caspian Sea and Lake Baikal some 60,000 years before present. It is a descendant of the haplogroup M.-Distribution:Haplogroup C is found in...

" in the Russian population as well as evidence for "Finno-Ugric populations

Finno-Ugric peoples

The Finno-Ugric peoples are any of several peoples of Europe who speak languages of the proposed Finno-Ugric language family, such as the Finns, Estonians, Mordvins, and Hungarians...

in the ethnogenesis of Eastern Slavs

East Slavs

The East Slavs are Slavic peoples speaking East Slavic languages. Formerly the main population of the medieval state of Kievan Rus, by the seventeenth century they evolved into the Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian peoples.-Sources:...

" due to the presence of "Finno-Ugric mitotype (mitotype 31)" in the Russian population, but he found that that Russian "mtDNA pools

Mitochondrial DNA

Mitochondrial DNA is the DNA located in organelles called mitochondria, structures within eukaryotic cells that convert the chemical energy from food into a form that cells can use, adenosine triphosphate...

" differed by "Russian regions

Subdivisions of Russia

Russia is divided into several types and levels of subdivisions.-Federal subjects:Russia is a federation which since March 1, 2008 consists of 83 federal subjects . These federal subjects are of equal federal rights in the sense that they have equal representation—two delegates each—in the...

" with Russians of the "Eastern-European plain

East European Plain

The East European Plain is a plain comprising a series of river basins in Eastern Europe. Together with the Northern European Plain it constitutes the European Plain. It is the largest mountain-free part of the European landscape.The plain spans approximately and averages about in elevation...

" "close" to "European ethnic groups".

In 2010, Alexander Shtrunov who published in the Russian Journal of Genetics said the introduction of haplogroup Nc1

Haplogroup N (Y-DNA)

In human genetics, Haplogroup N is a Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup, defined by the presence of the marker M231. The b2/b3 deletion in the AZFc region of the human Y-chromosome is a characteristic of Haplogroup N haplotypes. This deletion, however, appears to have occurred independently on four...

in "Eastern Europe

Eastern Europe

Eastern Europe is the eastern part of Europe. The term has widely disparate geopolitical, geographical, cultural and socioeconomic readings, which makes it highly context-dependent and even volatile, and there are "almost as many definitions of Eastern Europe as there are scholars of the region"...

" was spread by people with a "Uraloid

Finno-Ugric peoples

The Finno-Ugric peoples are any of several peoples of Europe who speak languages of the proposed Finno-Ugric language family, such as the Finns, Estonians, Mordvins, and Hungarians...

appearance" with both "Mongoloid and Caucasoid features" in the "Mesolithic

Mesolithic

The Mesolithic is an archaeological concept used to refer to certain groups of archaeological cultures defined as falling between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic....

" period, forming the "gradual appearance of mixed anthropological types" with the pre-existing "Caucasoid" "Paleo-European

Paleo-Europeans

In physical anthropology and scientific racism, Paleo-European is a term for the supposedly native populations of Europe descended directly from Cro-Magnon....

population of Northern Europe

Northern Europe

Northern Europe is the northern part or region of Europe. Northern Europe typically refers to the seven countries in the northern part of the European subcontinent which includes Denmark, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Finland and Sweden...

" who were carriers of the "Nordic haplogroup I1a

Haplogroup I1 (Y-DNA)

In human genetics, Haplogroup I1 is a Y chromosome haplogroup occurring at greatest frequency in Scandinavia, associated with the mutations identified as M253, M307, P30, and P40. These are known as single nucleotide polymorphisms . It is a subclade of Haplogroup I. Before a reclassification in...

".

Atsushi Tajima (Japanese

Japanese language

: 田嶋敦) et al. of Graduate University for Advanced Studies

Graduate University for Advanced Studies

The is one of the national universities of Japan. It is located in the town of Hayama in Kanagawa Prefecture. It was established in 1988. Its nickname is...

, Hayama, Kanagawa

Hayama, Kanagawa

is a town located in Miura District, Kanagawa Prefecture, on central Honshū, Japan. As of 2010, the town had an estimated population of 32,386 and a density of 1,900 per km². The total area was 17.06 km²...

, Japan

Japan

, found evidence for four separate populations, carrying distinct sets of non-recombining Y chromosome

Y chromosome

The Y chromosome is one of the two sex-determining chromosomes in most mammals, including humans. In mammals, it contains the gene SRY, which triggers testis development if present. The human Y chromosome is composed of about 60 million base pairs...

lineages, within the traditional Mongoloid category: North Asians, Han Chinese, Southeast Asians, and Japanese.

In 1997, Masatoshi Nei

Masatoshi Nei

is Evan Pugh Professor of Biology at Pennsylvania State University and Director of the since 1990. He was born in 1931 in Miyazaki Prefecture, on Kyūshū Island, Japan...

(Japanese

Japanese language

: 根井正利), Professor of Biology at Pennsylvania State University

Pennsylvania State University

The Pennsylvania State University, commonly referred to as Penn State or PSU, is a public research university with campuses and facilities throughout the state of Pennsylvania, United States. Founded in 1855, the university has a threefold mission of teaching, research, and public service...

, said "clusters" of "genetic distances" conform to the "customary" "three major races of man, namely, Negroids

Negroid race

Negroid is a term sometimes used by forensic anthropologists and physical anthropologists to refer to populations that share certain phenotypic traits such as high Melanin levels and skeletal features associated with ancestry from Sub-saharan Africa.It was introduced by early Racial science used...

, Caucasoids and Mongoloids". Moreover, Nei said that "Mongoloid populations irrespective of north and south" show "small genetic distances from any populations in Oceania and Americas". Nei said the "Northern Mongoloid" included the "Evens

Evens

The Evens or Eveny are a people in Siberia and the Russian Far East. They live in some of the regions of the Magadan Oblast and Kamchatka Krai and northern parts of Sakha east of the Lena River. According to the 2002 census, there were 19,071 Evens in Russia...

", "Buryat

Buryats

", "Hui

Hui people

The Hui people are an ethnic group in China, defined as Chinese speaking people descended from foreign Muslims. They are typically distinguished by their practice of Islam, however some also practice other religions, and many are direct descendants of Silk Road travelers.In modern People's...

", "Mongolian", "Tibetan

Tibetan people

", "Japanese

Japanese people

", "Ainu

Ainu people

", "Northern Chinese" and "Korean". In the "Southern Mongoloid", Nei included the "Dong

Dong people

The Dong , a Kam–Sui people of southern China, are one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. They are famed for their native-bred Kam Sweet Rice , carpentry skills, and unique architecture, in particular a form of covered bridge known as the "wind and rain...

", "Zhuang", "Southern Chinese", "Taiwanese-aborigines

Taiwanese aborigines

", "Thai

Thai people

", "Indonesian" and "Filipino

Filipino people

". Based on genetic data, Nei said the "Amerindians" descend from two populations: an original "Northeast Asians" migration which became the "Paleo-Indian" and a later migration which became both the "Na-Dene

Na-Dené languages

Na-Dene is a Native American language family which includes at least the Athabaskan languages, Eyak, and Tlingit languages. An inclusion of Haida is controversial....

" and "Eskimo

Eskimo

Eskimos or Inuit–Yupik peoples are indigenous peoples who have traditionally inhabited the circumpolar region from eastern Siberia , across Alaska , Canada, and Greenland....

s". Based on the genetic data, Nei said "Southeast Asian Mongoloids" are closer to the "Micronesian" and "Polynesian" than to the "Papuan" and "Australian". In 1993, Nei said the "Mongoloids" were contained within a larger genetic grouping called the "Greater Asians

Asian people

Asian people or Asiatic people is a term with multiple meanings that refers to people who descend from a portion of Asia's population.- Central Asia :...

" or "Greater Mongoloids" which also included "Pacific Islander

Pacific Islander

Pacific Islander , is a geographic term to describe the indigenous inhabitants of any of the three major sub-regions of Oceania: Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia.According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, these three regions, together with their islands consist of:Polynesia:...

s" and "Australopapuans". In the "Australopapuan" grouping, Nei included "Dravidians", "Andamanese", "Australian

Australian Aborigines

Australian Aborigines , also called Aboriginal Australians, from the latin ab originem , are people who are indigenous to most of the Australian continentthat is, to mainland Australia and the island of Tasmania...

", "Papuan" and "Philippine Negritos

Negrito

". Since Nei found Australopapuans were "most closely related to East Asians", Nei offered an explanation for their peculiar traits. Nei rejected the hypothesis that Australopapuans have traits of "black Africans" due to "convergent-evolution

Convergent evolution

Convergent evolution describes the acquisition of the same biological trait in unrelated lineages.The wing is a classic example of convergent evolution in action. Although their last common ancestor did not have wings, both birds and bats do, and are capable of powered flight. The wings are...

", since he estimated it would have taken far longer for them to have re-evolved "frizzled-hair". Nei supported the other hypothesis put forward by Chris B. Stringer

Chris Stringer

Christopher Brian Stringer FRS, better known as Chris Stringer, is a British anthropologist.He is one of the leading proponents of the recent single-origin hypothesis or "Out of Africa" theory, which hypothesizes that modern humans originated in Africa over 100,000 years ago and replaced the...

of the Paleontology Department of the National History Museum

National History Museum

The National History Museum or Muzium Sejarah Nasional was the second national museum in Malaysia after the National Museum. It was located opposite Dataran Merdeka in Kuala Lumpur. As of November 2007 it is closed and the collection has been moved to the National Museum.-History:This building was...

that there were two populations and that the original "African" population had "absorbed most of its gene pool from the Mongoloid group".

Satoshi Horai (Japanese

Japanese language

: 宝来聡) of the Department of Human Genetics, National Institute of Genetics

National Institute of Genetics

The National Institute of Genetics is a Japanese institution founded in 1949.It hosts the DNA Data Bank of Japan....

, Mishima

Mishima, Shizuoka

is a city located in eastern Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan. As of 2009, the city has an estimated population of 112,078 and a population density of 1,800 persons per km². The total area is 62.13 km²...

, Shizouka

Shizuoka Prefecture

is a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūbu region on Honshu island. The capital is the city of Shizuoka.- History :Shizuoka prefecture was formed from the former Tōtōmi, Suruga and Izu provinces.The area was the home of the first Tokugawa Shogun...

, Japan

Japan

, said "phylogenetic analysis" indicated that the there are "two distinct groups" of "Mongoloids" - one which early on "diverged" from "Negroids" and another that "diverged" from "Caucasoids" later. Horai said Mongoloid distribution corresponds to "North

North America

North America is a continent wholly within the Northern Hemisphere and almost wholly within the Western Hemisphere. It is also considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas...

and South America

South America

South America is a continent situated in the Western Hemisphere, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere. The continent is also considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east...

, Oceania

Oceania

Oceania is a region centered on the islands of the tropical Pacific Ocean. Conceptions of what constitutes Oceania range from the coral atolls and volcanic islands of the South Pacific to the entire insular region between Asia and the Americas, including Australasia and the Malay Archipelago...

, Southeast Asia

Southeast Asia

, east Asia

East Asia

East Asia or Eastern Asia is a subregion of Asia that can be defined in either geographical or cultural terms...

, and Siberia

Siberia

".

A study by the The HUGO Pan-Asian SNP Consortium in 2009 found that East Asian and South-East Asian populations clustered together, and suggested a common origin for these populations. At the same time they observed a broad discontinuity between this cluster and South Asia, commenting "most of the Indian populations showed evidence of shared ancestry with European populations". It was noted that "genetic ancestry is strongly correlated with linguistic affiliations as well as geography".

In 2010, Sung-Soo Hung et al. (Korean

Korean language

Korean is the official language of the country Korea, in both South and North. It is also one of the two official languages in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in People's Republic of China. There are about 78 million Korean speakers worldwide. In the 15th century, a national writing...

:윤승수) of the Department of Biology at Seoul National University

Seoul National University

Seoul National University , colloquially known in Korean as Seoul-dae , is a national research university in Seoul, Korea, ranked 24th in the world in publications in an analysis of data from the Science Citation Index, 7th in Asia and 42nd in the world by the 2011 QS World University Rankings...

found that Mongoloids were relatively homogenous in 9-bp deletion type of the mtDNA COM/ tRNA^Lys intergenic region.

"Estimates of the Number of Nucleotide Nucleotide Nucleotides are molecules that, when joined together, make up the structural units of RNA and DNA. In addition, nucleotides participate in cellular signaling , and are incorporated into important cofactors of enzymatic reactions... Differences per Site Both Among (d_xy) and within (d_x or d_y) Each of the Three Races, and Net Nucleotide Differences (d) among the Races" made by Satoshi Horai (Japanese Japanese language is a language spoken by over 130 million people in Japan and in Japanese emigrant communities. It is a member of the Japonic language family, which has a number of proposed relationships with other languages, none of which has gained wide acceptance among historical linguists .Japanese is an... :宝来聡) of the Department of Human Genetics, National Institute of Genetics National Institute of Genetics The National Institute of Genetics is a Japanese institution founded in 1949.It hosts the DNA Data Bank of Japan.... , Mishima Mishima, Shizuoka is a city located in eastern Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan. As of 2009, the city has an estimated population of 112,078 and a population density of 1,800 persons per km². The total area is 62.13 km²... , Shizouka Shizuoka Prefecture is a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūbu region on Honshu island. The capital is the city of Shizuoka.- History :Shizuoka prefecture was formed from the former Tōtōmi, Suruga and Izu provinces.The area was the home of the first Tokugawa Shogun... , Japan Japan Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south... .
	Caucasoid (N=20)	Mongoloid (N=71)	Negroid (N=10)
Caucasoid	0.0094	0.0012	0.0028
Mongoloid	0.0128	0.0137	0.0015
Negroid	0.0194	0.0203	0.0238

Criticism

Dr. George W. Gill is a professor of anthropology at the University of Wyoming and Dennis O'Neil professor of anthropology at Palomar College said that "Mongoloid" concept originated with a now disputed typological method of racial classification. All the -oid racial terms (e.g. Mongoloid, Caucasoid, Negroid, etc.) are now often controversial in both technical and non-technical contexts and may sometimes give offense no matter how they are used.

According to Ward O. Conner who wrote a book about John Langson Down, since people with Down syndrome may have epicanthic folds, Down syndrome was widely called "Mongol" or "Mongoloid Idiocy". John Langdon Down

John Langdon Down

John Langdon Haydon Down was a British doctor best known for his description of a relatively common genetic disorder that is now called Down syndrome.-Education:...

, for whom the syndrome was named, said in his book Observations on the Ethnic Classification of Idiots (1866) that the Mongol-like features represented an evolutionary degeneration

Degeneration

The idea of degeneration had significant influence on science, art and politics from the 1850s to the 1950s. The social theory developed consequently from Charles Darwin's Theory of Evolution...

when manifested in Caucasoids. In slang usage the term came to be used as an insult. A shortened version of the term, mong or mongo, is also used in the United Kingdom, mainly Scotland.