Package testing
Encyclopedia
Package testing or packaging testing involves the measurement of a characteristic or property involved with packaging. This includes packaging materials, packaging components, primary packages, shipping container
s, and unit load
s, as well as the associated processes.
Testing measures the effects and interactions of the levels of packaging, the package contents, external forces, and end-use.
It can involve controlled laboratory
experiment
s, subjective evaluations by people, or field testing. Documentation is important: formal test method
, test report, photographs, video, etc.
Testing can be a qualitative or quantitative
procedure. Package testing is often a physical test
. With some types of packaging such as food and pharmaceuticals, chemical test
s are conducted to determine suitability of food contact materials
. Testing programs range from simple tests with little replication
to more thorough experimental designs.
Package testing can extend for the full life cycle. Packages can be tested for their ability to be recycled and their ability to degrade as surface litter
, in a sealed landfill
or under compost
ing conditions.
Packaging tests can be used for:
. pharmaceuticals, medical device
s, dangerous goods
, etc. This may cover both the design qualification, periodic retesting, and control of the packaging processes. Processes may be controlled by a variety of quality management system
s such as HACCP, statistical process control
, validation protocols, ISO 9000, etc.
For unregulated products, testing can be required by a contract or governing specification. The degree of package testing can often be a business decision. Risk management
may involve factors such as
With distribution packaging, one vital packaging development consideration is to determine if a packaged-product is likely to be damaged in the process of getting to the final customer. A primary purpose of a package is to ensure the safety of a product during transportation and storage. If a product is damaged during this process, then the package has failed to accomplish a primary objective and the customer will either return the product or be unlikely to purchase the product altogether.
Package testing is often a formal part of Project management
programs. Packages are usually tested when there is a new packaging design, a revision to a current design, a change in packaging material, and various other reasons. Testing a new packaging design before full scale manufacturing can save time and money.
or allow customers to conduct technical and quality audits. Data from testing is commonly shared. There is sometimes a risk that supplier testing may tend to be self-serving and not completely impartial.
Large companies often have their own packaging staff and a package testing and development laboratory
. Corporate engineers know their products, manufacturing capabilities, logistics system, and their customers best. Cost reduction of existing products and cost avoidance for new products have been documented.
Another option is to use a paid consultant
, Independent contractor
, and third-party independent testing laboratory. They are commonly chosen for specialized expertise, for access to certain test equipment, for surge projects, or where independent testing is otherwise required. Many have certifications and accreditations: ISO 9000, ISO/IEC 17025
, and various governing agencies.
Governments and regulators publish some packaging test methods. There are also many corporate test standards in use. A review of technical literature and patents provides good options to consider for test procedures.
Researchers are not restricted to the use of published standards but can modify existing test methods or develop procedures specific to their particular needs. If a test is conducted with a deviation from a published test method or if a new method is employed, the test report must fully disclose the procedure.
When a final package design is complete, the specifications for the component materials needs to be communicated to suppliers. Packaging materials testing is often needed to identify the critical material characteristics and engineering tolerances. These are used to prepare and enforce specifications.
For example, shrink film data might include: tensile strength
(MD and CD), elongation, Elastic modulus
, surface energy
, thickness, Moisture vapor transmission rate
, Oxygen transmission rate
, heat seal strength, heat sealing conditions, heat shrinking conditions, etc. Average and process capability
are often provided. The chemical properties related for use as Food contact materials may be necessary.
The regulations for child-resistant packaging
require a test protocol that involves children. Samples of the test packages are given to a prescribed population of children. With specified 50-child panels, a high percentage must be unable to open a test package within 5 minutes.
Adults are also tested for their ability to open a C-R package.
Consumer packages are often evaluated by focus group
s. People evaluate the package features in a room monitored by video cameras. The consumer responses are treated qualitatively for feedback into the new packaging process.
Some food packagers use organoleptic
evaluations. People use their senses (taste, smell, etc.) to determine if a package component has tainted the food in the package.
A new package may be evaluated in a test market
that uses people to try the packages at home. Consumers have the opportunity to buy a product, perhaps with a coupon or discount. Return post cards or internet
sites provide feedback to package developers. Perhaps the most critical feedback is repeated sales items in the new package. Packaging evaluations are an important part of Marketing research
.
Legibility of text on packaging and labels is always subjective due to the inherent variations of people. Efforts have been made to help better quantify this by people in a laboratory: still using people for the evaluation but also employing a test apparatus to help reduce variability.
Some laboratory tests are conducted but still result in an observation
by people. Some test procedures call for a judgment by test engineers whether or not pre-established acceptance criteria has been met.
based products are strongly affected by their moisture content: Relative humidity
needs to be controlled. Plastic products are often strongly affected by temperature
.
Conditions of 23°C (73.4°F) and 50% relative humidity are common but other standard testing conditions are also published in material and package test standards. Engineering tolerances for the conditions are also specified. Often the package is conditioned to the specified environment and tested under those conditions. This can be in a conditioned room or in a chamber enclosing the test. With some testing, the package is conditioned to a specified environment, then is removed to ambient conditions and quickly tested. The test report needs to state the actual conditions used.
Engineers have found it important to know the effects of the full range of expected conditions on package performance. This can be through investigating published technical literature, obtaining supplier documentation, or by conducting controlled tests at diverse conditions.
of a package and its contents. This is particularly important for foods, pharmaceuticals, some chemicals, and a variety of products. The testing us usually product specific: the mechanisms of degradation are often different. Exposures to expected and elevated temperatures and humidities are commonly used for shelf life testing. The ability of packaging to control product degradation is frequently a subject of laboratory and field evaluations.
and penetration of gasses is vital for many types of products. Tests are often conducted on the packaging materials but also on the completed packages, sometimes after being subjected to flexing, handling, vibration, or temperature.
of metals, polymer degradation
, and weather testing of polymers
. Several types of accelerated aging
of packaging and materials can be accomplished in a laboratory.
Exposure to elevated temperatures is accelerates some degradation mechanisms. An Arrhenius equation
is often used to correlate certain chemical reactions at different temperatures, based on the proper choice of Q10 (temperature coefficient)
s.
As with any laboratory testing, validating field trials are important.
s are used to test the ability of a package to withstand low pressures. This can be to:
Testing also determines the effectiveness of package cushioning
to isolate fragile products from shock
. Instrumentation
is used to measure the shock transmitted to a cushioned product.
s to protect their contents from exposure to temperature flutuations can be measured in a laboratory. The testing can be of empty containers or of full containers with appropriate jell or ice pack
s, contents, etc. Ovens, freezers, and environmental chambers are commonly used for this and other types of packaging.
Digital data logger
s are used to measure temperatures experienced in different distribution systems. This data is sometimes used to develop unique test methods for that distribution system.
is encountered during shipping (vehicle vibration, rough roads, etc.) and movement on conveyors. Potential vibration damage may include:
The ability of a package to withstand these vibrations and to protect the contents can be measured by several laboratory test procedures. Some allow searching for the particular frequencies of vibration that have potential for damage. Modal testing
methodologies are sometimes employed. Others use specified bands of random vibration to better represent complex vibrations measured in field studies of distribution environments.
Dynamic compression is sometimes tested by shock or impact testing with an additional load to crush the test package. Dynamic compression also takes place in stacked vibration testing.
loads, bulk boxes, wooden box
es, and crate
s can be evaluated by many of the other test procedures previously listed. In addition, some special test methods are available for these larger loads.
systems. Some test the general ruggedness of the shipping container while others have been shown to reproduce the types of damage encountered in distribution. Some base the type and severity of testing on formal studies of the distribution environment: instrumentation
, data loggers, and observation. Test cycles with these docmented elements better simulate parts of certain logistics shipping environments.
, frozen food
s, irradiated foods, fresh fish, canned foods, etc have regulatory requirements and special packaging needs. Package testing often relates to:
supplies, etc, have special user requirements and is highly regulated. Barrier properties, durability, visibility, sterility and strength need to be controlled; usually with documented test results for initial designs and for production.
Assurance of sterility and suitability for use are critical. For example, medical devices and products are often sterilized in the package. The sterility must be maintained throughout distribution to allow immediate use by physicians. A series of special packaging tests is used to measure the ability of the package to maintain sterility. Verification and validation
protocols are rigidly maintained.
is required. The testing is based on the packing group (hazard level) of the contents, the quantity of material, and the type of container.
Shipping container
A shipping container is a container with strength suitable to withstand shipment, storage, and handling. Shipping containers range from large reusable steel boxes used for intermodal shipments to the ubiquitous corrugated boxes...
s, and unit load
Unit load
A unit load combines individual items or items in shipping containers into a single "unit" that can be moved easily with pallet jack or forklift truck...
s, as well as the associated processes.
Testing measures the effects and interactions of the levels of packaging, the package contents, external forces, and end-use.
It can involve controlled laboratory
Laboratory
A laboratory is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific research, experiments, and measurement may be performed. The title of laboratory is also used for certain other facilities where the processes or equipment used are similar to those in scientific laboratories...
experiment
Experiment
An experiment is a methodical procedure carried out with the goal of verifying, falsifying, or establishing the validity of a hypothesis. Experiments vary greatly in their goal and scale, but always rely on repeatable procedure and logical analysis of the results...
s, subjective evaluations by people, or field testing. Documentation is important: formal test method
Test method
A test method is a definitive procedure that produces a test result.A test can be considered as technical operation that consists of determination of one or more characteristics of a given product, process or service according to a specified procedure. Often a test is part of an experiment.The test...
, test report, photographs, video, etc.
Testing can be a qualitative or quantitative
Quantitative property
A quantitative property is one that exists in a range of magnitudes, and can therefore be measured with a number. Measurements of any particular quantitative property are expressed as a specific quantity, referred to as a unit, multiplied by a number. Examples of physical quantities are distance,...
procedure. Package testing is often a physical test
Physical test
A physical test is a qualitative or quantitative procedure that consists of determination of one or more characteristics of a given product, process or service according to a specified procedure...
. With some types of packaging such as food and pharmaceuticals, chemical test
Chemical test
In chemistry, a chemical test is a qualitative or quantitative procedure designed to prove the existence of, or to quantify, a chemical compound or chemical group with the aid of a specific reagent...
s are conducted to determine suitability of food contact materials
Food contact materials
Food contact materials are materials that are intended to be in contact with food. These can be things that are quite obvious like a glass, a can for soft drinks, but also machinery in a food factory or a coffee machine....
. Testing programs range from simple tests with little replication
Replication (statistics)
In engineering, science, and statistics, replication is the repetition of an experimental condition so that the variability associated with the phenomenon can be estimated. ASTM, in standard E1847, defines replication as "the repetition of the set of all the treatment combinations to be compared in...
to more thorough experimental designs.
Package testing can extend for the full life cycle. Packages can be tested for their ability to be recycled and their ability to degrade as surface litter
Litter
Litter consists of waste products such as containers, papers, wrappers or faeces which have been disposed of without consent. Litter can also be used as a verb...
, in a sealed landfill
Landfill
A landfill site , is a site for the disposal of waste materials by burial and is the oldest form of waste treatment...
or under compost
Compost
Compost is organic matter that has been decomposed and recycled as a fertilizer and soil amendment. Compost is a key ingredient in organic farming. At its most essential, the process of composting requires simply piling up waste outdoors and waiting for the materials to break down from anywhere...
ing conditions.
Purposes
Packaging testing might have a variety of purposes, such as:- Determine if, or verify that, the requirements of a specification, regulationRegulationRegulation is administrative legislation that constitutes or constrains rights and allocates responsibilities. It can be distinguished from primary legislation on the one hand and judge-made law on the other...
, or contractContractA contract is an agreement entered into by two parties or more with the intention of creating a legal obligation, which may have elements in writing. Contracts can be made orally. The remedy for breach of contract can be "damages" or compensation of money. In equity, the remedy can be specific...
are met - Decide if a new product developmentNew product developmentIn business and engineering, new product development is the term used to describe the complete process of bringing a new product to market. A product is a set of benefits offered for exchange and can be tangible or intangible...
program is on track: Demonstrate proof of conceptProof of conceptA proof of concept or a proof of principle is a realization of a certain method or idea to demonstrate its feasibility, or a demonstration in principle, whose purpose is to verify that some concept or theory that has the potential of being used... - Provide standard dataDataThe term data refers to qualitative or quantitative attributes of a variable or set of variables. Data are typically the results of measurements and can be the basis of graphs, images, or observations of a set of variables. Data are often viewed as the lowest level of abstraction from which...
for other scientific, engineering, and quality assuranceQuality AssuranceQuality assurance, or QA for short, is the systematic monitoring and evaluation of the various aspects of a project, service or facility to maximize the probability that minimum standards of quality are being attained by the production process...
functions - Validate suitability for end-use
- Provide a basis for technical communicationTechnical communicationTechnical communication is a method of researching and creating information about technical processes or products directed to an audience through media. The information must be relevant to the intended audience. Technical communicators often work collaboratively to create products for various...
- Provide a technical means of comparison of several options
- Provide evidenceEvidenceEvidence in its broadest sense includes everything that is used to determine or demonstrate the truth of an assertion. Giving or procuring evidence is the process of using those things that are either presumed to be true, or were themselves proven via evidence, to demonstrate an assertion's truth...
in legal proceedings: product liabilityProduct liabilityProduct liability is the area of law in which manufacturers, distributors, suppliers, retailers, and others who make products available to the public are held responsible for the injuries those products cause...
, patents, product claims, etc. - Help solve problems with current packaging
- Help identify potential cost savings in packaging
Packaging tests can be used for:
- Subjecting packages (and contents) to stresses and dynamics found in the field
- Reproducing the types of damage to packages and contents found in actual shipments
- Controlling the uniformity of production of packages or components
Importance of testing
For some types of products, package testing is mandated by regulations: foodFood
Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for the body. It is usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals...
. pharmaceuticals, medical device
Medical device
A medical device is a product which is used for medical purposes in patients, in diagnosis, therapy or surgery . Whereas medicinal products achieve their principal action by pharmacological, metabolic or immunological means. Medical devices act by other means like physical, mechanical, thermal,...
s, dangerous goods
Dangerous goods
Dangerous goods are solids, liquids, or gases that can harm people, other living organisms, property, or the environment. They are often subject to chemical regulations. "HazMat teams" are personnel specially trained to handle dangerous goods...
, etc. This may cover both the design qualification, periodic retesting, and control of the packaging processes. Processes may be controlled by a variety of quality management system
Quality management system
A quality management system can be expressed as the organizational structure, procedures, processes and resources needed to implement quality management.-Elements of a Quality Management System:# Organizational structure# Responsibilities# Methods...
s such as HACCP, statistical process control
Statistical process control
Statistical process control is the application of statistical methods to the monitoring and control of a process to ensure that it operates at its full potential to produce conforming product. Under SPC, a process behaves predictably to produce as much conforming product as possible with the least...
, validation protocols, ISO 9000, etc.
For unregulated products, testing can be required by a contract or governing specification. The degree of package testing can often be a business decision. Risk management
Risk management
Risk management is the identification, assessment, and prioritization of risks followed by coordinated and economical application of resources to minimize, monitor, and control the probability and/or impact of unfortunate events or to maximize the realization of opportunities...
may involve factors such as
- costs of packaging
- costs of package testing
- value of contents being shipped
- value of customer’s good will
- product liability exposure
- other potential costs of inadequate packaging
- etc.
With distribution packaging, one vital packaging development consideration is to determine if a packaged-product is likely to be damaged in the process of getting to the final customer. A primary purpose of a package is to ensure the safety of a product during transportation and storage. If a product is damaged during this process, then the package has failed to accomplish a primary objective and the customer will either return the product or be unlikely to purchase the product altogether.
Package testing is often a formal part of Project management
Project management
Project management is the discipline of planning, organizing, securing, and managing resources to achieve specific goals. A project is a temporary endeavor with a defined beginning and end , undertaken to meet unique goals and objectives, typically to bring about beneficial change or added value...
programs. Packages are usually tested when there is a new packaging design, a revision to a current design, a change in packaging material, and various other reasons. Testing a new packaging design before full scale manufacturing can save time and money.
Laboratory affiliation
Many suppliers or vendors offer limited material and package testing as a free service to customers. It is common for packagers to partner with reputable suppliers: Many suppliers have certified quality management systems such as ISO 9000ISO 9000
The ISO 9000 family of standards relates to quality management systems and is designed to help organizations ensure they meet the needs of customers and other stakeholders . The standards are published by ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, and available through National...
or allow customers to conduct technical and quality audits. Data from testing is commonly shared. There is sometimes a risk that supplier testing may tend to be self-serving and not completely impartial.
Large companies often have their own packaging staff and a package testing and development laboratory
Laboratory
A laboratory is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific research, experiments, and measurement may be performed. The title of laboratory is also used for certain other facilities where the processes or equipment used are similar to those in scientific laboratories...
. Corporate engineers know their products, manufacturing capabilities, logistics system, and their customers best. Cost reduction of existing products and cost avoidance for new products have been documented.
Another option is to use a paid consultant
Consultant
A consultant is a professional who provides professional or expert advice in a particular area such as management, accountancy, the environment, entertainment, technology, law , human resources, marketing, emergency management, food production, medicine, finance, life management, economics, public...
, Independent contractor
Independent contractor
An independent contractor is a natural person, business, or corporation that provides goods or services to another entity under terms specified in a contract or within a verbal agreement. Unlike an employee, an independent contractor does not work regularly for an employer but works as and when...
, and third-party independent testing laboratory. They are commonly chosen for specialized expertise, for access to certain test equipment, for surge projects, or where independent testing is otherwise required. Many have certifications and accreditations: ISO 9000, ISO/IEC 17025
ISO/IEC 17025
ISO/IEC 17025 is the main standard used by testing and calibration laboratories. Originally known as ISO/IEC Guide 25, ISO/IEC 17025 was initially issued by the International Organization for Standardization in 1999. There are many commonalities with the ISO 9000 standard, but ISO/IEC 17025 adds in...
, and various governing agencies.
Procedures
Several standards organizations publish test methods for package testing. Included are:- International Organization for StandardizationInternational Organization for StandardizationThe International Organization for Standardization , widely known as ISO, is an international standard-setting body composed of representatives from various national standards organizations. Founded on February 23, 1947, the organization promulgates worldwide proprietary, industrial and commercial...
, ISO - ASTM InternationalASTM InternationalASTM International, known until 2001 as the American Society for Testing and Materials , is an international standards organization that develops and publishes voluntary consensus technical standards for a wide range of materials, products, systems, and services...
- European Committee for StandardizationEuropean Committee for StandardizationThe European Committee for Standardization or Comité Européen de Normalisation , is a non-profit organisation whose mission is to foster the European economy in global trading, the welfare of European citizens and the environment by providing an efficient infrastructure to interested parties for...
. CEN - TAPPITAPPITAPPI is a registered not-for-profit, international Non-Governmental Organization of about 14,000 member engineers, scientists, managers, academics and others involved in the areas of pulp, and paper...
- Military Standards
- International Safe Transit Association
- etc.
Governments and regulators publish some packaging test methods. There are also many corporate test standards in use. A review of technical literature and patents provides good options to consider for test procedures.
Researchers are not restricted to the use of published standards but can modify existing test methods or develop procedures specific to their particular needs. If a test is conducted with a deviation from a published test method or if a new method is employed, the test report must fully disclose the procedure.
Materials testing
The basis of packaging design and performance is the component materials. The physical properties, and sometimes chemical properties, of the materials need to be communicated to packaging engineers to aid in the design process. Suppliers publish data sheets and other technical communications that include the typical or average relevant physical properties and the test method these are based upon. Sometimes these are adequate. Other times, additional material and component testing is required by the packager or supplier to better define certain characteristics.When a final package design is complete, the specifications for the component materials needs to be communicated to suppliers. Packaging materials testing is often needed to identify the critical material characteristics and engineering tolerances. These are used to prepare and enforce specifications.
For example, shrink film data might include: tensile strength
Tensile strength
Ultimate tensile strength , often shortened to tensile strength or ultimate strength, is the maximum stress that a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before necking, which is when the specimen's cross-section starts to significantly contract...
(MD and CD), elongation, Elastic modulus
Elastic modulus
An elastic modulus, or modulus of elasticity, is the mathematical description of an object or substance's tendency to be deformed elastically when a force is applied to it...
, surface energy
Surface energy
Surface energy quantifies the disruption of intermolecular bonds that occur when a surface is created. In the physics of solids, surfaces must be intrinsically less energetically favorable than the bulk of a material, otherwise there would be a driving force for surfaces to be created, removing...
, thickness, Moisture vapor transmission rate
Moisture Vapor Transmission Rate
Moisture vapor transmission rate , also water vapor transmission rate , is a measure of the passage of water vapor through a substance....
, Oxygen transmission rate
Oxygen Transmission Rate
Oxygen transmission rate is the measurement of the amount of oxygen gas that passes through a substance over a given period. It is mostly carried out on non-porous materials, where the mode of transport is diffusion, but there are a growing number of applications where the transmission rate also...
, heat seal strength, heat sealing conditions, heat shrinking conditions, etc. Average and process capability
Process capability
A process is a unique combination of tools, materials, methods, and people engaged in producing a measurable output; for example a manufacturing line for machine parts...
are often provided. The chemical properties related for use as Food contact materials may be necessary.
Testing with people
Some types of package testing do not use scientific instruments but use people for the evaluation.The regulations for child-resistant packaging
Child-resistant packaging
Child-resistant packaging or C-R packaging is special packaging used to reduce the risk of children ingesting dangerous items. This is often accomplished by the use of a special safety cap. It is required by regulation for prescription drugs, over-the-counter medications, pesticides, and household...
require a test protocol that involves children. Samples of the test packages are given to a prescribed population of children. With specified 50-child panels, a high percentage must be unable to open a test package within 5 minutes.
Adults are also tested for their ability to open a C-R package.
Consumer packages are often evaluated by focus group
Focus group
A focus group is a form of qualitative research in which a group of people are asked about their perceptions, opinions, beliefs and attitudes towards a product, service, concept, advertisement, idea, or packaging...
s. People evaluate the package features in a room monitored by video cameras. The consumer responses are treated qualitatively for feedback into the new packaging process.
Some food packagers use organoleptic
Organoleptic
Organoleptic is an adjective used to refer to the aspects of food or other substances as experienced by the senses, including taste, sight, smell, and touch.-USDA uses:...
evaluations. People use their senses (taste, smell, etc.) to determine if a package component has tainted the food in the package.
A new package may be evaluated in a test market
Test market
A test market, in the field of business and marketing, is a geographic region or demographic group used to gauge the viability of a product or service in the mass market prior to a wide scale roll-out...
that uses people to try the packages at home. Consumers have the opportunity to buy a product, perhaps with a coupon or discount. Return post cards or internet
Internet
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite to serve billions of users worldwide...
sites provide feedback to package developers. Perhaps the most critical feedback is repeated sales items in the new package. Packaging evaluations are an important part of Marketing research
Marketing research
Marketing research is "the function that links the consumer, customer, and public to the marketer through information — information used to identify and define marketing opportunities and problems; generate, refine, and evaluate marketing actions; monitor marketing performance; and improve...
.
Legibility of text on packaging and labels is always subjective due to the inherent variations of people. Efforts have been made to help better quantify this by people in a laboratory: still using people for the evaluation but also employing a test apparatus to help reduce variability.
Some laboratory tests are conducted but still result in an observation
Observation
Observation is either an activity of a living being, such as a human, consisting of receiving knowledge of the outside world through the senses, or the recording of data using scientific instruments. The term may also refer to any data collected during this activity...
by people. Some test procedures call for a judgment by test engineers whether or not pre-established acceptance criteria has been met.
Relevant standards
- ASTM D7298 Test Method for Measurement of Comparative Legibility by Means of Polarizing Filter Instrumentation.
- ASTM E460 Practice for Determining Effect of Packaging on Food and Beverage Products During Storage
- ASTM E619 Practice for Evaluating Foreign Odors in Paper Packaging
- ASTM E1870 Test Method for Odor and Taste Transfer from Polymeric Packaging Film
- ASTM 2609 Test Method for Odor and Flavor Transfer from Rigid Polymeric Packaging
- ISO 16820 Sensory Analysis - Methodology - Sequential Analysis
- ISO 5495 Sensory Analysis - Methodology - Paired Comparisons
- ISO 13302 Sensory Analysis - Methods for assessing modifications to the flavour of foodstuffs due to packaging
Conditioning, testing atmosphere
The environmental conditions of testing are critical. The measured performance of many packages is affected by the conditioning and testing atmospheres. For example, paperPaper
Paper is a thin material mainly used for writing upon, printing upon, drawing or for packaging. It is produced by pressing together moist fibers, typically cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets....
based products are strongly affected by their moisture content: Relative humidity
Relative humidity
Relative humidity is a term used to describe the amount of water vapor in a mixture of air and water vapor. It is defined as the partial pressure of water vapor in the air-water mixture, given as a percentage of the saturated vapor pressure under those conditions...
needs to be controlled. Plastic products are often strongly affected by temperature
Temperature
Temperature is a physical property of matter that quantitatively expresses the common notions of hot and cold. Objects of low temperature are cold, while various degrees of higher temperatures are referred to as warm or hot...
.
Conditions of 23°C (73.4°F) and 50% relative humidity are common but other standard testing conditions are also published in material and package test standards. Engineering tolerances for the conditions are also specified. Often the package is conditioned to the specified environment and tested under those conditions. This can be in a conditioned room or in a chamber enclosing the test. With some testing, the package is conditioned to a specified environment, then is removed to ambient conditions and quickly tested. The test report needs to state the actual conditions used.
Engineers have found it important to know the effects of the full range of expected conditions on package performance. This can be through investigating published technical literature, obtaining supplier documentation, or by conducting controlled tests at diverse conditions.
Relevant Standards
- ASTM D4332- Standard Practice for Conditioning Containers, Packages, or Packaging Components for Testing
- ASTM E171- Standard Specification for Standard Atmospheres for Conditioning and Testing Flexible Barrier Materials
Degradation of product
Laboratory tests can help determine the expected shelf lifeShelf life
Shelf life is the length of time that food, drink, medicine, chemicals, and many other perishable items are given before they are considered unsuitable for sale, use, or consumption...
of a package and its contents. This is particularly important for foods, pharmaceuticals, some chemicals, and a variety of products. The testing us usually product specific: the mechanisms of degradation are often different. Exposures to expected and elevated temperatures and humidities are commonly used for shelf life testing. The ability of packaging to control product degradation is frequently a subject of laboratory and field evaluations.
Relevant tests
- ASTM E2454 Standard Guide for Sensory Evaluation Methods to Determine the Sensory Shelf -life of Consumer Products
- DoD 4140.27M Shelf Life Management Manual, 2000
- ISO 11987 Opthalmic Optics, Contact Lenses, Determination of Shelf Life
Barrier Properties
Many products degrade with exposure to the atmosphere: foods, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, etc. The ability of a package to control the permeationPermeation
Permeation, in physics and engineering, is the penetration of a permeate through a solid, and is related to a material's intrinsic permeability...
and penetration of gasses is vital for many types of products. Tests are often conducted on the packaging materials but also on the completed packages, sometimes after being subjected to flexing, handling, vibration, or temperature.
Degradation of Packages
Packages can degrade with exposure to temperature, humidity, time, sterlization (steam, radiation, gas, etc.), sunlight, and other environmental factors. For some types of packaging, it is common to test for possible corrosionCorrosion
Corrosion is the disintegration of an engineered material into its constituent atoms due to chemical reactions with its surroundings. In the most common use of the word, this means electrochemical oxidation of metals in reaction with an oxidant such as oxygen...
of metals, polymer degradation
Polymer degradation
Polymer degradation is a change in the properties—tensile strength, colour, shape, etc.—of a polymer or polymer-based product under the influence of one or more environmental factors such as heat, light or chemicals such as acids, alkalis and some salts...
, and weather testing of polymers
Weather testing of polymers
Weather testing of polymers is the controlled polymer degradation and polymer coating degradation under lab or natural conditions.Just like erosion of rocks, natural phenomena can cause degradation in polymer systems. The elements of most concern to polymers are Ultraviolet radiation, moisture and...
. Several types of accelerated aging
Accelerated aging
Accelerated aging is testing that uses aggravated conditions of heat, oxygen, sunlight, vibration, etc. to speed up the normal aging processes of items. It is used to help determine the long term effects of expected levels of stress within a shorter time, usually in a laboratory by controlled...
of packaging and materials can be accomplished in a laboratory.
Exposure to elevated temperatures is accelerates some degradation mechanisms. An Arrhenius equation
Arrhenius equation
The Arrhenius equation is a simple, but remarkably accurate, formula for the temperature dependence of the reaction rate constant, and therefore, rate of a chemical reaction. The equation was first proposed by the Dutch chemist J. H. van 't Hoff in 1884; five years later in 1889, the Swedish...
is often used to correlate certain chemical reactions at different temperatures, based on the proper choice of Q10 (temperature coefficient)
Q10 (temperature coefficient)
The Q10 temperature coefficient is a measure of the rate of change of a biological or chemical system as a consequence of increasing the temperature by 10 °C. There are many examples where the Q10 is used, one being the calculation of the nerve conduction velocity and another being calculating the...
s.
As with any laboratory testing, validating field trials are important.
Relevant tests
- ASTM D3045 Standard Practice for Heat Aging of Plastics without Load
- ASTM F1640 Standard Guide for Packaging Materials for Foods to be Irradiated
- ASTM F1980– Standard Guide for Accelerated Aging of Sterile Medical Device Packages
- ASTM G151 Standard Practice for Exposing Non-metallic Materials in Accelerated Test Devices that are Laboratory Light Sources
Vacuum testing
Vacuum chamberVacuum chamber
A vacuum chamber is a rigid enclosure from which air and other gases are removed by a vacuum pump. The resulting low pressure, commonly referred to as a vacuum, allows researchers to conduct physical experiments or to test mechanical devices which must operate in outer space...
s are used to test the ability of a package to withstand low pressures. This can be to:
- Determine the ability of packaes to withstand low pressures that might be encountered. this could be in an air shipment or high altitutde truck shipment.
- A laboratory vacuum places controlled stress a sealed package to test the strength of seals, the tendency for leakage, and the ability to retain sterility.
Relevant tests
- ASTM D3078- Standard Test Method for Determination of Leaks in Flexible Packaging by Bubble Emission
- ASTM D4991- Standard Test Method for Leakage Testing of Empty Rigid Containers by Vacuum Method
- ASTM D6653- Standard Test Methods for Determining the Effects of High Altitude on Packaging Systems by Vacuum Method
- ASTM D6834- Standard Test Method for Determining Product Leakage from a Package with a Mechanical Pump Dispenser
- ASTM E493- Standard Test Methods for Leaks Using the Mass Spectrometer Leak Detector in the Inside-Out Testing Mode
- ASTM F2338- Standard Test Method for Nondestructive Detection of Leaks in Packages by Vacuum Decay Method
- ASTM F2391- Standard Test Method for Measuring Package and Seal Integrity Using Helium as the Tracer Gas
Shock and impact
Both primary (consumer) packages and shipping containers have a risk of being dropped or being impacted by other items. Package integrity and product protection are important packaging functions. Tests are conducted to measure the resistance of packages and products to controlled laboratory shock and impact.Testing also determines the effectiveness of package cushioning
Cushioning
Package cushioning is used to help protect fragile items during shipment. It is common for a transport package to be dropped, kicked, and impacted: These events may produce potentially damaging shocks. Transportation vibration from conveyors, trucks, railroads, or aircraft can also damage some...
to isolate fragile products from shock
Shock (mechanics)
A mechanical or physical shock is a sudden acceleration or deceleration caused, for example, by impact, drop, kick, earthquake, or explosion. Shock is a transient physical excitation....
. Instrumentation
Instrumentation
Instrumentation is defined as the art and science of measurement and control of process variables within a production, or manufacturing area....
is used to measure the shock transmitted to a cushioned product.
Relevant tests
- ASTM D880- Standard Test Method for Impact Testing for Shipping Containers and Systems
- ATTM D1596- Standard Test Method for Dynamic Shock Cushioning Characteristics of Packaging Materials
- ASTM D3332- Standard Test Methods for Mechanical-Shock Fragility of Products, Using Shock Machines
- ASTM D4003- Standard Test Methods for Programmable Horizontal Impact Test for Shipping Containers and Systems
- ASTM D5265- Standard Test Method for Bridge Impact Testing
- ASTM D5276- Standard Test Method for Drop Test of Loaded Containers by Free Fall
- ASTM D5277- Standard Test Method for Performing Programmed Horizontal Impacts Using an Inclined Impact Tester
- ASTM D5487- Standard Test Method for Simulated Drop of Loaded Containers by Shock Machines
- ASTM D6344- Standard Test Method for Concentrated Impacts to Transport Packages
- ASTM D6537- Standard Practice for Instrumented Package Shock Testing For Determination of Package Performance
Package Insulation
Many packages are used for products that are sensitive to temperature. The abiliy of insulated shipping containerInsulated shipping container
Insulated shipping containers are a type of packaging used to ship temperature sensitive products such as foods, pharmaceuticals, and chemicals. They are used as part of a cold chain to help maintain product freshness and efficacy...
s to protect their contents from exposure to temperature flutuations can be measured in a laboratory. The testing can be of empty containers or of full containers with appropriate jell or ice pack
Ice pack
An ice pack or gel pack is a plastic sac of ice, refrigerant gel or liquid, or, in an emergency, even frozen vegetables. The refrigerant, usually non-toxic, can absorb a considerable amount of heat, since its enthalpy of fusion is high...
s, contents, etc. Ovens, freezers, and environmental chambers are commonly used for this and other types of packaging.
Digital data logger
Data logger
A data logger is an electronic device that records data over time or in relation to location either with a built in instrument or sensor or via external instruments and sensors. Increasingly, but not entirely, they are based on a digital processor...
s are used to measure temperatures experienced in different distribution systems. This data is sometimes used to develop unique test methods for that distribution system.
Relevant tests
- ASTM D3103-Standard Test Method for Thermal Insulation Performance of Distribution Packages
- ISTA Guide 5B- Focused Simulation Guide for Thermal Performance Testing of Temperature Controlled Transport Packaging
Vibration
VibrationVibration
Vibration refers to mechanical oscillations about an equilibrium point. The oscillations may be periodic such as the motion of a pendulum or random such as the movement of a tire on a gravel road.Vibration is occasionally "desirable"...
is encountered during shipping (vehicle vibration, rough roads, etc.) and movement on conveyors. Potential vibration damage may include:
- fractures and fatigueFatigue (material)'In materials science, fatigue is the progressive and localized structural damage that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic loading. The nominal maximum stress values are less than the ultimate tensile stress limit, and may be below the yield stress limit of the material.Fatigue occurs...
damage - loose wires, screw caps, etc
- bruises on soft products (fruit, etc)
- surface abrasion
- etc
The ability of a package to withstand these vibrations and to protect the contents can be measured by several laboratory test procedures. Some allow searching for the particular frequencies of vibration that have potential for damage. Modal testing
Modal testing
Modal testing is a form of vibration testing of an object whereby the natural frequencies, modal masses, modal damping ratios and mode shapes of the object under test are determined.A modal test consists of an acquisition phase and an analysis phase...
methodologies are sometimes employed. Others use specified bands of random vibration to better represent complex vibrations measured in field studies of distribution environments.
Relevant tests
- ASTM D999- Standard Test Methods for Vibration Testing of Shipping Containers
- ASTM D3580-Standard Test Methods for Vibration (Vertical Linear Motion) Test of Products
- ASTM D4728- Standard Test Method for Random Vibration Testing of Shipping Containers
- ASTM D5112- Standard Test Method for Vibration (Horizontal Linear Sinusoidal Motion) Test of Products
- ASTM D7387- Standard Test Method for Vibration Testing of Intermediate Bulk Containers (IBCs) Used for Shipping Liquid Hazardous Materials (Dangerous Goods)
Compression
Compression testing relates to stacking or crushing of packages, particularly shipping containers. It usually measures of the force required to crush a package, stack of packages, or a unit load. Packages can be empty or filled as for shipment. A force-deflection curve used to obtain the peak load or other desired points. Other tests use a constant load and measure the time to failure or to a critical deflection.Dynamic compression is sometimes tested by shock or impact testing with an additional load to crush the test package. Dynamic compression also takes place in stacked vibration testing.
Large loads
Large palletPallet
A pallet , sometimes called a skid, is a flat transport structure that supports goods in a stable fashion while being lifted by a forklift, pallet jack, front loader or other jacking device. A pallet is the structural foundation of a unit load which allows handling and storage efficiencies...
loads, bulk boxes, wooden box
Wooden box
A wooden box is a container made of wood for storage or as a shipping container.Construction may include several types of wood; lumber , plywood, engineered woods, etc...
es, and crate
Crate
A crate is a large shipping container, often made of wood, typically used to transport large, heavy or awkward items. A crate has a self-supporting structure, with or without sheathing. For a wooden container to be a crate, all six of its sides must be put in place to result in the rated strength...
s can be evaluated by many of the other test procedures previously listed. In addition, some special test methods are available for these larger loads.
Relevant tests
- ASTM D5331- Standard Test Method for Evaluation of Mechanical Handling of Unitized Loads Secured with Stretch Wrap Films
- ASTM D5414- Standard Test Method for Evaluation of Horizontal Impact Performance of Load Unitizing Stretch Wrap Films
- ASTM D5415- Standard Test Method for Evaluating Load Containment Performance of Stretch Wrap Films by Vibration Testing
- ASTM D5416- Standard Test Method for Evaluating Abrasion Resistance of Stretch Wrap Films by Vibration Testing
- ASTM D6055- Standard Test Methods for Mechanical Handling of Unitized Loads and Large Shipping Cases and Crates
- ASTM D6179- Standard Test Methods for Rough Handling of Unitized Loads and Large Shipping Cases and Crates
Test Protocols for Shipping Containers
Shipping containers are often subjected to sequential tests involving a combination of individual test methods. A variety of standard test schedules or protocols are available for evaluating transport packaging. They are used to help determine the ability of complete and filled shipping containers to various types of logisticsLogistics
Logistics is the management of the flow of goods between the point of origin and the point of destination in order to meet the requirements of customers or corporations. Logistics involves the integration of information, transportation, inventory, warehousing, material handling, and packaging, and...
systems. Some test the general ruggedness of the shipping container while others have been shown to reproduce the types of damage encountered in distribution. Some base the type and severity of testing on formal studies of the distribution environment: instrumentation
Instrumentation
Instrumentation is defined as the art and science of measurement and control of process variables within a production, or manufacturing area....
, data loggers, and observation. Test cycles with these docmented elements better simulate parts of certain logistics shipping environments.
- ASTM International
- ASTM D4169- Standard Practice for Performance Testing of Shipping Containers and Systems
- ASTM D7386- Standard Practice for Performance Testing of Packages for Single Parcel Delivery Systems
- ISO
- ISO 4180:2009 Packaging - Complete filled transport packages - General rules for the compilation of performance test schedules
- International Safe Transit Association
- Procedure 1A: Packaged-Products weighing 150 lb (68 kg) or Less
- Procedure 1B: Packaged-Products weighing Over 150 lb (68 kg)
- Procedure 1C: Extended Testing for Individual Packaged-Products weighing 150 lb (68 kg) or Less
- Procedure 1D: Extended Testing for Individual Packaged-Products weighing Over 150 lb (68 kg)
- Procedure 1E: Unitized Loads
- Procedure 1G: Packaged-Products weighing 150 lb (68 kg) or Less (Random Vibration)
- Procedure 1H: Packaged-Products weighing Over 150 lb (68 kg) (Random Vibration)
- Procedure 2A: Packaged-Products weighing 150 lb (68 kg) or Less
- Procedure 2B: Packaged-Products weighing over 150 lb (68 kg)
- Procedure 2C: Furniture Packages
- Procedure 2D: Packaged-Products Considered Flat
- Procedure 2E: Packaged-Products Considered Elongated
- Procedure 2F: LTL Shipments (NMFC Item 180)
- Procedure 3A: Packaged-Products for Parcel Delivery System Shipments 70kg (150 lb) or Less (standard, small, flat or elongated)
- Project 3B: Packaged-Products for Less-Than-Truckload (LTL) Shipment
- Procedure 3E: Unitized Loads of Same Product
- Procedure 3F: Packaged Products for Distribution Center to Retail Outlet Shipment 100 lb (45 kg)
- Procedure 3H: Performance Test for Products or Packaged-Products in Mechanically Handled Bulk Transport Containers
- Procedure 3J: Packaged-Products for Club Store Distribution System Shipment
- Procedure 7B: Closed Reusable Transport Containers for Loads of 150 lb (68 kg) or Less
- Procedure 7C: Reusable Intermediate Bulk Containers
- Procedure 7D: Thermal Controlled Transport Packaging for Parcel Delivery System Shipment
Field trials
- Laboratory testing can often help identify shipping container constructions that, in general, should perform well in the field. Of course, laboratory tests cannot fully reproduce the full range of field hazards, their magnitudes, nor their frequency. Field experimentField experimentA field experiment applies the scientific method to experimentally examine an intervention in the real world rather than in the laboratory...
s are often conducted to help validate the laboratory testing.
- The advantage of laboratory testing is that it subjects replicate packages to identical sets of test sequences: a relatively small number of samples often can suffice. Field hazards, by their nature, are highly variable: thus repeated shipments do not receive the same types or magnitudes of drops, vibrations, kicks, impacts, abrasion, etc. Because of this uncontrolled variability, more replicate sample shipments are often necessary.
- Larger scale test markets are used to give additional assurance of performance and acceptability for a new or revised packaged-product. Feedback is carefully obtained and evaluated. Feedback on package performance continues when full production and distribution have been achieved.
Product requirements
In addition, package testing often relates to the specific product inside the package. Some broad categories of products and special package testing considerations follow:Food packaging
Foods categories such as fresh produceProduce
Produce is a generalized term for a group of farm-produced goods and, not limited to fruits and vegetables . More specifically, the term "produce" often implies that the products are fresh and generally in the same state as where they were harvested. In supermarkets the term is also used to refer...
, frozen food
Frozen food
Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved their game and produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down decomposition by turning water to ice, making it...
s, irradiated foods, fresh fish, canned foods, etc have regulatory requirements and special packaging needs. Package testing often relates to:
-
-
- Food safetyFood safetyFood safety is a scientific discipline describing handling, preparation, and storage of food in ways that prevent foodborne illness. This includes a number of routines that should be followed to avoid potentially severe health hazards....
- Compatibility of the package with the food
- Migration of material from the packaging to the food
- Shelf life
- Barrier properties, porosity, package atmosphere, etc
- Special quality assurance needs, good manufacturing practiceGood Manufacturing Practice"Good manufacturing practice" or "GMP" are practices and the systems required to be adapted in pharmaceutical manufacturing, quality control, quality system covering the manufacture and testing of pharmaceuticals or drugs including active pharmaceutical ingredients, diagnostics, foods,...
s, HACCP, validation protocols, etc
- Food safety
-
Pharmaceutical packaging
Packaging for drugs and pharmaceuticals is highly regulated. Special testing needs include:-
-
- Safety of drugs and pharmaceuticals
- Barrier properties
- Shelf life
- Compatibility of package with the drugs
- Sterility
- Tamper resistance, child resistance, etc
- Special quality assurance needs, good manufacturing practices, validation protocols, etc
-
Medical Packaging
Packaging for medical materials, medical devices, health careHealth care
Health care is the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease, illness, injury, and other physical and mental impairments in humans. Health care is delivered by practitioners in medicine, chiropractic, dentistry, nursing, pharmacy, allied health, and other care providers...
supplies, etc, have special user requirements and is highly regulated. Barrier properties, durability, visibility, sterility and strength need to be controlled; usually with documented test results for initial designs and for production.
Assurance of sterility and suitability for use are critical. For example, medical devices and products are often sterilized in the package. The sterility must be maintained throughout distribution to allow immediate use by physicians. A series of special packaging tests is used to measure the ability of the package to maintain sterility. Verification and validation
Verification and Validation
In software project management, software testing, and software engineering, verification and validation is the process of checking that a software system meets specifications and that it fulfills its intended purpose...
protocols are rigidly maintained.
-
- Relevant standards
- ASTM F1585 - Guide for Integrity Testing of Porous Medical Packages
- ASTM D3078 - Standard Test Method for Detection of Leaks in Flexible Packaging (Bubble)
- ASTM F1140 - Standard Test Methods for Internal Pressurization Failure Resistance of Unrestrained Packages
- ASTM F1608 - Standard Test Method for Microbial Ranking of Packaging Materials
- ASTM F1929 - Standard Test Method for Detecting Seal Strength in Porous Medical Packaging by Dye Penetration
- ASTM F2054 - Standard Test Method for Burst Testing of Flexible Package Seals Using Internal Air Pressurization Within Restraining Plates
- ASTM F2095 - Standard Test Methods for Pressure Decay Leak Test for Flexible Packages With and Without Restraining Plates
- ASTM F2096 - Standard Test Method for Detecting Gross Leaks in Medical Packaging by Internal Pressurization
- ASTM F2097 - Standard Guide for Design and Evaluation of Primary Flexible Packaging for Medical Products
- ASTM F2228 - Standard Test Method for Non-Destructive Detection of Leaks in Medical Packaging Which Incorporates Pourous Barrier Material by CO2 Tracer Gas
- ASTM F2391 - Standard Test Method for Measuring Package and Seal Integrity using Helium as the Tracer Gas
- EN 868-1 - Packaging materials and systems for medical devices which are to be sterilized. General requirements and test methods
- ISO 11607-1 - Packaging for terminally sterilized medical devices -- Part 1: Requirements for materials, sterile barrier systems and packaging systems
- Relevant standards
Dangerous Goods
Packaging of hazardous materials, or dangerous goods, are highly regulated. There are some material and construction requirements but also Performance testingPerformance testing
In software engineering, performance testing is in general testing performed to determine how a system performs in terms of responsiveness and stability under a particular workload...
is required. The testing is based on the packing group (hazard level) of the contents, the quantity of material, and the type of container.
-
-
- Relevant standards
- ASTM D4919- Standard Specification for Testing of Hazardous Materials Packaging
- ASTM D7387- Standard Test Method for Vibration Testing of Intermediate Bulk Containers (IBCs) Used for Shipping Liquid Hazardous Materials (Dangerous Goods)
- UN Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous GoodsUN Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous GoodsThe UN Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods are contained in two documents prepared by the Sub-Committee of Experts on the Transport of Dangerous Goods of the United Nations Economic and Social Council . They cover the transport of dangerous goods by all modes of transport except by...
- ISO 16104 - 2003 Packaging - Transport packaging for dangerous goods - Test methods
-
See also
- Data analysisData analysisAnalysis of data is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling data with the goal of highlighting useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting decision making...
- Nondestructive testingNondestructive testingNondestructive testing or Non-destructive testing is a wide group of analysis techniques used in science and industry to evaluate the properties of a material, component or system without causing damage....
- Performance testPerformance testThe performance test or "PT" is a section of the bar exam that is intended to mimic a real-life legal task that future lawyers may face. Of the three parts of most states' bar exams -- MBE, essay, and PT -- the PT is probably the most reflective of how well a candidate will perform outside of an...
- Verification and validationVerification and ValidationIn software project management, software testing, and software engineering, verification and validation is the process of checking that a software system meets specifications and that it fulfills its intended purpose...
Books, General References
- ASTM STP 1294 Durability Testing of Nonmetallic Materials, 1996
- Lockhart, H., and Paine, F.A., "Packaging of Pharmaceuticals and Healthcare Products", 2006, Blackie, ISBN 0-7514-0167-6
- McKinlay, A. H., "Transport Packaging",IoPP, 2004
- Pilchik, R., "Validating Medical Packaging" 2002, ISBN 1-56676-807-1
- Robertson, G. L., "Food Packaging", 2005, ISBN 0-8493-3775-5
- Russel, P G, and Daum, M P, "Product Protection Test Book", IoPP
- Soroka, W, "Fundamentals of Packaging Technology", IoPP, 2002, ISBN 1-930268-25-4
- Yam, K. L., "Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology", John Wiley & Sons, 2009, ISBN 978-0-470-08704-6