Switzerland in the Roman era
Encyclopedia
The history of Switzerland in the Roman era encompasses the roughly six centuries during which the territory of modern Switzerland
was a part of the Roman Republic
and Empire
. It begins with the step-by-step conquest of the area by Roman armies from the 2nd century BC onward and ends with the retreat of Roman forces over the Alps
in the 5th century AD.
The mostly Celtic tribes of the area were subjugated by successive Roman campaigns aimed at control of the strategic routes from Italy across the Alps to the Rhine and into Gaul
, most importantly by Julius Caesar
's defeat of the largest tribal group, the Helvetii
, in 58 BC. Under the Pax Romana
, Switzerland was smoothly integrated into the prospering Empire as the Romans assimilated
the Celtic population, enlisted their aristocracy to engage in local government, built a network of roads connecting their newly established colonial cities and divided up the area among the Roman province
s.
Roman civilization began to retreat from Swiss territory when it became a border area again after the Crisis of the Third Century
. Roman control of most of Switzerland ceased in 401 AD, after which the area began to be occupied by Germanic peoples
.
in the Middle Ages, but its core territories within the natural borders of the Alps
to the South and East, Lake Geneva
and the Rhône
to the west and the Rhine to the north were recognized as a contiguous territory by Julius Caesar
.
This area – the Swiss plateau
– was settled principally by Celtic peoples, of which the five tribes of the Helvetii
were the most numerous, but which also included the Rauraci in north-west Switzerland centered on Basel
, the Allobroges
around Geneva
, and the Nantuates
, Seduni
and Veragri
in the Valais
. Additionally, the Lepontii
, a people of Celtic origin, settled in the Ticino
, and the Raetia
ns controlled the Grisons as well as large areas around it.
, annexed after the Roman victory over the Insubres
in 222 BC. The territory of the Allobroges
around Geneva
came under Roman sway by 121 BC and was incorporated into the province of Gallia Narbonensis
prior to the Gallic Wars
(58–51 BC).
In around 110 BC, two Helvetic tribes under Divico
– the Tigurini
and the Tougeni, sometimes identified with the Teutons
– joined the wandering Germanic
Cimbri
on a march to the West. In the course of the Cimbrian War
they defeated a Roman force under Lucius Cassius Longinus
near Burdigala in 107 BC, but after the Roman victory over the Teutons at Aquae Sextiae
in 102 BC, the Tigurini returned to settle in the Swiss Plateau.
, decided to leave their lands and move to the West, burning their settlements behind them – twelve oppida
, according to Caesar, and some 400 villages. They were decisively beaten by Caesar in the Battle of Bibracte
in 58 BC. After their surrender, Caesar sent the Helvetii home, according them the status of foederati
or Roman allies, but not yet (as has previously been believed) fully subjugating them to Roman sovereignty.
Caesar's policy aimed at controlling the territory west of the Jura
and Rhine, as well as at blocking the potential incursion routes from the East along the Jura. The Raetians, described as savage warriors by Strabo
, continued to launch incursions into the Swiss Plateau and also had to be contained. To that end, Caesar charged the Helvetii and the Rauraci with defending their territory and established two colonies of veterans – one, the Colonia Julia Equestris (now Nyon
) on the shores of Lake Geneva
and the other through Lucius Munatius Plancus
in northwestern Switzerland, preceding the larger Augusta Raurica
founded by Augustus in around 6 AD.
. Concerted and successful efforts to gain control over the Alpine region were undertaken by his successor, Augustus
, as the rapid development of Lugdunum
(Lyon) made the establishment of a safe and direct route from Gaul to Italy a priority.
In 25 BC, an army under Aulus Terentius Varrus Murena wiped out the Salassi
in the Aosta Valley. At some time between 25 and 7 BC – either following the Aosta campaign or, more likely, in the course of the conquest of Raetia
in 15 BC – a campaign also subjugated the Celtic tribes of the Valais and opened the Great St Bernard Pass.
That conquest was a consequence of the Augustan imperative of securing the Imperial borders. To effectively control the Alps
as the shield of northern Italy, Rome needed to control both flanks of the mountain range. Thus it had to extend its power to the Rhine and Danube
, thereby also opening a direct route to Germania
and all of Central Europe. The last obstacle in this path were the Raetians. After a first expedition against them by Publius Silius Nerva
in 16 BC, a more thorough campaign by Drusus
and the later emperor Tiberius
brought Raetia – and thereby all of Switzerland – firmly under Roman control.
The tropaeum alpium, built by Augustus in 7 BC to celebrate his conquest of the Alps, lists among the defeated peoples the tribes of Raetia and of the Valais, but not the Helvetii. It appears that they were absorbed peacefully into the Empire during the first century AD, except for their part in the conflicts of the Year of the Four Emperors
, AD 69.
up until 260 AD, a time of exceptional peace and prosperity. The Pax Romana
was made possible by the protection of well-defended and distant Imperial borders and a peaceful and smooth Romanization
of the local population. The Romans urbanized
the territory with numerous settlements and built a network of high-quality Roman roads connecting them, allowing for the integration of Helvetia into the imperial economy.
While the Roman presence was always strong in the Alps, where the crucial North-South connection had to be kept open, the Swiss plateau
was not really Romanized until decades after the conquest. The principal Roman settlements in Switzerland were the cities of Iulia Equestris (Nyon
), Aventicum
(Avenches
), Augusta Raurica
(Augst
) and Vindonissa
(Windisch
). Evidence has also been found of almost twenty Roman villages (vici
) established in the 1st to 3rd century AD, as well as hundreds of villa
s of varying sizes built in the western and central part of the Swiss Plateau
. The known vici include:
The colonies of Nyon and Augusta Raurica at first had little cultural influence beyond their immediate surroundings. After Roman military defeats in Germania
in 12–9 BC and 6–9 AD, the frontier was moved back to the Rhine and guarded by eight legions, of which one, originally Legio XIII Gemina
, was based in the permanent camp of Vindonissa
(Windisch
).
Aventicum
(Avenches
) was likely the capital of the Helvetii since its founding at the beginning of the 1st century. In the 40s, it benefited from the traffic brought over the St Bernard pass over a street expanded by Claudius
, and in 71 it acquired the status of a Roman colony and of an allied city. This is believed to have been a favor of Vespasian
for the city in which he had lived for a time, or a measure to better control the Helvetii after the events of 69 by implanting a colony of veterans in their midst.
), then by the procurator of the new province of Raetia
. The Valais
was split from Raetia by Claudius
in AD 43 and merged with the province of Alpes Graiae to form a new province, Alpes Graiae et Poeninae.
As for the Swiss plateau, its western and central part up to Ad Fines (Pfyn
) was administratively part of the province of Belgica and for military purposes part of Germania Superior
. Its eastern part belonged to Raetia.
This division, established by Augustus in 22 BC, was accompanied by a redistribution of tribal settlement areas. It remained essentially unchanged until Diocletian
's reforms in the third century, when parts of Switzerland each belonged to the provinces of Sequania, Vienna
, Raetia Prima, Liguria
and Alpes Graiae et Poeninae.
, elected annually first by all citizens older than 25, and in later times by the city council or ordo decurionum. The 100 members of this council, which corresponded to the Roman Senate
, were selected by the duomviri among former officials or priests according to their wealth, and held office for life.
Augusta Raurica and Aventicum were also the civitates, or capitals, of the non-Roman tribes of the Rauraci and Helvetii
, respectively. In that capacity, the magistrates of Aventicum, as duoviri coloniae Helvetiorum, also governed the entire Helvetic population, which had the legal status of incolae (inhabitants) invested with the Latin Right
. The rights of the Roman coloni
, or colonists, were represented by a special authority, the curatores colonorum Aventicensum ("Heads of the colonists of Aventicum"). Moreover, the Roman citizens of the entire territory established the cives Romani conventus Helvetici ("Association of Roman citizens in Helvetia").
The civitas
(tribal community) of the Helvetii
was similar to that of the Celtic tribes of the Valais
, which were merged into a single civitas Vallensis probably around 40 AD, and given Forum Claudii Vallensium (Martigny) as their capital. Parts of the modern Ticino
belonged to the colony of Comum (Como
), founded in the 1st century AD. On the local level, the basic administrative units were the vici, replacing the Helvetic pagi, or tribes, which were dissolved at the time of colonization. These villages enjoyed a certain autonomy and were governed by popularly elected magistrates (magistri or curatores).
While the governmental system in the central and western part of Switzerland, as described above, is well documented, nothing of substance is known about the political and administrative system in eastern Raetia
. However, records of the time show that a great number of local nobles held political and religious offices in Raetia, indicating that the Romans successfully co-opted the local elite.
Testaments of Roman culture such as baths, floor heating and imported goods (pottery, glass, religious icons and artworks) have been found in even the poorest Roman era dwellings, indicating that Romanization was effective at all levels of society. Roman public baths
were found in all villages, temple
s with integrated theaters – showing animal or gladiator
ial combat – in most.
While the superimposition of Roman culture on the local population appears to have been unproblematic and thorough, the Celtic traditions did not disappear entirely, resulting in a fusion of Roman and local culture that characterized all aspects of society. Latin, the language of government and instruction, only gradually replaced the local Celtic dialects in everyday use. Local artworks and religious icons of the period exhibit influences of ornamental Celtic art
, classical Greco-Roman art and even Oriental styles from the far reaches of the Empire. An important incentive for the local people to Romanize was the perspective of obtaining the various degrees of Roman citizenship
and the rights conferred thereby, including the right to vote, to hold public office and to render military service.
The hundreds of villae found in Switzerland, some very luxurious, attest to the existence of a wealthy and cultured upper class of landowners. Many villae belonged not to Roman immigrants, but to members of the Celtic aristocracy who continued to hold their lands and their rank after the Roman conquest. Of the lower classes, much less is known, although there are inscriptions attesting to the existence of guilds (collegia) of boat skippers, doctors, teachers and traders, as well as to the existence of a trade in slaves
.
of the local tribes was merged – syncretized
– with the Roman religion
. The celtic deities came to be worshiped under the names of their Roman counterparts. Thus Lugus
was replaced by Mercury
, Belenus
by Apollo
, Taranis
by Jupiter
and so forth, in a practice called interpretatio romana by Caesar
, who pioneered it. Roman gods also acquired the names of local gods as epithet
s; thus Mars
was venerated as Mars Caturix, Mercury as Mercurius Cissonius
and Jupiter as Jupiter Poeninus after the god of the Pennine Alps
.
As oriental religions grew more popular in the later Empire – unlike the traditional Roman cults, they promised rewards in the afterlife
– they also percolated into Gaul. Artifacts related to the cults of gods such as Isis
, Osiris
, Serapis
, Kybele, Serapios, Dionysos or Mithras have been found at the site of every Roman settlement in Switzerland.
The great significance of religion in the culture of Roman Switzerland is illustrated by the imposing size and central location of the Roman temples in the cities, as well as by the great number of religious artifacts found by archaeologists. As everywhere in the Empire, the Imperial cult
was practiced in Switzerland; it had a particularly prominent temple in the center of the forum
of Nyon.
communities in Switzerland date after 313, when the religion was officially tolerated with the Edict of Milan
. It is however certain that, as in Gaul, the Christian faith had already had adherents for some time prior to 313.
The first bishop
in Switzerland was either Justinianus, bishop of the Rauricans, in 340 (his historicity is not certain) or Theodorus, bishop of Octodurus, in 381 or earlier. The first Christian religious buildings date to the 4th century; they are found in Geneva
, Chur
and Saint-Maurice, known for the legend of the Theban Legion
.
had brought to Switzerland ended, as elsewhere in the Empire, with the Crisis of the Third Century
. In 260, when the Gallic Empire
briefly seceded from Rome, the emperor Gallienus
withdrew the legions from the Rhine to fight the usurper Ingenuus
, allowing the warlike Alemanni to enter the Swiss plateau. There, cities, villages and most villae were raided or sacked by marauding bands. The numerous caches of coins recovered from the period between 250 and 280 attest to the severity of the crisis. Only the Valais
, shielded by mountains, escaped these predations.
and Constantine
, who rebuilt the roads and built castles (castra
) alongside. Numerous fortifications were built along the Rhine border and further south, providing for a defense in depth. The border fortifications were completed by Valentinian I
in 371, who established a chain of watchtowers along the Rhine from Lake Constance
to Basel
, with each tower no more than 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) away from the next one.
But even these efforts could not restore peace and order in Switzerland, and numerous settlements were abandoned as their inhabitants fled to more defensible places or to the South. Urban culture faded away as the cities of Nyon and Augusta Raurica were permanently abandoned during the 4th century, the stones of their ruins serving to fortify Geneva
and Basel
. Aventicum never recovered from its pillages: Ammianus Marcellinus
noted in around 360 that "the city was once very illustrious, as its half-ruined buildings attest."
The Roman era of Switzerland is traditionally held to have ended in 401 AD, when Stilicho
withdrew all troops from the Rhine. This made way for the subsequent and apparently non-violent takeover of western Switzerland by the Burgundians
(placed there by Flavius Aetius
in 443 as a shield against the invading Huns
) and of Northern and Central Switzerland by the Alamanni
. These settlements established the most important cultural and linguistic division in modern Switzerland: the Burgundian areas eventually became the French-speaking Romandie, while the people in the larger Eastern half – called la suisse alémanique in French – still speak variants of Alemannic German
.
Raetia
maintained its Roman traditions longer than the rest of Switzerland, but most of it was eventually assimilated as well, leaving only a small territory where a Vulgar Latin
dialect, Romansh, is spoken to this day. The assassination of Aetius in 454 and the subsequent retreat of Roman forces to the south of the Alps marked the definitive end of Roman power in Switzerland, and the beginning of the transition to the Middle Ages
.
Switzerland
Switzerland name of one of the Swiss cantons. ; ; ; or ), in its full name the Swiss Confederation , is a federal republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in Western Europe,Or Central Europe depending on the definition....
was a part of the Roman Republic
Roman Republic
The Roman Republic was the period of the ancient Roman civilization where the government operated as a republic. It began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, traditionally dated around 508 BC, and its replacement by a government headed by two consuls, elected annually by the citizens and...
and Empire
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
. It begins with the step-by-step conquest of the area by Roman armies from the 2nd century BC onward and ends with the retreat of Roman forces over the Alps
Alps
The Alps is one of the great mountain range systems of Europe, stretching from Austria and Slovenia in the east through Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Germany to France in the west....
in the 5th century AD.
The mostly Celtic tribes of the area were subjugated by successive Roman campaigns aimed at control of the strategic routes from Italy across the Alps to the Rhine and into Gaul
Gaul
Gaul was a region of Western Europe during the Iron Age and Roman era, encompassing present day France, Luxembourg and Belgium, most of Switzerland, the western part of Northern Italy, as well as the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the left bank of the Rhine. The Gauls were the speakers of...
, most importantly by Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman and a distinguished writer of Latin prose. He played a critical role in the gradual transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire....
's defeat of the largest tribal group, the Helvetii
Helvetii
The Helvetii were a Celtic tribe or tribal confederation occupying most of the Swiss plateau at the time of their contact with the Roman Republic in the 1st century BC...
, in 58 BC. Under the Pax Romana
Pax Romana
Pax Romana was the long period of relative peace and minimal expansion by military force experienced by the Roman Empire in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD. Since it was established by Caesar Augustus it is sometimes called Pax Augusta...
, Switzerland was smoothly integrated into the prospering Empire as the Romans assimilated
Romanization (cultural)
Romanization or latinization indicate different historical processes, such as acculturation, integration and assimilation of newly incorporated and peripheral populations by the Roman Republic and the later Roman Empire...
the Celtic population, enlisted their aristocracy to engage in local government, built a network of roads connecting their newly established colonial cities and divided up the area among the Roman province
Roman province
In Ancient Rome, a province was the basic, and, until the Tetrarchy , largest territorial and administrative unit of the empire's territorial possessions outside of Italy...
s.
Roman civilization began to retreat from Swiss territory when it became a border area again after the Crisis of the Third Century
Crisis of the Third Century
The Crisis of the Third Century was a period in which the Roman Empire nearly collapsed under the combined pressures of invasion, civil war, plague, and economic depression...
. Roman control of most of Switzerland ceased in 401 AD, after which the area began to be occupied by Germanic peoples
Germanic peoples
The Germanic peoples are an Indo-European ethno-linguistic group of Northern European origin, identified by their use of the Indo-European Germanic languages which diversified out of Proto-Germanic during the Pre-Roman Iron Age.Originating about 1800 BCE from the Corded Ware Culture on the North...
.
Switzerland prior to the Roman conquest
Switzerland did not exist as a political or cultural entity prior to the emergence of the Old Swiss ConfederacyOld Swiss Confederacy
The Old Swiss Confederacy was the precursor of modern-day Switzerland....
in the Middle Ages, but its core territories within the natural borders of the Alps
Alps
The Alps is one of the great mountain range systems of Europe, stretching from Austria and Slovenia in the east through Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Germany to France in the west....
to the South and East, Lake Geneva
Lake Geneva
Lake Geneva or Lake Léman is a lake in Switzerland and France. It is one of the largest lakes in Western Europe. 59.53 % of it comes under the jurisdiction of Switzerland , and 40.47 % under France...
and the Rhône
Rhône
Rhone can refer to:* Rhone, one of the major rivers of Europe, running through Switzerland and France* Rhône Glacier, the source of the Rhone River and one of the primary contributors to Lake Geneva in the far eastern end of the canton of Valais in Switzerland...
to the west and the Rhine to the north were recognized as a contiguous territory by Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman and a distinguished writer of Latin prose. He played a critical role in the gradual transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire....
.
This area – the Swiss plateau
Swiss plateau
The Swiss Plateau or Central Plateau constitutes one of the three major landscapes in Switzerland alongside the Jura mountains and the Swiss Alps. It covers about 30% of the Swiss surface...
– was settled principally by Celtic peoples, of which the five tribes of the Helvetii
Helvetii
The Helvetii were a Celtic tribe or tribal confederation occupying most of the Swiss plateau at the time of their contact with the Roman Republic in the 1st century BC...
were the most numerous, but which also included the Rauraci in north-west Switzerland centered on Basel
Basel
Basel or Basle In the national languages of Switzerland the city is also known as Bâle , Basilea and Basilea is Switzerland's third most populous city with about 166,000 inhabitants. Located where the Swiss, French and German borders meet, Basel also has suburbs in France and Germany...
, the Allobroges
Allobroges
The Allobroges were a Celtic tribe of ancient Gaul, located between the Rhône River and the Lake of Geneva in what later became Savoy, Dauphiné, and Vivarais. Their cities were in the areas of modern-day Annecy, Chambéry and Grenoble, the modern of Isère, and modern Switzerland...
around Geneva
Geneva
Geneva In the national languages of Switzerland the city is known as Genf , Ginevra and Genevra is the second-most-populous city in Switzerland and is the most populous city of Romandie, the French-speaking part of Switzerland...
, and the Nantuates
Nantuates
The Nantuates or Nantuatae were an ancient people of modern day Switzerland, whose territory extended into adjacent areas now in modern-day France....
, Seduni
Seduni
The Seduni or Sedunii were an ancient people in the valley of the Upper Rhone at Roman contact, whom Julius Caesar mentions: Nantuates Sedunos Veragrosque. These tribes were conquered by Rome are also mentioned in the Trophy of the Alps in the same order. They were east of the Veragri, in the...
and Veragri
Veragri
The Veragri were an ancient tribe located in present day Switzerland. The Veragri are placed by Julius Caesar in the canton of Valais between the Nantuates and the Seduni. Their chief town was Octodurus , whence the Veragri are called Octodurenses by Pliny. Dio Cassius The Veragri (Greek: ) were...
in the Valais
Valais
The Valais is one of the 26 cantons of Switzerland in the southwestern part of the country, around the valley of the Rhône from its headwaters to Lake Geneva, separating the Pennine Alps from the Bernese Alps. The canton is one of the drier parts of Switzerland in its central Rhône valley...
. Additionally, the Lepontii
Lepontii
The Lepontii were an ancient people occupying portions of Rhaetia in the Alps during the time of the Roman conquest of that territory. The Lepontii have been variously described as a Celtic, Ligurian, Raetian, and Germanic tribe...
, a people of Celtic origin, settled in the Ticino
Ticino
Canton Ticino or Ticino is the southernmost canton of Switzerland. Named after the Ticino river, it is the only canton in which Italian is the sole official language...
, and the Raetia
Raetia
Raetia was a province of the Roman Empire, named after the Rhaetian people. It was bounded on the west by the country of the Helvetii, on the east by Noricum, on the north by Vindelicia, on the west by Cisalpine Gaul and on south by Venetia et Histria...
ns controlled the Grisons as well as large areas around it.
Early contact
The first part of what is now Switzerland to fall to Rome was the southern TicinoTicino
Canton Ticino or Ticino is the southernmost canton of Switzerland. Named after the Ticino river, it is the only canton in which Italian is the sole official language...
, annexed after the Roman victory over the Insubres
Insubres
The Insubres were a Gaulish population settled in Insubria, in what is now Lombardy . They were the founders of Milan . Though ethnically Celtic at the time of Roman conquest , they were most likely the result of the fusion of pre-existing Ligurian, Celtic and "Italic" population strata with Gaulish...
in 222 BC. The territory of the Allobroges
Allobroges
The Allobroges were a Celtic tribe of ancient Gaul, located between the Rhône River and the Lake of Geneva in what later became Savoy, Dauphiné, and Vivarais. Their cities were in the areas of modern-day Annecy, Chambéry and Grenoble, the modern of Isère, and modern Switzerland...
around Geneva
Geneva
Geneva In the national languages of Switzerland the city is known as Genf , Ginevra and Genevra is the second-most-populous city in Switzerland and is the most populous city of Romandie, the French-speaking part of Switzerland...
came under Roman sway by 121 BC and was incorporated into the province of Gallia Narbonensis
Gallia Narbonensis
Gallia Narbonensis was a Roman province located in what is now Languedoc and Provence, in southern France. It was also known as Gallia Transalpina , which was originally a designation for that part of Gaul lying across the Alps from Italia and it contained a western region known as Septimania...
prior to the Gallic Wars
Gallic Wars
The Gallic Wars were a series of military campaigns waged by the Roman proconsul Julius Caesar against several Gallic tribes. They lasted from 58 BC to 51 BC. The Gallic Wars culminated in the decisive Battle of Alesia in 52 BC, in which a complete Roman victory resulted in the expansion of the...
(58–51 BC).
In around 110 BC, two Helvetic tribes under Divico
Divico
Divico was a Celtic king and the leader of the Gaul tribe of the Tigurini. He led the Tigurini across the Rhine to invade Gaul in 109 BCE towards the Roman region of Province. He defeated a Roman army under Lucius Cassius Longinus near Agen in 107 BCE....
– the Tigurini
Tigurini
The Tigurini were a pagus of the Celtic Helvetii. They crossed the Rhine together with the Helvetii to invade Gaul in 109 BCE...
and the Tougeni, sometimes identified with the Teutons
Teutons
The Teutons or Teutones were mentioned as a Germanic tribe by Greek and Roman authors, notably Strabo and Marcus Velleius Paterculus and normally in close connection with the Cimbri, whose ethnicity is contested between Gauls and Germani...
– joined the wandering Germanic
Germanic peoples
The Germanic peoples are an Indo-European ethno-linguistic group of Northern European origin, identified by their use of the Indo-European Germanic languages which diversified out of Proto-Germanic during the Pre-Roman Iron Age.Originating about 1800 BCE from the Corded Ware Culture on the North...
Cimbri
Cimbri
The Cimbri were a tribe from Northern Europe, who, together with the Teutones and the Ambrones threatened the Roman Republic in the late 2nd century BC. The Cimbri were probably Germanic, though some believe them to be of Celtic origin...
on a march to the West. In the course of the Cimbrian War
Cimbrian War
The Cimbrian War was fought between the Roman Republic and the Proto-Germanic tribes of the Cimbri and the Teutons , who migrated from northern Europe into Roman controlled territory, and clashed with Rome and her allies...
they defeated a Roman force under Lucius Cassius Longinus
Lucius Cassius Longinus (consul 107 BC)
Lucius Cassius Longinus was a consul of the Roman Republic in 107 BC. His colleague was Gaius Marius.As a praetor in 111 BC, he was sent to Numidia to bring Jugurtha to Rome, promising him safe conduct. Jugurtha valued this pledge as much as the public pledge for his safety. In his consulship with...
near Burdigala in 107 BC, but after the Roman victory over the Teutons at Aquae Sextiae
Battle of Aquae Sextiae
The Battle of Aquae Sextiae took place in 102 BC. After a string of Roman defeats , the Romans under Gaius Marius finally defeated the Teutones and Ambrones.-The battle:...
in 102 BC, the Tigurini returned to settle in the Swiss Plateau.
Defeat of the Helvetii
In 61 BC, the Helvetii, led by OrgetorixOrgetorix
Orgetorix was a wealthy aristocrat among the Helvetii, a Celtic-speaking people residing in what is now Switzerland during the consulship of Julius Caesar of the Roman Republic. In 61 BC he convinced the Helvetians to attempt to migrate from Helvetian territory to south-western Gaul...
, decided to leave their lands and move to the West, burning their settlements behind them – twelve oppida
Oppidum
Oppidum is a Latin word meaning the main settlement in any administrative area of ancient Rome. The word is derived from the earlier Latin ob-pedum, "enclosed space," possibly from the Proto-Indo-European *pedóm-, "occupied space" or "footprint."Julius Caesar described the larger Celtic Iron Age...
, according to Caesar, and some 400 villages. They were decisively beaten by Caesar in the Battle of Bibracte
Battle of Bibracte
The Battle of Bibracte was fought between the Helvetii and six Roman legions, under the command of Gaius Julius Caesar. It was the second major battle of the Gallic Wars....
in 58 BC. After their surrender, Caesar sent the Helvetii home, according them the status of foederati
Foederati
Foederatus is a Latin term whose definition and usage drifted in the time between the early Roman Republic and the end of the Western Roman Empire...
or Roman allies, but not yet (as has previously been believed) fully subjugating them to Roman sovereignty.
Caesar's policy aimed at controlling the territory west of the Jura
Jura mountains
The Jura Mountains are a small mountain range located north of the Alps, separating the Rhine and Rhone rivers and forming part of the watershed of each...
and Rhine, as well as at blocking the potential incursion routes from the East along the Jura. The Raetians, described as savage warriors by Strabo
Strabo
Strabo, also written Strabon was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher.-Life:Strabo was born to an affluent family from Amaseia in Pontus , a city which he said was situated the approximate equivalent of 75 km from the Black Sea...
, continued to launch incursions into the Swiss Plateau and also had to be contained. To that end, Caesar charged the Helvetii and the Rauraci with defending their territory and established two colonies of veterans – one, the Colonia Julia Equestris (now Nyon
Nyon
Nyon is a municipality in the district of Nyon in the canton of Vaud in Switzerland. It is located some 25 kilometers north east of Geneva's city centre, and since the 1970s it has become part of the Geneva metropolitan area. It lies on the shores of Lake Geneva, and is the seat of the district of...
) on the shores of Lake Geneva
Lake Geneva
Lake Geneva or Lake Léman is a lake in Switzerland and France. It is one of the largest lakes in Western Europe. 59.53 % of it comes under the jurisdiction of Switzerland , and 40.47 % under France...
and the other through Lucius Munatius Plancus
Lucius Munatius Plancus
Lucius Munatius Plancus was a Roman senator, consul in 42 BC, and censor in 22 BC with Aemilius Lepidus Paullus...
in northwestern Switzerland, preceding the larger Augusta Raurica
Augusta Raurica
Augusta Raurica is a Roman archaeological site and an open-air museum in Switzerland. Located on the south bank of the Rhine river about 20 km east of Basel near the villages of Augst and Kaiseraugst, it is the oldest known Roman colony on the Rhine....
founded by Augustus in around 6 AD.
Conquest of the Alps
Caesar's attempt to open the Great St Bernard Pass for Roman traffic failed in 57 BC due to strong opposition by the local VeragriVeragri
The Veragri were an ancient tribe located in present day Switzerland. The Veragri are placed by Julius Caesar in the canton of Valais between the Nantuates and the Seduni. Their chief town was Octodurus , whence the Veragri are called Octodurenses by Pliny. Dio Cassius The Veragri (Greek: ) were...
. Concerted and successful efforts to gain control over the Alpine region were undertaken by his successor, Augustus
Augustus
Augustus ;23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14) is considered the first emperor of the Roman Empire, which he ruled alone from 27 BC until his death in 14 AD.The dates of his rule are contemporary dates; Augustus lived under two calendars, the Roman Republican until 45 BC, and the Julian...
, as the rapid development of Lugdunum
Lugdunum
Colonia Copia Claudia Augusta Lugdunum was an important Roman city in Gaul. The city was founded in 43 BC by Lucius Munatius Plancus. It served as the capital of the Roman province Gallia Lugdunensis. To 300 years after its foundation Lugdunum was the most important city to the west part of Roman...
(Lyon) made the establishment of a safe and direct route from Gaul to Italy a priority.
In 25 BC, an army under Aulus Terentius Varrus Murena wiped out the Salassi
Salassi
The Salassi were an Alpine tribe whose lands lay on the Italian side of the Little St Bernard Pass across the Graian Alps to Lyons, and the Great St Bernard Pass over the Pennine Alps...
in the Aosta Valley. At some time between 25 and 7 BC – either following the Aosta campaign or, more likely, in the course of the conquest of Raetia
Raetia
Raetia was a province of the Roman Empire, named after the Rhaetian people. It was bounded on the west by the country of the Helvetii, on the east by Noricum, on the north by Vindelicia, on the west by Cisalpine Gaul and on south by Venetia et Histria...
in 15 BC – a campaign also subjugated the Celtic tribes of the Valais and opened the Great St Bernard Pass.
That conquest was a consequence of the Augustan imperative of securing the Imperial borders. To effectively control the Alps
Alps
The Alps is one of the great mountain range systems of Europe, stretching from Austria and Slovenia in the east through Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Germany to France in the west....
as the shield of northern Italy, Rome needed to control both flanks of the mountain range. Thus it had to extend its power to the Rhine and Danube
Danube
The Danube is a river in the Central Europe and the Europe's second longest river after the Volga. It is classified as an international waterway....
, thereby also opening a direct route to Germania
Germania
Germania was the Greek and Roman geographical term for the geographical regions inhabited by mainly by peoples considered to be Germani. It was most often used to refer especially to the east of the Rhine and north of the Danube...
and all of Central Europe. The last obstacle in this path were the Raetians. After a first expedition against them by Publius Silius Nerva
Publius Silius Nerva
Publius Silius Nerva was a Roman politician and general who was consul in 20 BC.-Biography:Nerva was the son of a senator who had achieved the rank of propraetor...
in 16 BC, a more thorough campaign by Drusus
Nero Claudius Drusus
Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus , born Decimus Claudius Drusus also called Drusus, Drusus I, Nero Drusus, or Drusus the Elder was a Roman politician and military commander. He was a fully patrician Claudian on his father's side but his maternal grandmother was from a plebeian family...
and the later emperor Tiberius
Tiberius
Tiberius , was Roman Emperor from 14 AD to 37 AD. Tiberius was by birth a Claudian, son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla. His mother divorced Nero and married Augustus in 39 BC, making him a step-son of Octavian...
brought Raetia – and thereby all of Switzerland – firmly under Roman control.
The tropaeum alpium, built by Augustus in 7 BC to celebrate his conquest of the Alps, lists among the defeated peoples the tribes of Raetia and of the Valais, but not the Helvetii. It appears that they were absorbed peacefully into the Empire during the first century AD, except for their part in the conflicts of the Year of the Four Emperors
Year of the Four Emperors
The Year of the Four Emperors was a year in the history of the Roman Empire, AD 69, in which four emperors ruled in a remarkable succession. These four emperors were Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian....
, AD 69.
Roman Switzerland
The history of Switzerland under Roman rule was, from the Augustan periodAugustus
Augustus ;23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14) is considered the first emperor of the Roman Empire, which he ruled alone from 27 BC until his death in 14 AD.The dates of his rule are contemporary dates; Augustus lived under two calendars, the Roman Republican until 45 BC, and the Julian...
up until 260 AD, a time of exceptional peace and prosperity. The Pax Romana
Pax Romana
Pax Romana was the long period of relative peace and minimal expansion by military force experienced by the Roman Empire in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD. Since it was established by Caesar Augustus it is sometimes called Pax Augusta...
was made possible by the protection of well-defended and distant Imperial borders and a peaceful and smooth Romanization
Romanization (cultural)
Romanization or latinization indicate different historical processes, such as acculturation, integration and assimilation of newly incorporated and peripheral populations by the Roman Republic and the later Roman Empire...
of the local population. The Romans urbanized
Urbanization
Urbanization, urbanisation or urban drift is the physical growth of urban areas as a result of global change. The United Nations projected that half of the world's population would live in urban areas at the end of 2008....
the territory with numerous settlements and built a network of high-quality Roman roads connecting them, allowing for the integration of Helvetia into the imperial economy.
Roman settlements
Swiss plateau
The Swiss Plateau or Central Plateau constitutes one of the three major landscapes in Switzerland alongside the Jura mountains and the Swiss Alps. It covers about 30% of the Swiss surface...
was not really Romanized until decades after the conquest. The principal Roman settlements in Switzerland were the cities of Iulia Equestris (Nyon
Nyon
Nyon is a municipality in the district of Nyon in the canton of Vaud in Switzerland. It is located some 25 kilometers north east of Geneva's city centre, and since the 1970s it has become part of the Geneva metropolitan area. It lies on the shores of Lake Geneva, and is the seat of the district of...
), Aventicum
Aventicum
Aventicum was the largest town and capital of Roman Switzerland . Its remains are beside the modern town of Avenches....
(Avenches
Avenches
Avenches is a Swiss municipality in the canton of Vaud, located in the district of Broye-Vully.-History:The roots of Avenches go back to the Celts...
), Augusta Raurica
Augusta Raurica
Augusta Raurica is a Roman archaeological site and an open-air museum in Switzerland. Located on the south bank of the Rhine river about 20 km east of Basel near the villages of Augst and Kaiseraugst, it is the oldest known Roman colony on the Rhine....
(Augst
Augst
Augst is a municipality in the district of Liestal in the canton of Basel-Country in Switzerland.It was known as Augusta Raurica in roman times-History:...
) and Vindonissa
Vindonissa
Vindonissa was a Roman legion camp at modern Windisch, Switzerland. It was probably established in 15 AD. In an expansion around 30, thermal baths were added....
(Windisch
Windisch
Windisch is a municipality in the district of Brugg in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland.-History:Windisch is situated at the site of the Roman legion camp Vindonissa. In 1064 the current municipality was mentioned as Vinse, and in 1175 as Vindisse. Until the 19th Century the official name was...
). Evidence has also been found of almost twenty Roman villages (vici
Vicus (Rome)
In ancient Rome, the vicus was a neighborhood. During the Republican era, the four regiones of the city of Rome were subdivided into vici. In the 1st century BC, Augustus reorganized the city for administrative purposes into 14 regions, comprising 265 vici. Each vicus had its own board of...
) established in the 1st to 3rd century AD, as well as hundreds of villa
Roman villa
A Roman villa is a villa that was built or lived in during the Roman republic and the Roman Empire. A villa was originally a Roman country house built for the upper class...
s of varying sizes built in the western and central part of the Swiss Plateau
Swiss plateau
The Swiss Plateau or Central Plateau constitutes one of the three major landscapes in Switzerland alongside the Jura mountains and the Swiss Alps. It covers about 30% of the Swiss surface...
. The known vici include:
- in the Romandie: EburodunumYverdon-les-BainsYverdon-les-Bains is a municipality in the district of Jura-Nord vaudois of the canton of Vaud in Switzerland. It is the seat of the district...
(Yverdon-les-BainsYverdon-les-BainsYverdon-les-Bains is a municipality in the district of Jura-Nord vaudois of the canton of Vaud in Switzerland. It is the seat of the district...
), Genava (GenevaGenevaGeneva In the national languages of Switzerland the city is known as Genf , Ginevra and Genevra is the second-most-populous city in Switzerland and is the most populous city of Romandie, the French-speaking part of Switzerland...
), LousonnaLousonnaLousonna is a Roman archaeological site in Switzerland. It preceded the present-day city of Lausanne.The Romans built a military camp on this spot, which they called Lousonna, at the site of a Celtic settlement near Lake Geneva....
(LausanneLausanneLausanne is a city in Romandy, the French-speaking part of Switzerland, and is the capital of the canton of Vaud. The seat of the district of Lausanne, the city is situated on the shores of Lake Geneva . It faces the French town of Évian-les-Bains, with the Jura mountains to its north-west...
), Minnodurum (MoudonMoudonMoudon is a municipality in the canton of Vaud in Switzerland. It was the seat of the district of Moudon and is now in the Broye-Vully district.-History:...
), Urba (OrbeOrbeOrbe is a municipality in the Swiss canton of Vaud. It was the seat of the former district of Orbe and is now part of the district of Jura-Nord Vaudois.-History:Orbe is first mentioned about 280 as Urba. In 1179 it was mentioned as versus Orbam....
), Uromagus (OronOronOron may refer to:*Oron , one of the major states in the old Calabar Kingdom*Oron , Switzerland*Oron-la-Ville, Switzerland*Oron-le-Châtel, Switzerland*Oron, Moselle, France*Oron, Nigeria, a city and local government area in Akwa Ibom State...
), Viviscus (VeveyVeveyVevey is a town in Switzerland in the canton Vaud, on the north shore of Lake Geneva, near Lausanne.It was the seat of the district of the same name until 2006, and is now part of the Riviera-Pays-d'Enhaut District...
); - in the ValaisValaisThe Valais is one of the 26 cantons of Switzerland in the southwestern part of the country, around the valley of the Rhône from its headwaters to Lake Geneva, separating the Pennine Alps from the Bernese Alps. The canton is one of the drier parts of Switzerland in its central Rhône valley...
: Acaunum or AgaunumAgaunumRoman Agaunum, the modern Saint-Maurice in the canton Valais in southwesternmost Switzerland, was a minor post confined between the Rhône and the mountains along the well-travelled road that led from Roman Genava, modern Geneva, over the Alps by the Great St...
(St. Maurice), Forum Claudii Vallensium (Martigny), Pennelocus, Sedunum (Sitten), Tarnaiae (MassongexMassongexMassongex is a municipality in the district of Saint-Maurice, in the canton of Valais, Switzerland.-Geography:Massongex has an area, , of . Of this area, or 33.6% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 47.1% is forested...
); - in central and northern Switzerland: Aquae Helveticae (BadenBaden, SwitzerlandBaden is a municipality in the Swiss canton of Aargau, on the west bank of the river Limmat, located in the Limmat Valley , northwest of Zürich. It is the seat of the district of Baden...
), Ad FinesPfynPfyn is a municipality in Frauenfeld District in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.Pfyn gives its name to the ancient Pfyn culture, one of several Neolithic cultures in Switzerland which centered around intensive pig farming and trading, dating from c. 3900 BC to c...
(PfynPfynPfyn is a municipality in Frauenfeld District in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.Pfyn gives its name to the ancient Pfyn culture, one of several Neolithic cultures in Switzerland which centered around intensive pig farming and trading, dating from c. 3900 BC to c...
), BerneBerneThe city of Bern or Berne is the Bundesstadt of Switzerland, and, with a population of , the fourth most populous city in Switzerland. The Bern agglomeration, which includes 43 municipalities, has a population of 349,000. The metropolitan area had a population of 660,000 in 2000...
, Arialbinnum (BaselBaselBasel or Basle In the national languages of Switzerland the city is also known as Bâle , Basilea and Basilea is Switzerland's third most populous city with about 166,000 inhabitants. Located where the Swiss, French and German borders meet, Basel also has suburbs in France and Germany...
), Cambiodunum (IrgenhausenIrgenhausenIrgenhausen is a village of the municipality of Pfäffikon in the canton of Zurich in Switzerland.-Geography:Irgenhausen is located in the district of Pfäffikon in the Zürcher Oberland on the eastern shore of the Pfäffikersee .-History:In Roman era, along Pfäffikersee there was a Roman road from...
), DietikonDietikonDietikon is the fifth biggest city of the canton of Zürich in Switzerland, after Zürich, Winterthur, Uster and Dübendorf. It is the capital of the same-named district of Dietikon and part of the Zürich metropolitan area.- Geography :...
, Iuliomagus (SchleitheimSchleitheimSchleitheim is a municipality in the canton of Schaffhausen in Switzerland.It is known as the location where the seven articles of the "Schleitheim Confession" were written by Michael Sattler in 1527.-Geography:...
), KempratenKempratenKempraten-Lenggis is a village within the municipality of Rapperswil-Jona, Wahlkreis of See-Gaster in the canton of St. Gallen in Switzerland. It is one of the most important archeological sites in the canton of St...
, LenzburgLenzburgLenzburg is a town in the central region of the Swiss canton Aargau and is the capital of the district of the same name. The town, founded in the Middle Ages, lies in the Seetal valley, about 3 kilometres south of the Aare river. Lenzburg and the neighbouring municipalities of Niederlenz and...
, Lunnern, OltenOltenOlten is a town in the canton of Solothurn in Switzerland and capital of the district of the same name.Olten's railway station is within 30 minutes of Zurich, Bern, Basel, and Lucerne by train, and is a rail hub of Switzerland.-History:...
, PetinescaPetinescaPetinesca is an archeological site on the territory of Studen, a community of the Canton of Bern, in Switzerland, where Celtic and Roman vestiges were found.-Celtic and Roman vestiges:...
(Peterlingen), Pierre Pertuis, Salodurum or Solodurum (SolothurnSolothurnThe city of Solothurn is the capital of the Canton of Solothurn in Switzerland. The city also comprises the only municipality of the district of the same name.-Pre-roman settlement:...
), Tasgetium or Tasgaetium (EschenzEschenzEschenz is a municipality in Frauenfeld District in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.-History:The prehistoric shore village on Werd Island and in the Seeäckern area are rich archeological sites that have contributed substantially to our understanding of the history of settlements in the...
), Tenedo (Zurzach), TuricumTuricumTuricum was a Swiss automobile manufactured between 1904 and 1906 in Zurich, 1907 till 1912 in Uster. Turicum is the Latin name of Zurich....
(ZürichZürichZurich is the largest city in Switzerland and the capital of the canton of Zurich. It is located in central Switzerland at the northwestern tip of Lake Zurich...
), Vitudurum or Vitodurum (WinterthurWinterthurWinterthur is a city in the canton of Zurich in northern Switzerland. It has the country's sixth largest population with an estimate of more than 100,000 people. In the local dialect and by its inhabitants, it is usually abbreviated to Winti...
); - in Raetia: Ad Rhenum (RheineckRheineckRheineck is a municipality in the Wahlkreis of Rheintal in the canton of St. Gallen in Switzerland.-History:Rheineck is first mentioned about 1163 as castellum Rinegge. In 1218 it was mentioned as Rinegg...
), Arbor Felix (ArbonArbonArbon may refer to:* Arbon, Haute-Garonne, French commune* Arbon, Switzerland* Arbon , in Switzerland* Arbon Valley, Idaho...
), Bilitio (BellinzonaBellinzonaBellinzona is the administrative capital of the canton Ticino in Switzerland. The city is famous for its three castles that have been UNESCO World Heritage Sites since 2000....
), CuriaCuriaA curia in early Roman times was a subdivision of the people, i.e. more or less a tribe, and with a metonymy it came to mean also the meeting place where the tribe discussed its affairs...
(ChurChurChur or Coire is the capital of the Swiss canton of Graubünden and lies in the northern part of the canton.-History:The name "chur" derives perhaps from the Celtic kora or koria, meaning "tribe", or from the Latin curia....
), Magia (MaienfeldMaienfeldMaienfeld is a municipality in the district of Landquart in the Swiss canton of Graubünden. It is a tourist destination in the Alps, both because of the local wine and because it was the setting of the story Heidi.- History :...
), Lapidaria, Tinnetie or Tinnetio (Tinizong).
The colonies of Nyon and Augusta Raurica at first had little cultural influence beyond their immediate surroundings. After Roman military defeats in Germania
Germania
Germania was the Greek and Roman geographical term for the geographical regions inhabited by mainly by peoples considered to be Germani. It was most often used to refer especially to the east of the Rhine and north of the Danube...
in 12–9 BC and 6–9 AD, the frontier was moved back to the Rhine and guarded by eight legions, of which one, originally Legio XIII Gemina
Legio XIII Gemina
Legio tertia decima Gemina was one of the most prominent Roman legions. It was one of Julius Caesar's key units in Gaul and in the civil war, and was the legion with which he famously crossed the Rubicon on January 10, 49 BC. The legion appears to have still been in existence in the fifth century...
, was based in the permanent camp of Vindonissa
Vindonissa
Vindonissa was a Roman legion camp at modern Windisch, Switzerland. It was probably established in 15 AD. In an expansion around 30, thermal baths were added....
(Windisch
Windisch
Windisch is a municipality in the district of Brugg in the canton of Aargau in Switzerland.-History:Windisch is situated at the site of the Roman legion camp Vindonissa. In 1064 the current municipality was mentioned as Vinse, and in 1175 as Vindisse. Until the 19th Century the official name was...
).
Aventicum
Aventicum
Aventicum was the largest town and capital of Roman Switzerland . Its remains are beside the modern town of Avenches....
(Avenches
Avenches
Avenches is a Swiss municipality in the canton of Vaud, located in the district of Broye-Vully.-History:The roots of Avenches go back to the Celts...
) was likely the capital of the Helvetii since its founding at the beginning of the 1st century. In the 40s, it benefited from the traffic brought over the St Bernard pass over a street expanded by Claudius
Claudius
Claudius , was Roman Emperor from 41 to 54. A member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, he was the son of Drusus and Antonia Minor. He was born at Lugdunum in Gaul and was the first Roman Emperor to be born outside Italy...
, and in 71 it acquired the status of a Roman colony and of an allied city. This is believed to have been a favor of Vespasian
Vespasian
Vespasian , was Roman Emperor from 69 AD to 79 AD. Vespasian was the founder of the Flavian dynasty, which ruled the Empire for a quarter century. Vespasian was descended from a family of equestrians, who rose into the senatorial rank under the Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty...
for the city in which he had lived for a time, or a measure to better control the Helvetii after the events of 69 by implanting a colony of veterans in their midst.
Administrative divisions
The Alps were first administered by a legatus pro praetore in Augusta Vindelicorum (AugsburgAugsburg
Augsburg is a city in the south-west of Bavaria, Germany. It is a university town and home of the Regierungsbezirk Schwaben and the Bezirk Schwaben. Augsburg is an urban district and home to the institutions of the Landkreis Augsburg. It is, as of 2008, the third-largest city in Bavaria with a...
), then by the procurator of the new province of Raetia
Raetia
Raetia was a province of the Roman Empire, named after the Rhaetian people. It was bounded on the west by the country of the Helvetii, on the east by Noricum, on the north by Vindelicia, on the west by Cisalpine Gaul and on south by Venetia et Histria...
. The Valais
Valais
The Valais is one of the 26 cantons of Switzerland in the southwestern part of the country, around the valley of the Rhône from its headwaters to Lake Geneva, separating the Pennine Alps from the Bernese Alps. The canton is one of the drier parts of Switzerland in its central Rhône valley...
was split from Raetia by Claudius
Claudius
Claudius , was Roman Emperor from 41 to 54. A member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, he was the son of Drusus and Antonia Minor. He was born at Lugdunum in Gaul and was the first Roman Emperor to be born outside Italy...
in AD 43 and merged with the province of Alpes Graiae to form a new province, Alpes Graiae et Poeninae.
As for the Swiss plateau, its western and central part up to Ad Fines (Pfyn
Pfyn
Pfyn is a municipality in Frauenfeld District in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.Pfyn gives its name to the ancient Pfyn culture, one of several Neolithic cultures in Switzerland which centered around intensive pig farming and trading, dating from c. 3900 BC to c...
) was administratively part of the province of Belgica and for military purposes part of Germania Superior
Germania Superior
Germania Superior , so called for the reason that it lay upstream of Germania Inferior, was a province of the Roman Empire. It comprised an area of western Switzerland, the French Jura and Alsace regions, and southwestern Germany...
. Its eastern part belonged to Raetia.
This division, established by Augustus in 22 BC, was accompanied by a redistribution of tribal settlement areas. It remained essentially unchanged until Diocletian
Diocletian
Diocletian |latinized]] upon his accession to Diocletian . c. 22 December 244 – 3 December 311), was a Roman Emperor from 284 to 305....
's reforms in the third century, when parts of Switzerland each belonged to the provinces of Sequania, Vienna
Vienna
Vienna is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austria's primary city, with a population of about 1.723 million , and is by far the largest city in Austria, as well as its cultural, economic, and political centre...
, Raetia Prima, Liguria
Liguria
Liguria is a coastal region of north-western Italy, the third smallest of the Italian regions. Its capital is Genoa. It is a popular region with tourists for its beautiful beaches, picturesque little towns, and good food.-Geography:...
and Alpes Graiae et Poeninae.
Government
The colonies of Nyon, Aventicum and Augusta Raurica were governed under republican constitutions similar to that of Rome. Most governmental powers were exercised by a pair of magistrates, the duoviriDuoviri
In ancient Rome, duumviri was the official style of two joint magistrates...
, elected annually first by all citizens older than 25, and in later times by the city council or ordo decurionum. The 100 members of this council, which corresponded to the Roman Senate
Roman Senate
The Senate of the Roman Republic was a political institution in the ancient Roman Republic, however, it was not an elected body, but one whose members were appointed by the consuls, and later by the censors. After a magistrate served his term in office, it usually was followed with automatic...
, were selected by the duomviri among former officials or priests according to their wealth, and held office for life.
Augusta Raurica and Aventicum were also the civitates, or capitals, of the non-Roman tribes of the Rauraci and Helvetii
Helvetii
The Helvetii were a Celtic tribe or tribal confederation occupying most of the Swiss plateau at the time of their contact with the Roman Republic in the 1st century BC...
, respectively. In that capacity, the magistrates of Aventicum, as duoviri coloniae Helvetiorum, also governed the entire Helvetic population, which had the legal status of incolae (inhabitants) invested with the Latin Right
Latin Right
Latin Rights was a civic status given by the Romans, intermediate between full Roman citizenship and non-citizen status , and extended originally to the people of Latium . The most important Latin Rights were commercium, connubium, and ius migrationis...
. The rights of the Roman coloni
Colonus (person)
A colonus was a type of Roman peasant farmer, a serf. This designation was carried into the Medieval period for much of Europe.Coloni worked on large Roman estates called "latifundia" and could never leave. Latifundia raised sheep and other types of cattle...
, or colonists, were represented by a special authority, the curatores colonorum Aventicensum ("Heads of the colonists of Aventicum"). Moreover, the Roman citizens of the entire territory established the cives Romani conventus Helvetici ("Association of Roman citizens in Helvetia").
The civitas
Civitas
In the history of Rome, the Latin term civitas , according to Cicero in the time of the late Roman Republic, was the social body of the cives, or citizens, united by law . It is the law that binds them together, giving them responsibilities on the one hand and rights of citizenship on the other...
(tribal community) of the Helvetii
Helvetii
The Helvetii were a Celtic tribe or tribal confederation occupying most of the Swiss plateau at the time of their contact with the Roman Republic in the 1st century BC...
was similar to that of the Celtic tribes of the Valais
Valais
The Valais is one of the 26 cantons of Switzerland in the southwestern part of the country, around the valley of the Rhône from its headwaters to Lake Geneva, separating the Pennine Alps from the Bernese Alps. The canton is one of the drier parts of Switzerland in its central Rhône valley...
, which were merged into a single civitas Vallensis probably around 40 AD, and given Forum Claudii Vallensium (Martigny) as their capital. Parts of the modern Ticino
Ticino
Canton Ticino or Ticino is the southernmost canton of Switzerland. Named after the Ticino river, it is the only canton in which Italian is the sole official language...
belonged to the colony of Comum (Como
Como
Como is a city and comune in Lombardy, Italy.It is the administrative capital of the Province of Como....
), founded in the 1st century AD. On the local level, the basic administrative units were the vici, replacing the Helvetic pagi, or tribes, which were dissolved at the time of colonization. These villages enjoyed a certain autonomy and were governed by popularly elected magistrates (magistri or curatores).
While the governmental system in the central and western part of Switzerland, as described above, is well documented, nothing of substance is known about the political and administrative system in eastern Raetia
Raetia
Raetia was a province of the Roman Empire, named after the Rhaetian people. It was bounded on the west by the country of the Helvetii, on the east by Noricum, on the north by Vindelicia, on the west by Cisalpine Gaul and on south by Venetia et Histria...
. However, records of the time show that a great number of local nobles held political and religious offices in Raetia, indicating that the Romans successfully co-opted the local elite.
Culture and society
Testaments of Roman culture such as baths, floor heating and imported goods (pottery, glass, religious icons and artworks) have been found in even the poorest Roman era dwellings, indicating that Romanization was effective at all levels of society. Roman public baths
Thermae
In ancient Rome, thermae and balnea were facilities for bathing...
were found in all villages, temple
Temple
A temple is a structure reserved for religious or spiritual activities, such as prayer and sacrifice, or analogous rites. A templum constituted a sacred precinct as defined by a priest, or augur. It has the same root as the word "template," a plan in preparation of the building that was marked out...
s with integrated theaters – showing animal or gladiator
Gladiator
A gladiator was an armed combatant who entertained audiences in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire in violent confrontations with other gladiators, wild animals, and condemned criminals. Some gladiators were volunteers who risked their legal and social standing and their lives by appearing in the...
ial combat – in most.
While the superimposition of Roman culture on the local population appears to have been unproblematic and thorough, the Celtic traditions did not disappear entirely, resulting in a fusion of Roman and local culture that characterized all aspects of society. Latin, the language of government and instruction, only gradually replaced the local Celtic dialects in everyday use. Local artworks and religious icons of the period exhibit influences of ornamental Celtic art
Celtic art
Celtic art is the art associated with the peoples known as Celts; those who spoke the Celtic languages in Europe from pre-history through to the modern period, as well as the art of ancient peoples whose language is uncertain, but have cultural and stylistic similarities with speakers of Celtic...
, classical Greco-Roman art and even Oriental styles from the far reaches of the Empire. An important incentive for the local people to Romanize was the perspective of obtaining the various degrees of Roman citizenship
Roman citizenship
Citizenship in ancient Rome was a privileged political and legal status afforded to certain free-born individuals with respect to laws, property, and governance....
and the rights conferred thereby, including the right to vote, to hold public office and to render military service.
The hundreds of villae found in Switzerland, some very luxurious, attest to the existence of a wealthy and cultured upper class of landowners. Many villae belonged not to Roman immigrants, but to members of the Celtic aristocracy who continued to hold their lands and their rank after the Roman conquest. Of the lower classes, much less is known, although there are inscriptions attesting to the existence of guilds (collegia) of boat skippers, doctors, teachers and traders, as well as to the existence of a trade in slaves
Slavery in ancient Rome
The institution of slavery in ancient Rome played an important role in society and the Roman economy. Besides manual labor on farms and in mines, slaves performed many domestic services and a variety of other tasks, such as accounting...
.
Polytheism
In the course of Romanization, the Celtic polytheismCeltic polytheism
Celtic polytheism, commonly known as Celtic paganism, refers to the religious beliefs and practices adhered to by the Iron Age peoples of Western Europe now known as the Celts, roughly between 500 BCE and 500 CE, spanning the La Tène period and the Roman era, and in the case of the Insular Celts...
of the local tribes was merged – syncretized
Syncretism
Syncretism is the combining of different beliefs, often while melding practices of various schools of thought. The term means "combining", but see below for the origin of the word...
– with the Roman religion
Religion in ancient Rome
Religion in ancient Rome encompassed the religious beliefs and cult practices regarded by the Romans as indigenous and central to their identity as a people, as well as the various and many cults imported from other peoples brought under Roman rule. Romans thus offered cult to innumerable deities...
. The celtic deities came to be worshiped under the names of their Roman counterparts. Thus Lugus
Lugus
Lugus was a deity of the Celtic pantheon. His name is rarely directly attested in inscriptions, but his importance can be inferred from placenames and ethnonyms, and his nature and attributes are deduced from the distinctive iconography of Gallo-Roman inscriptions to Mercury, who is widely believed...
was replaced by Mercury
Mercury (mythology)
Mercury was a messenger who wore winged sandals, and a god of trade, the son of Maia Maiestas and Jupiter in Roman mythology. His name is related to the Latin word merx , mercari , and merces...
, Belenus
Belenus
In Celtic mythology, Bel, Belenos was a deity worshipped in Gaul, Cisalpine Gaul, and Celtic areas of Austria, Britain and Spain. He is particularly associated with Cornwall, West Cornwall being anciently called Belerion, the place of Bel...
by Apollo
Apollo
Apollo is one of the most important and complex of the Olympian deities in Greek and Roman mythology...
, Taranis
Taranis
In Celtic mythology Taranis was the god of thunder worshipped essentially in Gaul, the British Isles, but also in the Rhineland and Danube regions amongst others, and mentioned, along with Esus and Toutatis as part of a sacred triad, by the Roman poet Lucan in his epic poem Pharsalia as a Celtic...
by Jupiter
Jupiter (mythology)
In ancient Roman religion and myth, Jupiter or Jove is the king of the gods, and the god of the sky and thunder. He is the equivalent of Zeus in the Greek pantheon....
and so forth, in a practice called interpretatio romana by Caesar
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman and a distinguished writer of Latin prose. He played a critical role in the gradual transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire....
, who pioneered it. Roman gods also acquired the names of local gods as epithet
Epithet
An epithet or byname is a descriptive term accompanying or occurring in place of a name and having entered common usage. It has various shades of meaning when applied to seemingly real or fictitious people, divinities, objects, and binomial nomenclature. It is also a descriptive title...
s; thus Mars
Mars (mythology)
Mars was the Roman god of war and also an agricultural guardian, a combination characteristic of early Rome. He was second in importance only to Jupiter, and he was the most prominent of the military gods worshipped by the Roman legions...
was venerated as Mars Caturix, Mercury as Mercurius Cissonius
Cissonius
Cissonius was an ancient Gaulish god. After Visucius, Cissonius was the most common name of the Gaulish Mercury; around seventeen inscriptions dedicated to him extend from France and Southern Germany into Switzerland....
and Jupiter as Jupiter Poeninus after the god of the Pennine Alps
Pennine Alps
The Pennine Alps are a mountain range in the western part of the Alps. They are located in Switzerland and Italy...
.
As oriental religions grew more popular in the later Empire – unlike the traditional Roman cults, they promised rewards in the afterlife
Afterlife
The afterlife is the belief that a part of, or essence of, or soul of an individual, which carries with it and confers personal identity, survives the death of the body of this world and this lifetime, by natural or supernatural means, in contrast to the belief in eternal...
– they also percolated into Gaul. Artifacts related to the cults of gods such as Isis
Isis
Isis or in original more likely Aset is a goddess in Ancient Egyptian religious beliefs, whose worship spread throughout the Greco-Roman world. She was worshipped as the ideal mother and wife as well as the matron of nature and magic...
, Osiris
Osiris
Osiris is an Egyptian god, usually identified as the god of the afterlife, the underworld and the dead. He is classically depicted as a green-skinned man with a pharaoh's beard, partially mummy-wrapped at the legs, wearing a distinctive crown with two large ostrich feathers at either side, and...
, Serapis
Serapis
Serapis or Sarapis is a Graeco-Egyptian name of God. Serapis was devised during the 3rd century BC on the orders of Ptolemy I of Egypt as a means to unify the Greeks and Egyptians in his realm. The god was depicted as Greek in appearance, but with Egyptian trappings, and combined iconography...
, Kybele, Serapios, Dionysos or Mithras have been found at the site of every Roman settlement in Switzerland.
The great significance of religion in the culture of Roman Switzerland is illustrated by the imposing size and central location of the Roman temples in the cities, as well as by the great number of religious artifacts found by archaeologists. As everywhere in the Empire, the Imperial cult
Imperial cult (ancient Rome)
The Imperial cult of ancient Rome identified emperors and some members of their families with the divinely sanctioned authority of the Roman State...
was practiced in Switzerland; it had a particularly prominent temple in the center of the forum
Forum (Roman)
A forum was a public square in a Roman municipium, or any civitas, reserved primarily for the vending of goods; i.e., a marketplace, along with the buildings used for shops and the stoas used for open stalls...
of Nyon.
Christianity
The first clear testaments to ChristianChristianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
communities in Switzerland date after 313, when the religion was officially tolerated with the Edict of Milan
Edict of Milan
The Edict of Milan was a letter signed by emperors Constantine I and Licinius that proclaimed religious toleration in the Roman Empire...
. It is however certain that, as in Gaul, the Christian faith had already had adherents for some time prior to 313.
The first bishop
Bishop
A bishop is an ordained or consecrated member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight. Within the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox Churches, in the Assyrian Church of the East, in the Independent Catholic Churches, and in the...
in Switzerland was either Justinianus, bishop of the Rauricans, in 340 (his historicity is not certain) or Theodorus, bishop of Octodurus, in 381 or earlier. The first Christian religious buildings date to the 4th century; they are found in Geneva
Geneva
Geneva In the national languages of Switzerland the city is known as Genf , Ginevra and Genevra is the second-most-populous city in Switzerland and is the most populous city of Romandie, the French-speaking part of Switzerland...
, Chur
Chur
Chur or Coire is the capital of the Swiss canton of Graubünden and lies in the northern part of the canton.-History:The name "chur" derives perhaps from the Celtic kora or koria, meaning "tribe", or from the Latin curia....
and Saint-Maurice, known for the legend of the Theban Legion
Theban Legion
The Theban Legion figures in Christian hagiography as an entire Roman legion — of "six thousand six hundred and sixty-six men" — who had converted en masse to Christianity and were martyred together, in 286, according to the hagiographies of Saint Maurice, the chief among the Legion's...
.
Decline of Roman civilization in Switzerland
The catastrophe of 260
The order and prosperity that the Pax RomanaPax Romana
Pax Romana was the long period of relative peace and minimal expansion by military force experienced by the Roman Empire in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD. Since it was established by Caesar Augustus it is sometimes called Pax Augusta...
had brought to Switzerland ended, as elsewhere in the Empire, with the Crisis of the Third Century
Crisis of the Third Century
The Crisis of the Third Century was a period in which the Roman Empire nearly collapsed under the combined pressures of invasion, civil war, plague, and economic depression...
. In 260, when the Gallic Empire
Gallic Empire
The Gallic Empire is the modern name for a breakaway realm that existed from 260 to 274. It originated during the Roman Empire's Crisis of the Third Century....
briefly seceded from Rome, the emperor Gallienus
Gallienus
Gallienus was Roman Emperor with his father Valerian from 253 to 260, and alone from 260 to 268. He took control of the Empire at a time when it was undergoing great crisis...
withdrew the legions from the Rhine to fight the usurper Ingenuus
Ingenuus
Ingenuus was a Roman military commander, the imperial legate in Pannonia, who became a usurper to the throne of the emperor Gallienus when he led a brief and unsuccessful revolt in the year 260. Appointed by Gallienus himself, Ingenuus served him well by repulsing a Sarmatian invasion and securing...
, allowing the warlike Alemanni to enter the Swiss plateau. There, cities, villages and most villae were raided or sacked by marauding bands. The numerous caches of coins recovered from the period between 250 and 280 attest to the severity of the crisis. Only the Valais
Valais
The Valais is one of the 26 cantons of Switzerland in the southwestern part of the country, around the valley of the Rhône from its headwaters to Lake Geneva, separating the Pennine Alps from the Bernese Alps. The canton is one of the drier parts of Switzerland in its central Rhône valley...
, shielded by mountains, escaped these predations.
Borderlands
As the Empire's frontiers receded to the Rhine, Switzerland once again became a border area. Its defenses were strengthened, especially under DiocletianDiocletian
Diocletian |latinized]] upon his accession to Diocletian . c. 22 December 244 – 3 December 311), was a Roman Emperor from 284 to 305....
and Constantine
Constantine I
Constantine the Great , also known as Constantine I or Saint Constantine, was Roman Emperor from 306 to 337. Well known for being the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity, Constantine and co-Emperor Licinius issued the Edict of Milan in 313, which proclaimed religious tolerance of all...
, who rebuilt the roads and built castles (castra
Castra
The Latin word castra, with its singular castrum, was used by the ancient Romans to mean buildings or plots of land reserved to or constructed for use as a military defensive position. The word appears in both Oscan and Umbrian as well as in Latin. It may have descended from Indo-European to Italic...
) alongside. Numerous fortifications were built along the Rhine border and further south, providing for a defense in depth. The border fortifications were completed by Valentinian I
Valentinian I
Valentinian I , also known as Valentinian the Great, was Roman emperor from 364 to 375. Upon becoming emperor he made his brother Valens his co-emperor, giving him rule of the eastern provinces while Valentinian retained the west....
in 371, who established a chain of watchtowers along the Rhine from Lake Constance
Lake Constance
Lake Constance is a lake on the Rhine at the northern foot of the Alps, and consists of three bodies of water: the Obersee , the Untersee , and a connecting stretch of the Rhine, called the Seerhein.The lake is situated in Germany, Switzerland and Austria near the Alps...
to Basel
Basel
Basel or Basle In the national languages of Switzerland the city is also known as Bâle , Basilea and Basilea is Switzerland's third most populous city with about 166,000 inhabitants. Located where the Swiss, French and German borders meet, Basel also has suburbs in France and Germany...
, with each tower no more than 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) away from the next one.
But even these efforts could not restore peace and order in Switzerland, and numerous settlements were abandoned as their inhabitants fled to more defensible places or to the South. Urban culture faded away as the cities of Nyon and Augusta Raurica were permanently abandoned during the 4th century, the stones of their ruins serving to fortify Geneva
Geneva
Geneva In the national languages of Switzerland the city is known as Genf , Ginevra and Genevra is the second-most-populous city in Switzerland and is the most populous city of Romandie, the French-speaking part of Switzerland...
and Basel
Basel
Basel or Basle In the national languages of Switzerland the city is also known as Bâle , Basilea and Basilea is Switzerland's third most populous city with about 166,000 inhabitants. Located where the Swiss, French and German borders meet, Basel also has suburbs in France and Germany...
. Aventicum never recovered from its pillages: Ammianus Marcellinus
Ammianus Marcellinus
Ammianus Marcellinus was a fourth-century Roman historian. He wrote the penultimate major historical account surviving from Antiquity...
noted in around 360 that "the city was once very illustrious, as its half-ruined buildings attest."
Transition to the Middle Ages
Stilicho
Flavius Stilicho was a high-ranking general , Patrician and Consul of the Western Roman Empire, notably of Vandal birth. Despised by the Roman population for his Germanic ancestry and Arian beliefs, Stilicho was in 408 executed along with his wife and son...
withdrew all troops from the Rhine. This made way for the subsequent and apparently non-violent takeover of western Switzerland by the Burgundians
Burgundians
The Burgundians were an East Germanic tribe which may have emigrated from mainland Scandinavia to the island of Bornholm, whose old form in Old Norse still was Burgundarholmr , and from there to mainland Europe...
(placed there by Flavius Aetius
Flavius Aëtius
Flavius Aëtius , dux et patricius, was a Roman general of the closing period of the Western Roman Empire. He was an able military commander and the most influential man in the Western Roman Empire for two decades . He managed policy in regard to the attacks of barbarian peoples pressing on the Empire...
in 443 as a shield against the invading Huns
Huns
The Huns were a group of nomadic people who, appearing from east of the Volga River, migrated into Europe c. AD 370 and established the vast Hunnic Empire there. Since de Guignes linked them with the Xiongnu, who had been northern neighbours of China 300 years prior to the emergence of the Huns,...
) and of Northern and Central Switzerland by the Alamanni
Alamanni
The Alamanni, Allemanni, or Alemanni were originally an alliance of Germanic tribes located around the upper Rhine river . One of the earliest references to them is the cognomen Alamannicus assumed by Roman Emperor Caracalla, who ruled the Roman Empire from 211 to 217 and claimed thereby to be...
. These settlements established the most important cultural and linguistic division in modern Switzerland: the Burgundian areas eventually became the French-speaking Romandie, while the people in the larger Eastern half – called la suisse alémanique in French – still speak variants of Alemannic German
Alemannic German
Alemannic is a group of dialects of the Upper German branch of the Germanic language family. It is spoken by approximately ten million people in six countries: Switzerland, Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein, France and Italy...
.
Raetia
Raetia
Raetia was a province of the Roman Empire, named after the Rhaetian people. It was bounded on the west by the country of the Helvetii, on the east by Noricum, on the north by Vindelicia, on the west by Cisalpine Gaul and on south by Venetia et Histria...
maintained its Roman traditions longer than the rest of Switzerland, but most of it was eventually assimilated as well, leaving only a small territory where a Vulgar Latin
Vulgar Latin
Vulgar Latin is any of the nonstandard forms of Latin from which the Romance languages developed. Because of its nonstandard nature, it had no official orthography. All written works used Classical Latin, with very few exceptions...
dialect, Romansh, is spoken to this day. The assassination of Aetius in 454 and the subsequent retreat of Roman forces to the south of the Alps marked the definitive end of Roman power in Switzerland, and the beginning of the transition to the Middle Ages
Middle Ages
The Middle Ages is a periodization of European history from the 5th century to the 15th century. The Middle Ages follows the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and precedes the Early Modern Era. It is the middle period of a three-period division of Western history: Classic, Medieval and Modern...
.