Dalmatian Italians
Encyclopedia
Dalmatian Italians are a mostly historical Italian national minority in the region of Dalmatia
, part of the Republics of Croatia
and Montenegro
.
They are currently represented in Croatia and Montenegro by the Italian National Community (Italian
: Comunita Nazionale Italiana) (CNI). The Italo-Croatian minorities treaty recognizes the Italian Union (Unione Italiana) as the political party officially representing the CNI in Croatia. The number of Dalmatian Italians in Croatia has fallen to 300, and the Italian Union concentrates on the Istria
n region and the city of Rijeka
(Fiume), which are home to the Istrian Italians
who are the vast majority of the Italian minority in Croatia (numbering around 30,000 citizens).
In Dalmatia the most important centers of the CNI are in Split (Spalato), Zadar
(Zara), and Kotor
(Cattaro). They have their own newspapers.
disappeared, according to scholar Theodor Mommsen
in his book "The Provinces of the Roman Empire".
During the Barbarian Invasions Avar
s allied with certain Slavic tribes, invaded and plundered Byzantine
Illyria
. This eventually led to the settlement of different Slavic tribes in the Balkans
.
The original Roman population endured within the coastal cities and in the inhospitable Dinaric Alps
(the latter were later known as "Morlachs
" or Vlachs).
The Dalmatian cities retained their Romanic culture and language in cities such as Jadera
(Zadar, Zara), Spalatum (Split, Spalato) and Ragusa
(Dubrovnik). Their own vulgar Latin
, developed in the Dalmatian language
, a now extinct Romance language
.
These coastal cities (politically part of the Byzantine Empire
) maintained political, cultural and economic links with Italy, through the Adriatic sea
. On the other side communications with the mainland were difficult because of the Dinaric Alps
. Due to the sharp orography
of Dalmatia, even communications between the different Dalmatian cities, occurred mainly trough the sea.
This helped Dalmatian cities to develop a unique Romance culture, despite the mostly Slavicized mainland.
In 997 A.D. the Venetian
Doge
Pietro Orseolo II, following repeated complaints by the Dalmatian city-states, commanded the Venetian fleet that attacked the Narentine pirates. On the Ascension Day in 998, Pietro Orseolo assumed the title of "Dux Dalmatianorum" (Duke of the Dalmatians), associating it with his son Giovanni Orseolo
.
It was the beginning of the Venetian influence in Dalmatia. However, while Venetian influence could always be felt, actual political rule over the province often changed hands between the Republic and other regional powers, namely the Byzantine Empire
, the Kingdom of Croatia
, and the Kingdom of Hungary
.
The Venetians could afford to concede relatively generous terms because their own principal aims was not the territorial aggrandizement sought by Hungary
, but economic suppression of any potential commercial competitors on the eastern Adriatic. This aim brought on the necessity of enforced economic stagnation for the Dalmatian city states, while the Hungarian feudal system promised greater political and commercial autonomy.
Hungary therefore also had its partisans; for in the Dalmatian city states, there were almost invariably two jealous political factions, each ready to oppose any measure advocated by its antagonist. The origin of this division seems here to have been economic. The farmers and the merchants who traded in the interior naturally favoured Hungary
, their most powerful neighbour on land; while the seafaring community looked to Venice
as mistress of the Adriatic. In return for protection, the cities often furnished a contingent to the army or navy of their suzerain, and sometimes paid tribute either in money or in kind.
The citizens clung to their municipal privileges, which were reaffirmed after the conquest of Dalmatia in 1102-1105 by Coloman
of Hungary. Subject to the royal assent they might elect their own chief magistrate, bishop and judges. Their Roman law
remained valid. They were even permitted to conclude separate alliances. No alien, not even a Hungarian, could reside in a city where he was unwelcome; and the man who disliked Hungarian dominion could emigrate with all his household and property. In lieu of tribute, the revenue from customs was in some cases shared equally by the king, chief magistrate, bishop and municipality. These rights and the analogous privileges granted by Venice were, however, too frequently infringed, Hungarian garrisons being quartered on unwilling towns, while Venice interfered with trade, with the appointment of bishops, or with the tenure of communal domains. Consequently the Dalmatians remained loyal only while it suited their interests, and insurrections frequently occurred.
Zara made no exception, and four outbreaks are recorded between 1180 and 1345, although Zara was treated with special consideration by its Venetian masters, who regarded its possession as essential to their maritime ascendancy.
The doubtful allegiance of the Dalmatians tended to protract the struggle between Venice and Hungary, which was further complicated by internal discord due largely to the spread of the Bogomil heresy
; and by many outside influences, such as the vague suzerainty still enjoyed by the Eastern emperors
during the 12th century; the assistance rendered to Venice by the armies of the Fourth Crusade
in 1202; and the Tartar
invasion of Dalmatia forty years later (see Trogir
).
In 1409, during the 20-year Hungarian civil war between King Sigismund
and the Neapolitan house of Anjou
, the losing contender, Ladislaus of Naples, sold his "rights" on Dalmatia to the Venetian Republic for a meager sum of 100,000 ducats. The more centralized merchant republic took control of the cities by the year 1420 (with the exception of the Republic of Ragusa
), they were to remain under Venetian rule for a period of 377 years (1420 - 1797). The southernmost area of Dalmatia (now part of coastal Montenegro
) was called Venetian Albania during that time.
In these centuries a process of gradual "Venecization" took place among the native population. The Romance Dalmatians of the cities were the most susceptible because of their similar culture and were completely assimilated. The Venetian dialect, which was already the lingua franca
of the Adriatic area, was adopted by the Latin Dalmatians of the cities (speakers of the Dalmatian
), as their own vernacular language. This process was aided by the constant migration between the Adriatic cities and involved even the independent Ragusa and the port of Fiume.
The larger Slavic population proved more resistant, partly because of its size and the linguistic unsimilarity, and partly because the Slavs (Croats and Serbs) were mostly situated outside the cities (in the hinterland and the islands).
The Dalmatian language, however, had already influenced the Dalmatian dialect of the Croatian language
, the Chakavian dialect
, with the Venetian dialect influencing the Albanian language
.
Starting from the 15th century, Italian replaced Latin as the language of culture in the Venetian Dalmatia and in the Republic of Ragusa. This resulted in a process of partial assimilation of the Slavic population, which was already present in the coastal cities and islands for several centuries (particularly in Spalatum and Ragusa).
On the other hand, more and more Slavs (Catholic and Orthodox) were pushed into Venetian Dalmatia, to escape the Ottomans. This resulted in an increase of the Slavic presence in the cities.
, the Republic of Venice
was dissolved. The former Venetian Dalmatia was included in the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy
from 1805 to 1809 (the Republic of Ragusa
was included in 1808), and in Illyrian Provinces
from 1809. After the final defeat of Napoleon, the entire territory was granted to the Austrian Empire
by the Congress of Vienna
in 1815. This marked the beginning of 100 years (1815–1918) of Austrian rule in Dalmatia.
During the period of the Austrian Empire
, the Kingdom of Dalmatia
was a separate administrative unit.
After the revolutions of 1848
and after the 1860s, as a result of the romantic nationalism
, two factions appeared.
The Italian or Autonomist faction (or the "Irredentist
faction"), whose political goals of which varied from autonomy within the Austro-Hungarian Empire, to a political union with Italy
.
The Croatian faction (later called Unionist faction or "Puntari"), led by the People's Party and, to a lesser extent, the Party of Rights, both of which advocated the union of Dalmatia with Croatia-Slavonia which were under Hungarian administration.
The political alliances in Dalmatia shifted over time. At the beginning, the Unionists and Autonomists were allied together, against the centralism of Vienna. After a while, when the national question came to prominence, they split.
In 1867, the Empire was reorganized as the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Rijeka
and the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia
were assigned to the Hungarian part of the Empire, while Dalmatia and Istria
remained in the Austrian part.
The Unionist faction won the elections in Dalmatia in 1870, but they were prevented from following through with the merge with Croatia
and Slavonia
due to the intervention of the Austrian imperial government.
The Austrian century was a time of decline for the Dalmatian Italians. Starting from the 1840s, large numbers of the Italian minority were passively croatized
, or had emigrated as a consequence of the unfavorable economic situation.
According to the linguist Matteo Bartoli
, by the end of the Venetian rule, 33% of the Dalmatian population was Italian-speaking.
According to two Austro-Hungarian censi, the Dalmatian Italians formed 12.5% of the population in 1865, and 3.1% in 1890.
Following the conclusion of World War I
and the disintegration of Austria-Hungary
, the vast majority of Dalmatia became part of the newly formed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia
).
Italy
entered the war on the side of the Entente
in 1915, after the secret London Pact
, which granted to Italy a large portion of Dalmatia. However, the pact was nullified in the Treaty of Versailles
due to the objections of American president Woodrow Wilson
and the South Slavic delegations. Apart from Istria (and later Rijeka), Italy nevertheless received the city of Zara, along with the islands of Cherso
, Lussino
, and Lagosta
. A large number of Italians (allegedly nearly 20,000) moved from the areas of Dalmatia assigned to Yugoslavia and resettled in Italy (mainly in Zara).
Relations with the Kingdom of Yugoslavia were severely affected and constantly remained tense, because of the dispute over Dalmatia and because of the lengthy dispute over the city-port of Fiume
, which had to become a free state according to the League of Nations
, but was occupied by Italian rebels led by the writer Gabriele d'Annunzio
. In 1924 the Treaty of Rapallo
divided the city between Italy and Yugoslavia .
In 1922 Fascism
came to power in Italy. The fascist policies included strong nationalistic policies. Minority rights were severely reduced. This included the shutting down of educational facilities in Slavic languages, forced Italianization of citizen's names, and the brutal persecution of dissenters.
In Zara some Croats left, due to these oppressive policies of the fascist government. Same happened with the Italian minority in Jugoslavia. In fact Italian minorities living in Yugoslavia had some degree of protection, according to the Rapallo Treaty (such as Italian citizenship and primary instruction).
All this increased the intense resentment between the two ethnic groups. Where in 19th century there was conflict only on the upper classes, there was now an increasing mutual hatred present in varying degrees among the entire population.
was invaded by the Wehrmacht in 1941
and parts of Dalmatia were annexed to Italy as the Governatorate of Dalmatia (Governatorato di Dalmazia) with Zara as its capital. The local population was subject to violent forced italianization
by the fascist government. Several concentration camps were established by Italian authorities to house these "enemies of the state", including the infamous Gonars
and Rab concentration camp
s. The Italian authorities were not able to maintain full control over the hinterland and the interior of the islands, however, and they were partially controlled by the Yugoslav Partisans after 1943.
Following the Italian capitulation of 1943, the German Army (Wehrmacht Heer) took over the occupation after a short period of Partisan control (officially, the Governorship of Dalmatia
was handed to the control of the puppet Independent State of Croatia
). During this period a large proportion of the coastal city population volunteered to join the Partisans (most notably that of Split, where a third of the total population left the city), while many Italian garrisons deserted to fight as Partisan units and still others were forced to surrender their weapons and equipment. As Soviet troops advanced in the Balkans in 1944, a small-scale evacuation took place in Zadar, while Marshall Tito
's Partisans (since 1942 recognized as Allied troops) simultaneously moved to liberate the remainder of Axis-occupied Dalmatia. Split was henceforth the provisional capital of Allied-liberated Croatia.
In 1943-44 the city of Zadar suffered 54 air raids
by the Allies
and it was severely damaged, with heavy civilian casualties. Many civilians had already escaped to Italy when the Partisans liberated the city.
After World War II Italy ceded all remaining Italian areas in Dalmatia to the new SFR Yugoslavia. This was followed by a further emigration, referred to as the Istrian exodus
, of nearly all the remaining Italians in Dalmatia. Italian language schools in Zadar were closed in 1953, due to a dispute between Italy and Yugoslavia over Trieste. Currently there are around 300 Italians in Croatian Dalmatia, and around 500 in coastal Montenegro. In 2010 a kindergarten for the small Italian community of Zara was going to be opened, promoted by the local Italian association of Rina Villani, but was suddenly closed by Croatian authorities.
They are to be found in coastal cities:
The Dalmatian Italians were a fundamental presence in Dalmatia, when the process of political unification of the Italians, Croats and Serbs started at the beginning of the 19th century. The 1816 Austro-Hungarian census registered 66,000 Italian speaking people between the 301,000 inhabitants of Dalmatia, or 22% of the total dalmatian population.
After those years their presence constantly decreased, until their nearly disappearance after WWII. That means that in nearly two centuries the Dalmatian Italians' presence went down from nearly a quarter of the total population of Dalmatia, to a mere 300 in Croatia and 500 in Montenegro.
In the city of Rijeka
(Fiume), that geographer Vialli considers partially Dalmatian, 7,000 Italians have a local Italian Community, the Dante Alighieri and the Italian Drama (Dramma Italiano) (a theatre organization in Italian language, based in the Croat National Theatre Ivan Zajc).
from territories of the Kingdom of Italy
obtained by SFR Yugoslavia
after World War 2. Many thousands moved to Italy, with many continuing to live in a suburb of Rome
often referred to as the Quartiere Giuliano-Dalmata. Some have become world renowned, such as the fashion designer Ottavio Missoni, the writer Enzo Bettiza
, and the industrial tycoon Giorgio Luxardo, founder of the Maraschino
liquor distillery.
Others were part of the general Italian diaspora
, some relocating as displaced person
s to other countries, especially to Australia
, the United States
, Canada
and Argentina
.
The British Encyclopedia
states that:
In the XIX century the cultural influence from Italy
originated the editing in Zadar of the first dalmatian newspaper, in Italian and Croatian
: Il Regio Dalmata - Kraglski Dalmatin, founded and published by the Italian Bartolomeo Benincasa in 1806.
The Regio Dalmata - Kraglski Dalmatin was stamped in the tipography of Antonio Luigi Battara and was the first done in croat language.
The Dalmatian Italians contributed to the cultural development of theater and opera in Dalmatia. The Zara "Teatro Verdi" was their main symbol until 1945.
Small list of notable "Dalmatian Italians"
a) in Italy:
b) in Croatia:
The most popular periodical for Dalmatian Italians is Il Dalmata, published in Trieste
by Renzo de' Vidovich.
Dalmatia
Dalmatia is a historical region on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. It stretches from the island of Rab in the northwest to the Bay of Kotor in the southeast. The hinterland, the Dalmatian Zagora, ranges from fifty kilometers in width in the north to just a few kilometers in the south....
, part of the Republics of Croatia
Croatia
Croatia , officially the Republic of Croatia , is a unitary democratic parliamentary republic in Europe at the crossroads of the Mitteleuropa, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean. Its capital and largest city is Zagreb. The country is divided into 20 counties and the city of Zagreb. Croatia covers ...
and Montenegro
Montenegro
Montenegro Montenegrin: Crna Gora Црна Гора , meaning "Black Mountain") is a country located in Southeastern Europe. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea to the south-west and is bordered by Croatia to the west, Bosnia and Herzegovina to the northwest, Serbia to the northeast and Albania to the...
.
Characteristics
After the 1840s the ethnic group, that was nearly 20% of all Dalmatian population, suffered from an apparently constant trend of decreasing presence and now numbers only around 1,000 people. Throughout history, however, this group (though small in numbers in the last two centuries) exerted a disproportionally significant influence on the region.They are currently represented in Croatia and Montenegro by the Italian National Community (Italian
Italian language
Italian is a Romance language spoken mainly in Europe: Italy, Switzerland, San Marino, Vatican City, by minorities in Malta, Monaco, Croatia, Slovenia, France, Libya, Eritrea, and Somalia, and by immigrant communities in the Americas and Australia...
: Comunita Nazionale Italiana) (CNI). The Italo-Croatian minorities treaty recognizes the Italian Union (Unione Italiana) as the political party officially representing the CNI in Croatia. The number of Dalmatian Italians in Croatia has fallen to 300, and the Italian Union concentrates on the Istria
Istria
Istria , formerly Histria , is the largest peninsula in the Adriatic Sea. The peninsula is located at the head of the Adriatic between the Gulf of Trieste and the Bay of Kvarner...
n region and the city of Rijeka
Rijeka
Rijeka is the principal seaport and the third largest city in Croatia . It is located on Kvarner Bay, an inlet of the Adriatic Sea and has a population of 128,735 inhabitants...
(Fiume), which are home to the Istrian Italians
Istrian Italians
Istrian Italians are the ethnic group in the northern Adriatic region of Istria, related to the Italian people of Italy. Historically they are descendants from the original Latinized population of Roman Istria, from the Venetian-speaking settlers who came to Istria during the Republic of Venice,...
who are the vast majority of the Italian minority in Croatia (numbering around 30,000 citizens).
In Dalmatia the most important centers of the CNI are in Split (Spalato), Zadar
Zadar
Zadar is a city in Croatia on the Adriatic Sea. It is the centre of Zadar county and the wider northern Dalmatian region. Population of the city is 75,082 citizens...
(Zara), and Kotor
Kotor
Kotor is a coastal city in Montenegro. It is located in a secluded part of the Gulf of Kotor. The city has a population of 13,510 and is the administrative center of the municipality....
(Cattaro). They have their own newspapers.
Roman Dalmatia and the Middle ages
Roman Dalmatia was fully Latinized by 476 AD when the Western Roman EmpireWestern Roman Empire
The Western Roman Empire was the western half of the Roman Empire after its division by Diocletian in 285; the other half of the Roman Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire, commonly referred to today as the Byzantine Empire....
disappeared, according to scholar Theodor Mommsen
Theodor Mommsen
Christian Matthias Theodor Mommsen was a German classical scholar, historian, jurist, journalist, politician, archaeologist, and writer generally regarded as the greatest classicist of the 19th century. His work regarding Roman history is still of fundamental importance for contemporary research...
in his book "The Provinces of the Roman Empire".
During the Barbarian Invasions Avar
Eurasian Avars
The Eurasian Avars or Ancient Avars were a highly organized nomadic confederacy of mixed origins. They were ruled by a khagan, who was surrounded by a tight-knit entourage of nomad warriors, an organization characteristic of Turko-Mongol groups...
s allied with certain Slavic tribes, invaded and plundered Byzantine
Byzantine
Byzantine usually refers to the Roman Empire during the Middle Ages.Byzantine may also refer to:* A citizen of the Byzantine Empire, or native Greek during the Middle Ages...
Illyria
Illyria
In classical antiquity, Illyria was a region in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula inhabited by the Illyrians....
. This eventually led to the settlement of different Slavic tribes in the Balkans
Balkans
The Balkans is a geopolitical and cultural region of southeastern Europe...
.
The original Roman population endured within the coastal cities and in the inhospitable Dinaric Alps
Dinaric Alps
The Dinaric Alps or Dinarides form a mountain chain in Southern Europe, spanning areas of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Kosovo, Albania and Montenegro....
(the latter were later known as "Morlachs
Morlachs
Morlachs were a population of Vlachs. In another version their name comes from the slavic terms of "morski-Vlasi" or Sea Vlachs...
" or Vlachs).
The Dalmatian cities retained their Romanic culture and language in cities such as Jadera
Zadar
Zadar is a city in Croatia on the Adriatic Sea. It is the centre of Zadar county and the wider northern Dalmatian region. Population of the city is 75,082 citizens...
(Zadar, Zara), Spalatum (Split, Spalato) and Ragusa
Dubrovnik
Dubrovnik is a Croatian city on the Adriatic Sea coast, positioned at the terminal end of the Isthmus of Dubrovnik. It is one of the most prominent tourist destinations on the Adriatic, a seaport and the centre of Dubrovnik-Neretva county. Its total population is 42,641...
(Dubrovnik). Their own vulgar Latin
Vulgar Latin
Vulgar Latin is any of the nonstandard forms of Latin from which the Romance languages developed. Because of its nonstandard nature, it had no official orthography. All written works used Classical Latin, with very few exceptions...
, developed in the Dalmatian language
Dalmatian language
Dalmatian was a Romance language spoken in the Dalmatia region of Croatia, and as far south as Kotor in Montenegro. The name refers to a pre-Roman tribe of the Illyrian linguistic group, Dalmatae...
, a now extinct Romance language
Romance languages
The Romance languages are a branch of the Indo-European language family, more precisely of the Italic languages subfamily, comprising all the languages that descend from Vulgar Latin, the language of ancient Rome...
.
These coastal cities (politically part of the Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire during the periods of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, centred on the capital of Constantinople. Known simply as the Roman Empire or Romania to its inhabitants and neighbours, the Empire was the direct continuation of the Ancient Roman State...
) maintained political, cultural and economic links with Italy, through the Adriatic sea
Adriatic Sea
The Adriatic Sea is a body of water separating the Italian Peninsula from the Balkan peninsula, and the system of the Apennine Mountains from that of the Dinaric Alps and adjacent ranges...
. On the other side communications with the mainland were difficult because of the Dinaric Alps
Dinaric Alps
The Dinaric Alps or Dinarides form a mountain chain in Southern Europe, spanning areas of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Kosovo, Albania and Montenegro....
. Due to the sharp orography
Orography
Orography is the study of the formation and relief of mountains, and can more broadly include hills, and any part of a region's elevated terrain...
of Dalmatia, even communications between the different Dalmatian cities, occurred mainly trough the sea.
This helped Dalmatian cities to develop a unique Romance culture, despite the mostly Slavicized mainland.
In 997 A.D. the Venetian
Republic of Venice
The Republic of Venice or Venetian Republic was a state originating from the city of Venice in Northeastern Italy. It existed for over a millennium, from the late 7th century until 1797. It was formally known as the Most Serene Republic of Venice and is often referred to as La Serenissima, in...
Doge
Doge of Venice
The Doge of Venice , often mistranslated Duke was the chief magistrate and leader of the Most Serene Republic of Venice for over a thousand years. Doges of Venice were elected for life by the city-state's aristocracy. Commonly the person selected as Doge was the shrewdest elder in the city...
Pietro Orseolo II, following repeated complaints by the Dalmatian city-states, commanded the Venetian fleet that attacked the Narentine pirates. On the Ascension Day in 998, Pietro Orseolo assumed the title of "Dux Dalmatianorum" (Duke of the Dalmatians), associating it with his son Giovanni Orseolo
Giovanni Orseolo
Giovanni Orseolo was the first Venetian to hold power in Dalmatia, holding the title of Dux Dalmatiae.Giovanni's father Pietro II Orseolo was the Doge of Venice....
.
It was the beginning of the Venetian influence in Dalmatia. However, while Venetian influence could always be felt, actual political rule over the province often changed hands between the Republic and other regional powers, namely the Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire during the periods of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, centred on the capital of Constantinople. Known simply as the Roman Empire or Romania to its inhabitants and neighbours, the Empire was the direct continuation of the Ancient Roman State...
, the Kingdom of Croatia
Kingdom of Croatia (Medieval)
The Kingdom of Croatia , also known as the Kingdom of the Croats , was a medieval kingdom covering most of what is today Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Balkans.Established in 925, it ruled as a sovereign state for almost two centuries...
, and the Kingdom of Hungary
Kingdom of Hungary in the Middle Ages
The Kingdom of Hungary was formed from the previous Principality of Hungarywith the coronation of Stephen I in AD 1000. This was a result of the conversion of Géza of Hungary to the Western Church in the 970s....
.
Hungary
Hungary , officially the Republic of Hungary , is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is situated in the Carpathian Basin and is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine and Romania to the east, Serbia and Croatia to the south, Slovenia to the southwest and Austria to the west. The...
, but economic suppression of any potential commercial competitors on the eastern Adriatic. This aim brought on the necessity of enforced economic stagnation for the Dalmatian city states, while the Hungarian feudal system promised greater political and commercial autonomy.
Hungary therefore also had its partisans; for in the Dalmatian city states, there were almost invariably two jealous political factions, each ready to oppose any measure advocated by its antagonist. The origin of this division seems here to have been economic. The farmers and the merchants who traded in the interior naturally favoured Hungary
Hungary
Hungary , officially the Republic of Hungary , is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is situated in the Carpathian Basin and is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine and Romania to the east, Serbia and Croatia to the south, Slovenia to the southwest and Austria to the west. The...
, their most powerful neighbour on land; while the seafaring community looked to Venice
Venice
Venice is a city in northern Italy which is renowned for the beauty of its setting, its architecture and its artworks. It is the capital of the Veneto region...
as mistress of the Adriatic. In return for protection, the cities often furnished a contingent to the army or navy of their suzerain, and sometimes paid tribute either in money or in kind.
The citizens clung to their municipal privileges, which were reaffirmed after the conquest of Dalmatia in 1102-1105 by Coloman
Coloman
Coloman, , , ; )* Coloman I. the Book-lover* Coloman of Galicia-Lodomeria * Saint Coloman of Stockerau * Colomán Trabado Pérez...
of Hungary. Subject to the royal assent they might elect their own chief magistrate, bishop and judges. Their Roman law
Roman law
Roman law is the legal system of ancient Rome, and the legal developments which occurred before the 7th century AD — when the Roman–Byzantine state adopted Greek as the language of government. The development of Roman law comprises more than a thousand years of jurisprudence — from the Twelve...
remained valid. They were even permitted to conclude separate alliances. No alien, not even a Hungarian, could reside in a city where he was unwelcome; and the man who disliked Hungarian dominion could emigrate with all his household and property. In lieu of tribute, the revenue from customs was in some cases shared equally by the king, chief magistrate, bishop and municipality. These rights and the analogous privileges granted by Venice were, however, too frequently infringed, Hungarian garrisons being quartered on unwilling towns, while Venice interfered with trade, with the appointment of bishops, or with the tenure of communal domains. Consequently the Dalmatians remained loyal only while it suited their interests, and insurrections frequently occurred.
Zara made no exception, and four outbreaks are recorded between 1180 and 1345, although Zara was treated with special consideration by its Venetian masters, who regarded its possession as essential to their maritime ascendancy.
The doubtful allegiance of the Dalmatians tended to protract the struggle between Venice and Hungary, which was further complicated by internal discord due largely to the spread of the Bogomil heresy
Bogomilism
Bogomilism was a Gnostic religiopolitical sect founded in the First Bulgarian Empire by the priest Bogomil during the reign of Tsar Petar I in the 10th century...
; and by many outside influences, such as the vague suzerainty still enjoyed by the Eastern emperors
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire during the periods of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, centred on the capital of Constantinople. Known simply as the Roman Empire or Romania to its inhabitants and neighbours, the Empire was the direct continuation of the Ancient Roman State...
during the 12th century; the assistance rendered to Venice by the armies of the Fourth Crusade
Fourth Crusade
The Fourth Crusade was originally intended to conquer Muslim-controlled Jerusalem by means of an invasion through Egypt. Instead, in April 1204, the Crusaders of Western Europe invaded and conquered the Christian city of Constantinople, capital of the Eastern Roman Empire...
in 1202; and the Tartar
Tartar
Tartar may refer to: *An alternative spelling of the name Tatars, an ethnic group in present-day Russia.* Tartars, the name of the athletic teams from 1927–1999 at Wayne State University in Detroit.*Tartar sauce*Tartar on teeth, hardened dental plaque...
invasion of Dalmatia forty years later (see Trogir
Trogir
Trogir is a historic town and harbour on the Adriatic coast in Split-Dalmatia County, Croatia, with a population of 12,995 and a total municipality population of 13,322 . The historic city of Trogir is situated on a small island between the Croatian mainland and the island of Čiovo...
).
Republic of Venice (1420 - 1796)
Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor
Sigismund of Luxemburg KG was King of Hungary, of Croatia from 1387 to 1437, of Bohemia from 1419, and Holy Roman Emperor for four years from 1433 until 1437, the last Emperor of the House of Luxemburg. He was also King of Italy from 1431, and of Germany from 1411...
and the Neapolitan house of Anjou
Anjou
Anjou is a former county , duchy and province centred on the city of Angers in the lower Loire Valley of western France. It corresponds largely to the present-day département of Maine-et-Loire...
, the losing contender, Ladislaus of Naples, sold his "rights" on Dalmatia to the Venetian Republic for a meager sum of 100,000 ducats. The more centralized merchant republic took control of the cities by the year 1420 (with the exception of the Republic of Ragusa
Republic of Ragusa
The Republic of Ragusa or Republic of Dubrovnik was a maritime republic centered on the city of Dubrovnik in Dalmatia , that existed from 1358 to 1808...
), they were to remain under Venetian rule for a period of 377 years (1420 - 1797). The southernmost area of Dalmatia (now part of coastal Montenegro
Montenegro
Montenegro Montenegrin: Crna Gora Црна Гора , meaning "Black Mountain") is a country located in Southeastern Europe. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea to the south-west and is bordered by Croatia to the west, Bosnia and Herzegovina to the northwest, Serbia to the northeast and Albania to the...
) was called Venetian Albania during that time.
In these centuries a process of gradual "Venecization" took place among the native population. The Romance Dalmatians of the cities were the most susceptible because of their similar culture and were completely assimilated. The Venetian dialect, which was already the lingua franca
Lingua franca
A lingua franca is a language systematically used to make communication possible between people not sharing a mother tongue, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both mother tongues.-Characteristics:"Lingua franca" is a functionally defined term, independent of the linguistic...
of the Adriatic area, was adopted by the Latin Dalmatians of the cities (speakers of the Dalmatian
Dalmatian language
Dalmatian was a Romance language spoken in the Dalmatia region of Croatia, and as far south as Kotor in Montenegro. The name refers to a pre-Roman tribe of the Illyrian linguistic group, Dalmatae...
), as their own vernacular language. This process was aided by the constant migration between the Adriatic cities and involved even the independent Ragusa and the port of Fiume.
The larger Slavic population proved more resistant, partly because of its size and the linguistic unsimilarity, and partly because the Slavs (Croats and Serbs) were mostly situated outside the cities (in the hinterland and the islands).
The Dalmatian language, however, had already influenced the Dalmatian dialect of the Croatian language
Croatian language
Croatian is the collective name for the standard language and dialects spoken by Croats, principally in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Serbian province of Vojvodina and other neighbouring countries...
, the Chakavian dialect
Chakavian dialect
Chakavian or Čakavian is a dialect of the Croatian language. The name stems from the word for "what?", which is "ča" in Čakavian...
, with the Venetian dialect influencing the Albanian language
Albanian language
Albanian is an Indo-European language spoken by approximately 7.6 million people, primarily in Albania and Kosovo but also in other areas of the Balkans in which there is an Albanian population, including western Macedonia, southern Montenegro, southern Serbia and northwestern Greece...
.
Starting from the 15th century, Italian replaced Latin as the language of culture in the Venetian Dalmatia and in the Republic of Ragusa. This resulted in a process of partial assimilation of the Slavic population, which was already present in the coastal cities and islands for several centuries (particularly in Spalatum and Ragusa).
On the other hand, more and more Slavs (Catholic and Orthodox) were pushed into Venetian Dalmatia, to escape the Ottomans. This resulted in an increase of the Slavic presence in the cities.
Napoleonic era (1797 - 1815)
In 1797, during the Napoleonic warsNapoleonic Wars
The Napoleonic Wars were a series of wars declared against Napoleon's French Empire by opposing coalitions that ran from 1803 to 1815. As a continuation of the wars sparked by the French Revolution of 1789, they revolutionised European armies and played out on an unprecedented scale, mainly due to...
, the Republic of Venice
Republic of Venice
The Republic of Venice or Venetian Republic was a state originating from the city of Venice in Northeastern Italy. It existed for over a millennium, from the late 7th century until 1797. It was formally known as the Most Serene Republic of Venice and is often referred to as La Serenissima, in...
was dissolved. The former Venetian Dalmatia was included in the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy
Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)
The Kingdom of Italy was a state founded in Northern Italy by Napoleon, fully influenced by revolutionary France, that ended with his defeat and fall.-Constitutional statutes:...
from 1805 to 1809 (the Republic of Ragusa
Republic of Ragusa
The Republic of Ragusa or Republic of Dubrovnik was a maritime republic centered on the city of Dubrovnik in Dalmatia , that existed from 1358 to 1808...
was included in 1808), and in Illyrian Provinces
Illyrian provinces
The Illyrian Provinces was an autonomous province of the Napoleonic French Empire on the north and east coasts of the Adriatic Sea between 1809 and 1816. Its capital was established at Laybach...
from 1809. After the final defeat of Napoleon, the entire territory was granted to the Austrian Empire
Austrian Empire
The Austrian Empire was a modern era successor empire, which was centered on what is today's Austria and which officially lasted from 1804 to 1867. It was followed by the Empire of Austria-Hungary, whose proclamation was a diplomatic move that elevated Hungary's status within the Austrian Empire...
by the Congress of Vienna
Congress of Vienna
The Congress of Vienna was a conference of ambassadors of European states chaired by Klemens Wenzel von Metternich, and held in Vienna from September, 1814 to June, 1815. The objective of the Congress was to settle the many issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars, the Napoleonic Wars,...
in 1815. This marked the beginning of 100 years (1815–1918) of Austrian rule in Dalmatia.
Austrian Empire (1815 - 1918)
Austrian Empire
The Austrian Empire was a modern era successor empire, which was centered on what is today's Austria and which officially lasted from 1804 to 1867. It was followed by the Empire of Austria-Hungary, whose proclamation was a diplomatic move that elevated Hungary's status within the Austrian Empire...
, the Kingdom of Dalmatia
Kingdom of Dalmatia
The Kingdom of Dalmatia was an administrative division of the Habsburg Monarchy from 1815 to 1918. Its capital was Zadar.-History:...
was a separate administrative unit.
After the revolutions of 1848
Revolutions of 1848
The European Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Spring of Nations, Springtime of the Peoples or the Year of Revolution, were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe in 1848. It was the first Europe-wide collapse of traditional authority, but within a year reactionary...
and after the 1860s, as a result of the romantic nationalism
Romantic nationalism
Romantic nationalism is the form of nationalism in which the state derives its political legitimacy as an organic consequence of the unity of those it governs...
, two factions appeared.
The Italian or Autonomist faction (or the "Irredentist
Italia irredenta
Italian irredentism was an Italian Irredentist movement that aimed at the unification of all ethnically Italian peoples....
faction"), whose political goals of which varied from autonomy within the Austro-Hungarian Empire, to a political union with Italy
Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)
The Kingdom of Italy was a state forged in 1861 by the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which was its legal predecessor state...
.
The Croatian faction (later called Unionist faction or "Puntari"), led by the People's Party and, to a lesser extent, the Party of Rights, both of which advocated the union of Dalmatia with Croatia-Slavonia which were under Hungarian administration.
The political alliances in Dalmatia shifted over time. At the beginning, the Unionists and Autonomists were allied together, against the centralism of Vienna. After a while, when the national question came to prominence, they split.
In 1867, the Empire was reorganized as the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Rijeka
Rijeka
Rijeka is the principal seaport and the third largest city in Croatia . It is located on Kvarner Bay, an inlet of the Adriatic Sea and has a population of 128,735 inhabitants...
and the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia
Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia
The Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia or Croatia Slavonia was an autonomous kingdom within the Austro-Hungarian Empire. It was part of the Hungarian Kingdom within the dual Austro-Hungarian state, being within the Lands of the Crown of St. Stephen or Transleithania...
were assigned to the Hungarian part of the Empire, while Dalmatia and Istria
Istria
Istria , formerly Histria , is the largest peninsula in the Adriatic Sea. The peninsula is located at the head of the Adriatic between the Gulf of Trieste and the Bay of Kvarner...
remained in the Austrian part.
The Unionist faction won the elections in Dalmatia in 1870, but they were prevented from following through with the merge with Croatia
Croatia
Croatia , officially the Republic of Croatia , is a unitary democratic parliamentary republic in Europe at the crossroads of the Mitteleuropa, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean. Its capital and largest city is Zagreb. The country is divided into 20 counties and the city of Zagreb. Croatia covers ...
and Slavonia
Slavonia
Slavonia is a geographical and historical region in eastern Croatia...
due to the intervention of the Austrian imperial government.
The Austrian century was a time of decline for the Dalmatian Italians. Starting from the 1840s, large numbers of the Italian minority were passively croatized
Croatisation
Croatisation or Croatization is a term used to describe a process of cultural assimilation, and its consequences, in which people or lands ethnically partially Croat or non-Croat become -voluntary or forced- Croat.- Uskoks :...
, or had emigrated as a consequence of the unfavorable economic situation.
According to the linguist Matteo Bartoli
Matteo Bartoli
Matteo Giulio Bartoli was an Italian linguist from Istria ....
, by the end of the Venetian rule, 33% of the Dalmatian population was Italian-speaking.
According to two Austro-Hungarian censi, the Dalmatian Italians formed 12.5% of the population in 1865, and 3.1% in 1890.
The interwar period (1918 - 1941)
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
and the disintegration of Austria-Hungary
Treaty of Saint-Germain
The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, was signed on 10 September 1919 by the victorious Allies of World War I on the one hand and by the new Republic of Austria on the other...
, the vast majority of Dalmatia became part of the newly formed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia
Kingdom of Yugoslavia
The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was a state stretching from the Western Balkans to Central Europe which existed during the often-tumultuous interwar era of 1918–1941...
).
Italy
Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)
The Kingdom of Italy was a state forged in 1861 by the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which was its legal predecessor state...
entered the war on the side of the Entente
Allies of World War I
The Entente Powers were the countries at war with the Central Powers during World War I. The members of the Triple Entente were the United Kingdom, France, and the Russian Empire; Italy entered the war on their side in 1915...
in 1915, after the secret London Pact
London Pact
London Pact , or more correctly, the Treaty of London, 1915, was a secret pact between Italy and Triple Entente, signed in London on 26 April 1915 by the Kingdom of Italy, Great Britain, France and Russia....
, which granted to Italy a large portion of Dalmatia. However, the pact was nullified in the Treaty of Versailles
Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The other Central Powers on the German side of...
due to the objections of American president Woodrow Wilson
Woodrow Wilson
Thomas Woodrow Wilson was the 28th President of the United States, from 1913 to 1921. A leader of the Progressive Movement, he served as President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910, and then as the Governor of New Jersey from 1911 to 1913...
and the South Slavic delegations. Apart from Istria (and later Rijeka), Italy nevertheless received the city of Zara, along with the islands of Cherso
Cres
Cres is an Adriatic island in Croatia. It is one of the northern island in the Kvarner Gulf and can be reached via ferry from the island Krk or from the Istrian peninsula ....
, Lussino
Lošinj
Lošinj is a Croatian island in the northern Adriatic Sea, in the Kvarner Gulf. It is almost due south of the city of Rijeka and part of the Primorje-Gorski Kotar county....
, and Lagosta
Lastovo
Lastovo is an island municipality in the Dubrovnik-Neretva County in Croatia. The municipality consists of 46 islands with a total population of 792 people, of which 93% are ethnic Croats, and a land area of approximately . The biggest island in the municipality is also named Lastovo, as is the...
. A large number of Italians (allegedly nearly 20,000) moved from the areas of Dalmatia assigned to Yugoslavia and resettled in Italy (mainly in Zara).
Relations with the Kingdom of Yugoslavia were severely affected and constantly remained tense, because of the dispute over Dalmatia and because of the lengthy dispute over the city-port of Fiume
Rijeka
Rijeka is the principal seaport and the third largest city in Croatia . It is located on Kvarner Bay, an inlet of the Adriatic Sea and has a population of 128,735 inhabitants...
, which had to become a free state according to the League of Nations
League of Nations
The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organization founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first permanent international organization whose principal mission was to maintain world peace...
, but was occupied by Italian rebels led by the writer Gabriele d'Annunzio
Gabriele D'Annunzio
Gabriele D'Annunzio or d'Annunzio was an Italian poet, journalist, novelist, and dramatist...
. In 1924 the Treaty of Rapallo
Treaty of Rapallo
Following World War I there were two Treaties of Rapallo, both named after Rapallo, a resort on the Ligurian coast of Italy:* Treaty of Rapallo, 1920, an agreement between Italy and the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes for the independence of the state of Fiume and Italian renunciation...
divided the city between Italy and Yugoslavia .
In 1922 Fascism
Fascism
Fascism is a radical authoritarian nationalist political ideology. Fascists seek to rejuvenate their nation based on commitment to the national community as an organic entity, in which individuals are bound together in national identity by suprapersonal connections of ancestry, culture, and blood...
came to power in Italy. The fascist policies included strong nationalistic policies. Minority rights were severely reduced. This included the shutting down of educational facilities in Slavic languages, forced Italianization of citizen's names, and the brutal persecution of dissenters.
In Zara some Croats left, due to these oppressive policies of the fascist government. Same happened with the Italian minority in Jugoslavia. In fact Italian minorities living in Yugoslavia had some degree of protection, according to the Rapallo Treaty (such as Italian citizenship and primary instruction).
All this increased the intense resentment between the two ethnic groups. Where in 19th century there was conflict only on the upper classes, there was now an increasing mutual hatred present in varying degrees among the entire population.
World War II and post-war
The Kingdom of YugoslaviaKingdom of Yugoslavia
The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was a state stretching from the Western Balkans to Central Europe which existed during the often-tumultuous interwar era of 1918–1941...
was invaded by the Wehrmacht in 1941
Invasion of Yugoslavia
The Invasion of Yugoslavia , also known as the April War , was the Axis Powers' attack on the Kingdom of Yugoslavia which began on 6 April 1941 during World War II...
and parts of Dalmatia were annexed to Italy as the Governatorate of Dalmatia (Governatorato di Dalmazia) with Zara as its capital. The local population was subject to violent forced italianization
Italianization
Italianization or Italianisation is a term used to describe a process of cultural assimilation in which ethnically non or partially Italian people or territory become Italian. The process can be voluntary or forced...
by the fascist government. Several concentration camps were established by Italian authorities to house these "enemies of the state", including the infamous Gonars
Gonars concentration camp
On February 23, 1942 the Italian fascist regime established a concentration camp in Gonars, a town with approx. 4,600 inhabitants near Palmanova in the Province of Udine in northeastern Italy.Most of the prisoners were from present day Slovenia and Croatia...
and Rab concentration camp
Rab concentration camp
The Rab concentration camp was an Italian concentration and internment camp on the Adriatic island of Rab, now part of the Republic of Croatia, during World War II. The camp was located at...
s. The Italian authorities were not able to maintain full control over the hinterland and the interior of the islands, however, and they were partially controlled by the Yugoslav Partisans after 1943.
Following the Italian capitulation of 1943, the German Army (Wehrmacht Heer) took over the occupation after a short period of Partisan control (officially, the Governorship of Dalmatia
Governorship of Dalmatia
The Governorate of Dalmatia was a province of Italy, created in April 1941 from occupied Yugoslav territory annexed after the German blitzkrieg Invasion of Yugoslavia.-Characteristics:...
was handed to the control of the puppet Independent State of Croatia
Independent State of Croatia
The Independent State of Croatia was a World War II puppet state of Nazi Germany, established on a part of Axis-occupied Yugoslavia. The NDH was founded on 10 April 1941, after the invasion of Yugoslavia by the Axis powers. All of Bosnia and Herzegovina was annexed to NDH, together with some parts...
). During this period a large proportion of the coastal city population volunteered to join the Partisans (most notably that of Split, where a third of the total population left the city), while many Italian garrisons deserted to fight as Partisan units and still others were forced to surrender their weapons and equipment. As Soviet troops advanced in the Balkans in 1944, a small-scale evacuation took place in Zadar, while Marshall Tito
Josip Broz Tito
Marshal Josip Broz Tito – 4 May 1980) was a Yugoslav revolutionary and statesman. While his presidency has been criticized as authoritarian, Tito was a popular public figure both in Yugoslavia and abroad, viewed as a unifying symbol for the nations of the Yugoslav federation...
's Partisans (since 1942 recognized as Allied troops) simultaneously moved to liberate the remainder of Axis-occupied Dalmatia. Split was henceforth the provisional capital of Allied-liberated Croatia.
In 1943-44 the city of Zadar suffered 54 air raids
Bombing of Zara in World War II
The bombing of Zadar during the Second World War by the Allies lasted from November 1943 to October 1944. Although other large cities in Italy were also bombed, the bombing of Zadar stands out because of the number of attacks and the number of fatalities. Reports vary greatly; the Allies...
by the Allies
Allies
In everyday English usage, allies are people, groups, or nations that have joined together in an association for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose, whether or not explicit agreement has been worked out between them...
and it was severely damaged, with heavy civilian casualties. Many civilians had already escaped to Italy when the Partisans liberated the city.
After World War II Italy ceded all remaining Italian areas in Dalmatia to the new SFR Yugoslavia. This was followed by a further emigration, referred to as the Istrian exodus
Istrian exodus
The expression Istrian exodus or Istrian-Dalmatian exodus is used to indicate the departure of ethnic Italians from Istria, Rijeka, and Dalmatia , after World War II. At the time of the exodus, these territories were part of the SR Croatia and SR Slovenia , today they are parts of the Republics of...
, of nearly all the remaining Italians in Dalmatia. Italian language schools in Zadar were closed in 1953, due to a dispute between Italy and Yugoslavia over Trieste. Currently there are around 300 Italians in Croatian Dalmatia, and around 500 in coastal Montenegro. In 2010 a kindergarten for the small Italian community of Zara was going to be opened, promoted by the local Italian association of Rina Villani, but was suddenly closed by Croatian authorities.
Reasons
There are several reasons for the decrease of the Dalmatian Italian population following the rise of European nationalism in the 19th century:- The conflict with the Austrian rulers caused by the Italian "Risorgimento".
- The emergence of Croatian nationalismCroatian nationalismCroatian nationalism is the nationalism of Croats or of Croatian culture. It arose in the 19th century in response to Magyarization of Croat territories under Hungarian rule, especially under the influence of Ante Starčević and Eugen Kvaternik,...
and Italian irredentism (see Risorgimento), and the subsequent conflict of the two. - The emigrationEmigrationEmigration is the act of leaving one's country or region to settle in another. It is the same as immigration but from the perspective of the country of origin. Human movement before the establishment of political boundaries or within one state is termed migration. There are many reasons why people...
of many Dalmatians toward the growing industrial regions of northern Italy before World War IWorld War IWorld War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
.
Stages
The process of the decline had various stages:- Under the Austrian starting from the 1840s, as a result of the age of NationalismRomantic nationalismRomantic nationalism is the form of nationalism in which the state derives its political legitimacy as an organic consequence of the unity of those it governs...
, the birth of Italian irredentismIrredentismIrredentism is any position advocating annexation of territories administered by another state on the grounds of common ethnicity or prior historical possession, actual or alleged. Some of these movements are also called pan-nationalist movements. It is a feature of identity politics and cultural...
, and the resulting conflict with the Croatian majority and the Austrian rulers. - After World War IWorld War IWorld War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
, as a result of the creation of the Kingdom of YugoslaviaKingdom of YugoslaviaThe Kingdom of Yugoslavia was a state stretching from the Western Balkans to Central Europe which existed during the often-tumultuous interwar era of 1918–1941...
(where all Dalmatia was included (save Zadar and some northern Dalmatian islands), there was an emigration of a large number of Dalmatian Italians, mainly toward Zadar. - During World War II, Italy occupied large chunks of the Yugoslav coast and created the Governorship of Dalmatia (Governatorato di Dalmazia) (1941–1943), with three Italian provinces, Zadar, Split and Kotor. Zadar was bombed by the AlliesBombing of Zara in World War IIThe bombing of Zadar during the Second World War by the Allies lasted from November 1943 to October 1944. Although other large cities in Italy were also bombed, the bombing of Zadar stands out because of the number of attacks and the number of fatalities. Reports vary greatly; the Allies...
and heavily damaged in 1943-44, with numerous civilian casualties. The most of the population moved to Italy. - After World War II Italy ceded all remaining Italian areas in Dalmatia to the new SFR Yugoslavia. This was followed by a massive emigration of nearly all the remaining Dalmatian Italians. Currently there are only 800 of them in all Dalmatia.
Modern-day presence in Dalmatia
Following the Italian emigration from Dalmatia following World War II, the Dalmatian Italians were reduced to 300 in Croatian Dalmatia and 500 in Montenegro.They are to be found in coastal cities:
- in Croatia: ZaraZadarZadar is a city in Croatia on the Adriatic Sea. It is the centre of Zadar county and the wider northern Dalmatian region. Population of the city is 75,082 citizens...
, Spalato, TrauTrogirTrogir is a historic town and harbour on the Adriatic coast in Split-Dalmatia County, Croatia, with a population of 12,995 and a total municipality population of 13,322 . The historic city of Trogir is situated on a small island between the Croatian mainland and the island of Čiovo...
, and SebenicoŠibenikŠibenik is a historic town in Croatia, with population of 51,553 . It is located in central Dalmatia where the river Krka flows into the Adriatic Sea...
. - in Montenegro: KotorKotorKotor is a coastal city in Montenegro. It is located in a secluded part of the Gulf of Kotor. The city has a population of 13,510 and is the administrative center of the municipality....
(Venetian cattaro), PerastPerastPerast is an old town in Bay of Kotor, Montenegro. It is situated a few kilometres northwest of Kotor.- Geography :...
o, and BuduaBudvaBudva is a coastal town in Montenegro. It has around 15,000 inhabitants, and it is the centre of municipality...
.
The Dalmatian Italians were a fundamental presence in Dalmatia, when the process of political unification of the Italians, Croats and Serbs started at the beginning of the 19th century. The 1816 Austro-Hungarian census registered 66,000 Italian speaking people between the 301,000 inhabitants of Dalmatia, or 22% of the total dalmatian population.
After those years their presence constantly decreased, until their nearly disappearance after WWII. That means that in nearly two centuries the Dalmatian Italians' presence went down from nearly a quarter of the total population of Dalmatia, to a mere 300 in Croatia and 500 in Montenegro.
Main Dalmatian Italian associations
In contemporary Dalmatia there are several associations of Dalmatian Italians, mainly located in important coastal cities:- The Italian Community of Zadar (Comunità Italiana di Zara). Founded in 1991 in ZadarZadarZadar is a city in Croatia on the Adriatic Sea. It is the centre of Zadar county and the wider northern Dalmatian region. Population of the city is 75,082 citizens...
, with an Assembly of 236 members. The current president is Rina Villani (who has been recently elected in the Zadar county, or Županija). The former president of the CI, Dr. Libero Grubišić, started the first Italian courses in the city after the close of all the Italian school in Zadar in 1953. The actual vice president, Silvio Duiella, has promoted the creation of an Italian Choral of Zadar under the direction of Adriana Grubelić. In the new offices, the CI has a library and organizes several courses of Italian and conferences.
- The Italian Community of Split (Comunità Italiana di Spalato). Was created in 1993 in Split, with an office near the city's trademark Riva seashore. The president is Eugenio Dalmas and the legal director is Mladen Dalbello. In the office, the CI organises Italian language courses and conferences. This CI has 97 members.
- The Italian Community of Mali LošinjMali Lošinj-Mayors:*Hrvoje Lesic - *Mario Hofmann - *Dragan Balija - Alliance of Primorje-Gorski Kotar *Gari Capelli - Croatian Democratic Union -References:...
(Comunità Italiana di Lussinpiccolo). Created in 1990 in the northern Dalmatian island of LošinjLošinjLošinj is a Croatian island in the northern Adriatic Sea, in the Kvarner Gulf. It is almost due south of the city of Rijeka and part of the Primorje-Gorski Kotar county....
. This CI was founded thanks to Stelio Cappelli (first president) in this little island, that was part of the Kingdom of Italy from 1918 to 1947. It has 461 members under the actual leadership of Anna Maria Saganici, Livia Andrijčić and Andrino Maglievaz. The activities are run in a place offered by the local authorities. The library has been donated by the local Rotary Club.
- The Italian Community of Kotor (Comunità Italiana di Cattaro), in KotorKotorKotor is a coastal city in Montenegro. It is located in a secluded part of the Gulf of Kotor. The city has a population of 13,510 and is the administrative center of the municipality....
is being registered officially (with the "Unione Italiana") as the Italian Community of Montenegro (Comunità degli Italiani del Montenegro). In connection with this registration, the "Center for Dalmatian Cultural Research" (Centro di Ricerche Culturali Dalmate) has opened in 2007 the Venetian house in Kotor to celebrate the Venetian heritage in coastal Montenegro.
- The "Dante Alighieri" Association. The "Dante Alighieri" is an Italian government organization that promotes Italian language in the world, with the help of the Italian speaking communities outside Italy. In Dalmatia is actually present in:
- - Zadar
- - Split
- - Dubrovnik
- - Kotor
In the city of Rijeka
Rijeka
Rijeka is the principal seaport and the third largest city in Croatia . It is located on Kvarner Bay, an inlet of the Adriatic Sea and has a population of 128,735 inhabitants...
(Fiume), that geographer Vialli considers partially Dalmatian, 7,000 Italians have a local Italian Community, the Dante Alighieri and the Italian Drama (Dramma Italiano) (a theatre organization in Italian language, based in the Croat National Theatre Ivan Zajc).
Dalmatian-Italian diaspora
A large number of Dalmatian Italians participated in the Istrian ExodusIstrian exodus
The expression Istrian exodus or Istrian-Dalmatian exodus is used to indicate the departure of ethnic Italians from Istria, Rijeka, and Dalmatia , after World War II. At the time of the exodus, these territories were part of the SR Croatia and SR Slovenia , today they are parts of the Republics of...
from territories of the Kingdom of Italy
Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)
The Kingdom of Italy was a state forged in 1861 by the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which was its legal predecessor state...
obtained by SFR Yugoslavia
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was the Yugoslav state that existed from the abolition of the Yugoslav monarchy until it was dissolved in 1992 amid the Yugoslav Wars. It was a socialist state and a federation made up of six socialist republics: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia,...
after World War 2. Many thousands moved to Italy, with many continuing to live in a suburb of Rome
Rome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
often referred to as the Quartiere Giuliano-Dalmata. Some have become world renowned, such as the fashion designer Ottavio Missoni, the writer Enzo Bettiza
Enzo Bettiza
Enzo Bettiza is a Dalmatian-born Italian novelist, journalist and politician.-Biography:Bettiza was born in Dalmatia, in a rich family of the Italian minority. His mother stemmed from a family of the Croatian isle of Brač...
, and the industrial tycoon Giorgio Luxardo, founder of the Maraschino
Maraschino
Maraschino .The liqueur's distinctive flavor comes from the Marasca cherries, and the crushed cherry pits lend an almond-like flavor to Maraschino...
liquor distillery.
Others were part of the general Italian diaspora
Italian diaspora
The term Italian diaspora refers to the large-scale migration of Italians away from Italy in the period roughly beginning with the unification of Italy in 1861 and ending with the Italian economic miracle in the 1960s...
, some relocating as displaced person
Displaced person
A displaced person is a person who has been forced to leave his or her native place, a phenomenon known as forced migration.- Origin of term :...
s to other countries, especially to Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
, the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
and Argentina
Argentina
Argentina , officially the Argentine Republic , is the second largest country in South America by land area, after Brazil. It is constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires...
.
Culture
The British Encyclopedia
The British Encyclopaedia and The British Dictionary are a 12 volume illustrated general knowledge encyclopaedia and dictionary published by Odhams Press Ltd in 1933. Volumes one to ten form the Encyclopaedia while the final two together make up the Dictionary.The work was prepared under the...
states that:
"....The monuments left in Dalmatia by the Romans are numerous and precious. They are chiefly confined to the cities; for the civilization of the country was always urban, just as its history is a record of isolated city-states rather than of a united nation. Beyond the walls of its larger towns, little was spared by the barbarian Goths, Avars and Slavs; and the battered fragments of Roman work which mark the sites of Salona, near, and of many other ancient cities, are of slight antiquarian interest and slighter artistic value. Among the monuments of the Roman period, by far the most noteworthy in Dalmatia, and, indeed, in the whole Balkan Peninsula, is the Palace of Diocletian at Spalato. Dalmatian architecture was influenced by Constantinople in its general character from the 6th century until the close of the tenth. The oldest memorials of this period are the vestiges of three basilicas, excavated in Salona, and dating from the first half of the 7th century at latest. Then from Italy came the Romanesque. The belfry of S. Maria, at Zara, erected in 1105, is first in a long list of Romanesque buildings. At Arbe there is a beautiful Romanesque campanile which also belongs to the 12th century; but the finest example in this style is the cathedral of Trail. The 14th century Dominican and Franciscan convents in Ragusa are also noteworthy. Romanesque lingered on in Dalmatia until it was displaced by Venetian Gothic in the early years of the 15th century. The influence of Venice was then at its height. Even in the relatively hostile Republic of Ragusa the Romanesque of the custom-house and Rectors' palace is combined with Venetian Gothic, while the graceful balconies and ogee windows of the Prijeki closely follow their Venetian models. In 1441 Giorgio Orsini of Zara, summoned from Venice to design the cathedral of Sebenico, brought with him the influence of the Italian Renaissance. The new forms which he introduced were eagerly imitated and developed by other architects, until the period of decadence - which virtually concludes the history of Dalmatian art - set in during the latter half of the 17th century. Special mention must be made of the carved woodwork, embroideries and plate preserved in many churches. The silver statuette and the reliquary of St. Biagio at Ragusa, and the silver ark of St. Simeon at Zara, are fine specimens of Italian jewelers' work, ranging in date from the 11th or 12th to the 17th century...".
In the XIX century the cultural influence from Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
originated the editing in Zadar of the first dalmatian newspaper, in Italian and Croatian
Croatian language
Croatian is the collective name for the standard language and dialects spoken by Croats, principally in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Serbian province of Vojvodina and other neighbouring countries...
: Il Regio Dalmata - Kraglski Dalmatin, founded and published by the Italian Bartolomeo Benincasa in 1806.
The Regio Dalmata - Kraglski Dalmatin was stamped in the tipography of Antonio Luigi Battara and was the first done in croat language.
The Dalmatian Italians contributed to the cultural development of theater and opera in Dalmatia. The Zara "Teatro Verdi" was their main symbol until 1945.
Contemporary notable Dalmatian Italians
a) in Italy:
- Enzo BettizaEnzo BettizaEnzo Bettiza is a Dalmatian-born Italian novelist, journalist and politician.-Biography:Bettiza was born in Dalmatia, in a rich family of the Italian minority. His mother stemmed from a family of the Croatian isle of Brač...
, journalist and international writer from Split - Ottavio Missoni, international fashion designer from Dubrovnik
- Renzo de' VidovichRenzo de' VidovichRenzo de' Vidovich is an Italian politician,historian and journalist.- Biography:Born and growth up in Zadar , from the old noble Dalmatian family of de' Vidovich, Counts Capocesto e Ragosniza; he is a close cousin of Ottavio Missoni...
, writer and director of "Il Dalmata" :it:Renzo de'Vidovich - Franco Luxardo, mayor of the "Free communeCommune (intentional community)A commune is an intentional community of people living together, sharing common interests, property, possessions, resources, and, in some communes, work and income. In addition to the communal economy, consensus decision-making, non-hierarchical structures and ecological living have become...
of Zadar in exile" (Libero Comune di Zara in esilio) - Giorgio Luxardo, owner of the most famous "MaraschinoMaraschinoMaraschino .The liqueur's distinctive flavor comes from the Marasca cherries, and the crushed cherry pits lend an almond-like flavor to Maraschino...
" liquor distillery - Simone Filippo Stratico, writer and university professor
- Tullio CraliTullio CraliTullio Crali was an Italian artist associated with Futurism. A self-taught painter, he was a late adherent to the movement, not joining until 1929...
, futurist painter - Secondo Raggi, Zadar painter
- Franco Ziliotto, Zadar painter
- Waldes Coen, Split sculptor
- Giuseppe Lallich, Split painter
- Secondo Raggi Karuz artist from Zadar .
b) in Croatia:
- Rina Villani, president of the Italian community in Zadar (Comunità degli Italiani di Zara)
- Eugenio Dalmas, president of the Italian community in Split (Comunità degli Italiani di Spalato)
- Adriana Grubelić, director of the Italian Choral Society of Zadar
Organizations and periodicals
Many Dalmatian Italians are organized in associations such as:- Associazione nazionale Venezia Giulia e Dalmazia
- Comunità di Lussinpiccolo .
- Comunità chersina nel mondo
- Libero Comune di Zara in esilio (Free Commune of Zadar in exile)
- Libero Comune di Fiume in esilio(Free Commune of Fiume/Rijeka in exile)
- Società Dalmata di Storia Patria
The most popular periodical for Dalmatian Italians is Il Dalmata, published in Trieste
Trieste
Trieste is a city and seaport in northeastern Italy. It is situated towards the end of a narrow strip of land lying between the Adriatic Sea and Italy's border with Slovenia, which lies almost immediately south and east of the city...
by Renzo de' Vidovich.
See also
- Republic of RagusaRepublic of RagusaThe Republic of Ragusa or Republic of Dubrovnik was a maritime republic centered on the city of Dubrovnik in Dalmatia , that existed from 1358 to 1808...
- History of DalmatiaHistory of DalmatiaThe History of Dalmatia concerns the history of the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea and its inland regions, stretching from the 2nd century BC up to the present....
- Venetian Dalmatia and Republic of Ragusa
- ZadarZadarZadar is a city in Croatia on the Adriatic Sea. It is the centre of Zadar county and the wider northern Dalmatian region. Population of the city is 75,082 citizens...
- Albania VenetaAlbania VenetaVenetian Albania was the name for the possessions of the Venetian Republic in southern Dalmatia that existed from 1420 to 1797. It originally covered the coastal area of what is now northern Albania and the coast of Montenegro, but the Albanian and southern Montenegrin parts were lost to the...
- Italia irredentaItalia irredentaItalian irredentism was an Italian Irredentist movement that aimed at the unification of all ethnically Italian peoples....
- Istrian ItaliansIstrian ItaliansIstrian Italians are the ethnic group in the northern Adriatic region of Istria, related to the Italian people of Italy. Historically they are descendants from the original Latinized population of Roman Istria, from the Venetian-speaking settlers who came to Istria during the Republic of Venice,...
- Istrian exodusIstrian exodusThe expression Istrian exodus or Istrian-Dalmatian exodus is used to indicate the departure of ethnic Italians from Istria, Rijeka, and Dalmatia , after World War II. At the time of the exodus, these territories were part of the SR Croatia and SR Slovenia , today they are parts of the Republics of...
- Italian language in CroatiaItalian language in CroatiaThe Italian language is a minority language in Croatia, spoken by 0.46% of the total Croatian population. It is an officially recognized minority language in Istria County, where it is spoken by 7.69% of the population. -Italian-speaking population:...
External links
- Italians of Dalmatia
- Comunità Nazionale Italiana: official site
- Disappearing of Italians in Dalmatia
- History of Dalmatia
- La presenza italiana in Dalmazia
- Gli italofoni in Istria a Fiume e in Dalmazia
- Società dalmata di storia patria
- Fondazione scientifico culturale Eugenio Dario e Maria Rustia Traine
- La toponomastica e la lingua della Dalmazia e dell'Istria dal principio ’800 al 1920
- Un glossario slavo/italiano delle località di Istria, Quarnero e Dalmazia
- Alcuni particolari sul martirio della Dalmazia (1919)
- Luciano Monzali "Italiani di Dalmazia. Dal Risorgimento alla Grande Guerra".
- Luciano Monzali " Italiani di Dalmazia. 1914 - 1924".